Sprint Quality Handbook

HANDBOOK

THESprintQuality

©1998, Sprint and Marshall♦Qualtec. No portion of this document may be distributedor reproduced without the express permission of Sprint and Marshall♦Qualtec.

Tools for Improving Meetings

Tools for Problem Solving with Numbers

Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas

Using Your HandbookSprint Quality provides many tools and techniques,ranging from the basic to the complex, detailed in thefollowing sections of this handbook.

Structured Problem Solving• Plan-Do-Check-Act• Quality Improvement Story

Tools for Improving Meetings• Action Plan • Mission• Brainstorming • Multivoting• Code of Conduct • PAL• Consensus • Parking Lot• Drivers and Restrainers • Plus/Delta• Meetings

Tools for Problem Solving with Numbers• Check Sheet • Pareto Chart• Control Charts • Process Indicators• Cost/Benefit Analysis • Quality Indicators• Cost of Quality • Scatter Diagram• Cycle Time • Sigma• Data • Standard Deviation• Graphs (bar, line, pie) • Targets• Histogram • Valid Customer• Mean Requirements

Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas• Activity Network Diagram • Process • Affinity Diagram • Process Block Diagram• Baldrige (Malcolm) Award • Process Decision Program• Benchmarking Chart• Brown Paper • Process Decomposition • Chairman’s Quality Award Diagram• Checklist • Process Improvement• Control Sytem • Process Maturity• Flowcharts • Process Workbench• Interrelationship Diagram • QI Story Checklist• Ishikawa Diagram • QI Storyboard• Levels of Quality • Seven Management and• Matrix Diagram Planning Tools• Potential Improvements • Seven Quality Control Tools

Matrix • Task-on-Arrow• Prioritization Matrix • Theme Selection Matrix• Problem Statement • Tree Diagram

over ➤

IconsTo help you navigate through this handbook, we have usedseveral graphic icons as informational signposts. Theseicons will help identify when and how to use the variousSprint Quality tools – to improve meetings, to problem-solve with numbers and to problem-solve with ideas.

Following are the icons and the use that they signify:


Tools for Problem Solving with Numbers

Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas

A Note about the Examples

The various tools and techniques that make up SprintQuality can be valuable resources in our business activities and work assignments. Likewise, these same toolsand techniques can be useful in our personal lives – fromhelping a son or daughter choose the right college, tochairing a committee, to running the PTA’s rummage sale.

To illustrate this point and to make this handbook entertaining as well as educational, the examples involve a fictional couple, George and Betty, who both work at Sprint.

Betty and George have a track record of bad vacations,linked to inadequate planning and poor communication.Their vacation blunders are impressive – a Caribbeanbeach resort during the height of hurricane season, for-getting to pack hiking boots for a backpacking trip, a visitto relatives where everyone argued, and even sampling thedelights of a remote tropical locale while a revolution wasunder way. Last year’s vacation was the worst of all.

One evening as they lingered over coffee, Betty came upwith a brilliant idea – she and George would use SprintQuality tools to plan and carry out their next vacation.

As you look through this handbook, you can see just howSprint Quality tools helped George and Betty plan the bestvacation ever – and how these same tools can help you atwork and at home.

World-ClassThat’s easy to say, a lot harder to achieve. But when therewards are exceptional customer satisfaction, inspired innova-tive and empowered employees, and superior financial results,you may decide that taking steps to get there is worth someextra effort.

This newly revised Sprint Quality Handbook can help makeyour journey easier. You’ll find sections on meeting tools,number tools and idea tools – all illustrated entertaininglywith examples involving George and Betty, a couple who have saved enough time and made enough money by usingSprint Quality tools that they have the luxury of planning a perfect vacation.

You’ve probably already been using some quality tools. If so,this guide can be a double-check to make sure you’re gettingall that you can out of them.

Other tools may sound vaguely familiar. Now is the time tosatisfy your curiosity by finding out just what they are andhow they can work for you.

And there may be tools that you’ve never heard of. Take a few minutes to browse and stop at the ones that could make a difference in how you do business.

Just as some people see the glass as half empty – others as halffull – so will some associates see this handbook as so big thatit’s overwhelming, while others will see it as so big that itoffers enormous potential for moving ahead at Sprint.

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Section 1 - Intro.final 5/19/98 11:57 AM Page iii

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The Sprint Quality Handbook i

Introduction 1

Introduction to Sprint Quality 2

Structured Problem Solving 9

Plan-Do-Check-Act 10

Quality Improvement Story 11

Tools for Improving Meetings 21

Action Plan 22

Brainstorming 24

Code of Conduct 27

Consensus 28

Drivers and Restrainers 31

Meetings 32

Evaluation Form 33

Minutes Form 34

Observation Sheet 35

Pre-meeting Checklist 36

Post-meeting Checklist 37

Mission 38

Multivoting 39

PAL 40

Parking Lot 42

Plus/Delta 43

Tools for Problem Solving with Numbers 45

Check Sheet 46

Control Charts 48

Cost/Benefit Analysis 58

Cost of Quality 60

Cycle Time 61

Data 62

Graphs – Bar, Line and Pie 63

Tools for Problem Solving with Numbers (cont.)

Histogram 69

Mean 76

Pareto Chart 77

Process Indicators 79

Quality Indicators 80

Scatter Diagram 81

Sigma 83

Standard Deviation 86

Targets 87

Valid Customer Requirements 88

Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas 89

Activity Network Diagram 90

Affinity Diagram 92

Baldrige (Malcolm)National Quality Award 94

Benchmarking 96

Brown Paper 98

Chairman’s Quality Award 100

Checklist 101

Control System 102

Flowcharts 104

Interrelationship Diagram 108

Ishikawa Diagram 111

Levels of Quality 118

Table of Contents

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Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas (cont.)

Matrix Diagram 120

Potential Improvements Matrix 122

Prioritization Matrix 125

Problem Statement 128

Process 130

Process Block Diagram 131

Process DecisionProgram Chart 133

Process Decomposition Diagram 135

Process Improvement 137

Process Maturity 140

Process Workbench 142

QI Story Checklist 150

QI Storyboard 151

Seven Managementand Planning Tools 152

Seven Quality Control Tools 155

Task-on-Arrow 156

Theme Selection Matrix 157

Tree Diagram 159

ii The Sprint Quality Handbook

Appendix 161

Courses on Sprint Quality 162

Enrolling at theUniversity of Excellence 164

Ordering Sprint Quality Materials 165

Sprint Quality Reading List 166

Sprint Quality Handbook – Evaluation Form 169

Table of Contents

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The Sprint Quality Handbook iii

An alphabetical index of tools.Action Plan 22

Activity Network Diagram 90

Affinity Diagram 92

Baldrige (Malcolm)National Quality Award 94

Benchmarking 96

Brainstorming 24

Brown Paper 98

Chairman’s Quality Award 100

Checklist 101

Check Sheet 46

Control Charts 48

Control System 102

Cost/Benefit Analysis 58

Cost of Quality 60

Cycle Time 61

Code of Conduct 27

Consensus 28

Data 62

Drivers and Restrainers 31

Flowcharts 104

Graphs – Bar, Line and Pie 63

Histogram 69

Interrelationship Diagram 108

Ishikawa Diagram 111

Levels of Quality 118

Matrix Diagram 120

Mean 76

Meetings 32

Evaluation Form 33

Minutes Form 34

Observation Sheet 35

Pre-meeting Checklist 36

Post-meeting Checklist 37

Mission 38

Multivoting 39

PAL 40

Pareto Chart 77

Parking Lot 42

Plus/Delta 43

Potential Improvements Matrix 122

Prioritization Matrix 125

Problem Statement 128

Process 130

Process Block Diagram 131

Process DecisionProgram Chart 133

Process Decomposition Diagram 135

Process Indicators 79

Process Improvement 137

Process Maturity 140

Process Workbench 142

Quality Indicators 80

QI Story Checklist 150

QI Storyboard 151

Scatter Diagram 81

Seven Managementand Planning Tools 152

Seven Quality Control Tools 155

Sigma 83

Standard Deviation 86

Targets 87

Task-on-Arrow 156

Theme Selection Matrix 157

Tree Diagram 159

Valid Customer Requirements 88

The Sprint Quality Tool Box

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iv The Sprint Quality Handbook

Section 1 - Intro.final 5/19/98 11:57 AM Page viii

Introduction

The Sprint Quality Handbook 1

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2 The Sprint Quality Handbook

Introduction to Sprint Quality

Sprint Quality (Sprint kwol ı-te) n. 1. The waywe run our business at Sprint. 2. The set of toolsand techniques for problem solving, processimprovement, reengineering, and managementused by Sprint. 3. Symbolized by the SprintQuality “diamond.”

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Introduction

To successfully run a business like Sprint, we must do many things well– we must create and communicate a vision for the entire company,

establish overarching goals andvalues, establish and executebusiness strategies, developproducts and services that meetthe needs of our customers, hireand train employees, solve day-to-day problems, and more.

Sprint Quality addresses how we should accomplish such tasks.

A company’s vision statement is the most fundamental expression ofhow it will grow profitable market share. Our vision is supported bythe mission statements of each of our business units and corporatedepartments. Achieving our vision will rely on the successful pursuit ofour goals and values.

Our desire to be “the standard by which others are measured” impliesthat we will continually redefine our industry by setting new standardsfor a telecommunications company’s image, products and services, andbusiness practices ... something we have been doing for years.

The Sprint Quality DiamondThe symbol of Sprint Quality is the Sprint Quality Diamond. It servesas a visual reminder of the key elements of Sprint Quality.

Teamwork

Goals

Essentials

PrinciplesManagement

by FactRespect for

People

CustomersEmployees

Shareholders

StrategicIntegration Continuous

QualityImprovement

CustomerFocus

StructuredProblemSolving

The Spr

int Q

uality

Dia

mond™

Sprint’s Vision:“To be a world-class telecom-munications company – thestandard by which othersare measured.”



GoalsThe top of the diamond underscores Sprint’s Goals:

In all our decision making – in fact, in everything we do to conductbusiness – we must attempt to keep a balance between the three goals.It has been shown that companies maintaining this balance outperformother companies that focus on only one or two of the three goals(Corporate Culture and Performance. John P. Kotter and James L.Heskett. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press, 1992).

Exceptional Customer Satisfaction occurs when we deliver precisely what the customer expects – more often, it occurs when we “delight”our customers.

Delighting a customer can cost very little. Often the personal initiativeof an “inspired, innovative and empowered employee” can lead to adelighted customer, with no increase in cost to us or the customer.

In our efforts to delight the customer, we must take care not to spendresources on things that fail to add value for the customer. Well-inten-tioned but inappropriately overzealous service can cost more than thevalue perceived by the customer. We call this situation “gold-platedquality” and, of course, want to avoid it.

Measures of customer satisfaction come from several sources – surveysdirectly evaluate customer satisfaction; complaints indicate customerdissatisfaction; and process measures (such as cycle time and defects)can often predict customer satisfaction.

In our efforts to measure customer satisfaction, it is critical to rememberthat there is only one true measure of customer satisfaction – the ulti-mate “report card,” if you will – and that is market share growth.

Sprint’s Goals:•Exceptional Customer Satisfaction

•Inspired, Innovative andEmpowered Employees

•Superior Financial Results



Introduction

In a free economy, customers buy from companies that make the bestoverall offer and that provide the best overall value. We must be carefulnot to become so focused on surveys that we forget they only indicateaspects of customer satisfaction. Market share growth is the key directmeasure of overall satisfaction.

For continued success, we must profitably increase our share of themarkets where we’ve chosen to compete. And we grow market share bykeeping existing customers, by selling more to existing customers andby acquiring new customers.

Inspired, Innovative and Empowered Employees At Sprint, our greatestasset is our employees. We hold a deep belief that if we are to be successful as a company, we must have employees who are truly“inspired, innovative and empowered.”

We foster teamwork, encourage open communication, provide a feedback-rich environment, give employees individual responsibilityand authority to act, and provide rewards and recognition that supportour goals. We provide training, education and development to enableemployees to achieve their full potential.

As with everything that is important, we gauge our progress toward thisgoal by using direct measures, such as the annual Employee AttitudeSurvey, together with indirect measures, such as voluntary turnover.

Superior Financial Results As a public corporation, we are entrustedwith the money that shareholders have invested in our company. It isessential that we achieve superior financial returns for our shareholders.

We are proud of the fact that our total return to shareholders for the10+ years ended December 31, 1997, exceeded stock market averagesand the results of our major competitors.



EssentialsAt the next level of the diamond, we find the threeSprint Quality Essentials:

Teamwork is essential for a large organization such as Sprint to operateeffectively. This handbook includes tools and techniques that helpteams work effectively.

Strategic Integration is our method of meeting customer needs. It isessential for us to determine what our customers want, honestly evaluatewhat we currently provide them and gain insight into any gap betweenthe two. We then work toward closing this gap by improving our keyprocesses.

Continuous Quality Improvement depends on individual and team efforts,since improvement often results from thousands of small efforts and afew breakthroughs.

We need to continuously improve every aspect of our business. It is notacceptable to rest on a plateau or be merely “good enough.” If we stopimproving – or even slow down – while our competitors continue toimprove, we are essentially falling behind.

Sprint Quality Essentials:•Teamwork

•Strategic Integration

•Continuous Quality Improvement



Introduction

Principles

In addition to its Goals and Essentials, SprintQuality includes four guiding beliefs or Principles.Found in the lower half of the Sprint Quality Diamond,these four Principles are:

• Customer Focus Becoming successful requires focusing on customersand understanding their needs.

• Respect for People People deserve respect and exhibit far higherperformance when they receive it.

• Management by Fact Basing decisions and actions on fact, rather thanspeculation, produces far better business results.

• Structured Problem Solving Solving problems in an organized, systematic way greatly improves the chances of finding the best solution. (See Structured Problem Solving in your handbook.)

Sprint Quality Principles:•Customer Focus

•Respect for People

•Management by Fact

•Structured Problem Solving



The values we share at Sprint are tremendously important to all of us.By creating a set of values, we don’t have to write policies and proceduresfor every possible situation that we will face in our business lives at Sprint.

Customer First We anticipate, understand, meet and exceed our customers’needs and expectations to achieve exceptional customer satisfaction.

Integrity in All We Do Our actions and decisions reflect the highest ethical, legal and professional standards.

Excellence Through Quality We will individually and collectively useSprint Quality in our daily activities to achieve excellence as a company.

Respect for Each Other We care about our company, our work, our customers and each other. This caring is a unique source of our company’s energy, strength and excellence.

Growth Through Change We will grow as a company, as individuals and asprofessionals by creating, anticipating and responding to change.

Community Commitment We willingly serve the charitable and civic needsof our communities.

Productive Work Environment We provide a safe and accessible work environment.

Representative Work Force We recruit and develop individuals who reflectthe diversity of our communities.

Shareholder Value We will increase shareholder value, build the financialstrength of our company and, as a result, prosper as individuals.

Sprint’s Values:Our values provide guidance tohelp us set priorities and makedecisions.


StructuredProblemSolving


Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final 5/19/98 12:54 PM Page 1


Plan-Do-Check-ActSprint Quality tools and techniques can be most helpful when they’reused within a problem-solving structure. There are two general methodsyou might consider: PDCA and the QI Story. PDCA – Plan-Do-Check-Act – will work for most of the problems you encounter. Here’show you use PDCA:

Plan your improvements. Who will handle the improvements? Whenwill they take place? How will you check your progress?

Do it. Try out your improvements on a small scale to make sure they work.

Check what you did. Compare the Plan and the Do. Did you meetyour objectives? What did you do well, and what could be improved?What did you learn?

Act to further improve what you did. Document and standardize theimprovements that worked. Apply these improvements wherever theywould be helpful.

When you use PDCA, be sure that you understand the current situation, recognize the possible negative consequences of yourimprovements and identify the resources you need to implement yourimprovements. PDCA can be a fast, ongoing way to make sure yourprocesses are constantly getting better.



Structured Problem Solving

Quality Improvement StoryAlthough PDCA works well for most problems, you may need to useanother strategy for more complex problems. The QualityImprovementStory – QI Story, for short – is a more detailed version of PDCA. TheQI Story is useful when you’re faced with an especially large and complexproblem, or with a problem that didn’t improve to your satisfaction whenyou used PDCA. The QI Story helps you define a problem, identifyroot causes, determine possible improvements and check how wellthose improvements worked.

Seven Steps of the QI Story1. Reason for Improvement

2. Problem Identification

3. Root Cause Analysis

4. Potential Improvements

5. Verification

6. Full Implementation

7. Future Plans

The QI Story Checklist and QI Storyboard (see Tools for ProblemSolving with Ideas) serve as additional tools to speed and documentprogress through the QI Story.



Step 1: Reason for ImprovementIdentify the general problem area (the “theme”) and the reason forworking on it. Key questions to ask include – What do we do (ie. what work/products do we produce)? For whom do we do it (who is our customer)? How well are we doing (what is our customer’sview)? How do we know (what is our indicator)?

Key Activities

• Research for themes:– Review departmental processes and indicators.– Survey external/internal customers.– Identify what the team already knows (brainstorm).– Interview associates from the work area.

• Determine clear management ownership for process(es) being considered as themes (Checkpoint #1).

• Document the “as is” process(es) used in the problem areas(Checkpoint #2).

• Consider customer needs to help select the theme (Checkpoint #3).

• Set an indicator to track the theme (Checkpoint #4).

• Determine how much improvement is needed using data (Checkpoint #5).

• Demonstrate the impact the theme will have if improved.

• Schedule QI Story activities. Consider the urgency of solving the problem when establishing the schedule (Checkpoint #6).




Helpful Tools/Techniques

• Brainstorming/Multivoting

• Brown Paper, Process Flowchart (“As Is”), Process Workbench, Task-on-Arrow

• Control Charts

• Control System

• Graphs and Check Sheet

• Interrelationship Diagram

• Theme Selection Matrix

Examples

Graph Flow Chart

Good

Target



Step 2: Problem IdentificationSelect a specific problem from the general problem area (the “theme”)identified in Step 1 and set a target for improvement. Step 2, combinedwith Step 1, enables us to focus on a specific problem rather than abroad area. Having this focus will make it easier to determine rootcauses in Step 3.

Key Activities

• Collect data on all aspects of the theme.

• Stratify the theme to a level specific enough to permit analysis(Checkpoint #7).

• Select a problem from the theme’s subgroups.

• Identify the Valid Customer Requirements (Checkpoint #8).

• Write a clear problem statement that addresses the gap between thecurrent and targeted values (Checkpoint #9).

• Establish a method for setting goals or targets (Checkpoint #10).

• Present theme and problem statement to management and/or sponsor.


• Check Sheet

• Control Charts

• Graphs

• Histogram

• Pareto Chart

• Problem Statement Matrix

Examples

Good

Target

Pareto Chart Graph




Step 3: Root Cause AnalysisIdentify and verify the root causes of the specific problem identified inStep 2. Root cause analysis will be easier to do if the problem has beensignificantly narrowed in Steps 1 and 2.

Key Activities

• Analyze the problem’s causes and effects (Checkpoint #11).

• Continue analysis to the level of actionable root causes (Checkpoint #12).

• Select the root causes with greatest probable impact (Checkpoint #13).

• Verify the selected root causes with data (Checkpoint #14).


• Check Sheet

• Drivers and Restrainers

• Graphs

• Histogram

• Ishikawa Diagram

• Pareto Chart

• Scatter Diagram

Examples

Ishikawa Diagram Pareto Chart Scatter Diagram



Step 4: Potential ImprovementsPlan improvements that will correct the root causes identified in Step 3;then test these improvements on a small scale.

Key Activities

• Develop and evaluate potential improvements which:– Attack verified root causes (Checkpoint #15).– Meet Valid Customer Requirements (Checkpoint #16).– Are cost beneficial (Checkpoint #17).

• Develop an action plan that:– Answers who, what, when, where, and how (Checkpoint #18).– Reflects the forces (Drivers and Restrainers) impacting successful

implementation (Checkpoint #19).

• Present potential improvements to management and/or sponsor togain their approval and cooperation.

• Test or pilot the potential improvements on a small scale.


• Action Plan

• Cost/Benefit Analysis

• Drivers and Restrainers

• Potential Improvements Matrix

• Tree Diagram

ExamplesPotential Improvements Matrix Action Plan

3 2 63 3

333

1 31

122 4




Step 5: VerificationVerify that you have reduced a problem and its root causes and/orimproved a process, and confirm that you have met the target forimprovement. If what you tried didn’t work or didn’t work as well asyou expected, study what worked and didn’t work, and go throughStep 3 and Step 4 again.

Key Activities

• Confirm the effects of potential improvements, making sure the rootcauses have been reduced (Checkpoint #20).

• Confirm you used the same tracking indicator you used in Step 1(Checkpoint #21).

• Compare the results to the target established in Step 2, and verify thatthe results met or exceeded the target (Checkpoint #22).

• Implement additional improvements if results are not satisfactory.


• Control Charts

• Graphs

• Histogram

• Pareto Chart

Examples

Effect

Before After

Target

Good

Before After

Pareto Chart Graph



Step 6: Full ImplementationPrevent the problem and its root causes from recurring. Implement theimprovements wherever possible.

Key Activities

• Make your improvements part of daily work (Checkpoint #23):– Create/revise the work process.– Create/revise standards.– Train employees on the revised process and/or standards.

• Establish periodic checks with assigned responsibilities to monitor theimprovements (Checkpoint #24).

• Consider other areas for implementation (Checkpoint #25).

• Present the results of your improvement to management and/or sponsorwith recommendations on other areas that might benefit from theimprovements.


• Control Charts

• Control System

• Graphs

Examples

Control System

Control ChartControl System




Step 7: Future PlansPlan what to do about any remaining problems. Evaluate the effectivenessof the problem-solving process, including the effectiveness of the team.

Key Activities

• Analyze and evaluate any remaining problems related to the theme(Checkpoint #26).

• Plan further actions, if necessary.

• Review what you’ve learned relating to problem-solving skills andgroup dynamics (i.e., team effectiveness) (Checkpoint #27).– What was done well?– What could you improve?– What could you have done differently?


• Action Plan

• PDCA

• Plus/Delta

Examples

Action Plan Plus/Delta

+ ∆




Tools forImproving

Meetings


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Action PlanAn Action Plan is a prioritized list of what needs to be done, when itneeds to be done and who needs to do it.

UseYou can use an Action Plan to help explain an improvement plan andclarify roles, responsibilities and deadlines. You can review the ActionPlan at any time – or at the end of PDCA or QI Story steps – to deter-mine whether the plan is on track or needs to be changed.

Example


To prepare the house for their absence during their vacation,George and Betty made an Action Plan of everything they needed to do before they left.

Action Plan(Review daily; file for future reference)

Prepared by George Date 5/16/97 Page 1 of 1Location/Project Vacation Period Summer

No. Task/Project Due Date Assigned to Date Assigned Status/Remarks

1 Ask Janice to 6/30/97 Betty 5/16/97 Tell her aboutfeed cat cat’s medicine

2 Call Bruno to get 6/30/97 George 5/16/97 He can recyclemail & newspaper newspapers

3 Ask Horace to 6/30/97 Betty 5/16/97 Tell him securitycheck on house alarm code

4

Turn off air- 7/12/97 Betty 5/16/97 This willconditioning save money

5

Get rid of spoilable 7/11/97 George 5/16/97 Give to localfood shelter




Steps1. Break down the task into steps.

2. Consider the hardware, software, people and other resources involvedin each step.

3. Brainstorm, if necessary, for other items of possible significance.

4. Add to the list until you feel it is complete.

Although an Action Plan may have different formats, it should answer:

• Who

• What

• When

• Where

• How



BrainstormingBrainstorming is a technique used to quickly generate, clarify and evaluate a large list of ideas, problems and issues.

Team members tap into their creativity to find the best solutions forproblem solving and decision making. Brainstorming facilitates respectfor people on the team by allowing everyone to contribute to the problem-solving process and to be heard without criticism or judgment.

UseUse Brainstorming as a technique to:

• Collect improvement opportunities and/or problem areas.

• Identify possible causes when constructing an Ishikawa (or Fishbone) Diagram.

• Suggest Potential Improvements.

• Identify Drivers and Restrainers.

• Collect comments when creating a Plus/Delta chart.




Example

StepsFirst Phase: Generation

1. State the topic to be brainstormed in specific terms, and write it on a flip chart.

How Can We Make This Year’s Vacation Better?Determined to make this year’s vacation better than last year’s, Georgeand Betty brainstormed a list of improvements.

1. Better hotel service.

2. Bring something to do if it rains.

3. Go someplace with better climate (not so hot).

4. Fight less.

5. Work with friendlier travel agency.

6. Double-check hotel and plane reservations.

7. Go someplace where we know the language.

8. Stay healthy.

9. Stay at cleaner hotel.

10. Get traveler’s checks.

11. Eat better food; research restaurants more.

12. Maintain more cheerful attitudes.

13. Get more sleep; quieter hotel.

14. Rent car to get around.

15. Know more about area where we’re going.

16. Have friend check on house while we’re away.

17. Plan more activities (don’t want to be bored).

18. Pack less.

Hints for Effective BrainstormingClearly state the purpose.One thought at a time.Do not criticize any ideas.Pass if needed.Add to or build on the ideas of others.



2. Select a recorder to capture ideas on the flip chart.

3. Generate ideas, with each team member taking a turn, until all ideasare exhausted.

Note: An alternative is the “popcorn” approach, in which team membersspeak out whenever they have an idea.

Second Phase: Clarification

4. Go over the brainstormed list as a team to eliminate duplication andmake sure everyone understands all of the items.

Third Phase: Evaluation

5. Evaluate ideas and select those for further action by using Multivoting,a Prioritization Matrix or other Consensus techniques.




Code of ConductA Code of Conduct reinforces the Sprint Quality Principle of “Respectfor People” in meetings and in daily communication with others. Youmay use the Code of Conduct shown below or modify the Code to bestsuit your needs.

SPRINT QUALITYTHE WAY WE RUN OUR BUSINESS

CODE OF CONDUCT>Respect Each Person

>Share Responsibility

>Question and Participate

>Attend All Meetings; Be on Time

>Listen Courteously

>Keep an Open Mind

>

>

>

>



ConsensusConsensus is a method of group decision making in which a groupactively discusses the issues and supports a common decision.

UseUse Consensus to:

• Eliminate a “we-they” feeling.

• Reach a “win-win” decision – this guarantees that nobody will lose.

• Develop ownership of the decision and support for implementationof the decision.

• Focus on the problem, not on personalities.

• Pool knowledge and experience.

• Gain support of entire group.

• Integrate ideas and feelings of all group members.

• Make better quality decisions.

Steps1. Prior to the meeting, prepare your position using your knowledge of

the problem.

2. Express and explain opinions so the group knows how each personfeels and benefits from everyone’s thoughts.

3. Listen to everyone’s opinions and feelings. Then apply logic andunderstanding to modify individual positions.

4. Avoid using techniques such as voting or simply giving in to savetime; realize that differences in opinion help reach a better decision.




MoreConsensus is not the same as voting, as shown by the comparisonbelow:

Consensus Voting

• Everyone agrees (to varying • Majority wins, others lose.degrees) on solution.

• Win/win method. • Win/lose method, unless unanimous.

• Ensures commitment by all • Ensures commitment byto course of action. majority to course of action.

• Time-consuming, can be • Done within a limited period.frustrating.

• Useful when quality and • Useful when large numbers ofacceptance of decision people must be involved inboth important. decision.

Both methods of making a decision can be useful, but the differencesshould be well understood. Voting is clear-cut in its results and canbe done within a limited time period, making it the most efficientway of arriving at a decision. Furthermore, when a large number ofpeople are involved and want some voice, voting may be the onlyworkable system.

Consensus requires that all decision-makers discuss an issue untileveryone agrees to some degree on a solution. Consensus does notmean that everyone shares an equal degree of enthusiasm; it simplymeans that everyone is at least willing, in good conscience, to goalong with the decision. No one should have reservations seriousenough to stop the decision or take a different course of action afterthe meeting’s conclusion.



Consensus is a win-win method. It guarantees that no one will losebadly because it requires that the decision not be made until everyonecan, at a minimum, “live with” that decision.

Note: The purpose of Consensus is to allow a team to agree on a general course of action based on facts presented through discussion.Consensus does not necessarily imply or require absolute agreement; in fact, attempting to achieve absolute agreement on every issue can paralyze a team and consume an unreasonable amount of time. Rather,the intent of consensus is to ensure that team members agree enoughwith the decision to fully support it.




Drivers and RestrainersDrivers and Restrainers is a tool that identifies information for andagainst a plan of action.

UseConsider the following categories when using Drivers and Restrainers:

• People • Time

• Environment • Methods

• Dollars • Materials

Example

Steps1. List reasons that support taking an action (Drivers) and compare

them to the reasons that hold you back from taking the action(Restrainers).

2. Once this tool has helped you choose a plan of action, decide howyou will overcome (or minimize) the Restrainers and maximize the Drivers.

Should We Go to the Floating Restaurant?While on their vacation, George and Betty debated whether or not totry out a floating restaurant they passed during one of their walks onthe dock. They made a list of Drivers and Restrainers to help themdecide.

Drivers Restrainers

George loves the menu Betty only so-so about the menu

Good view of the ocean George gets seasick easily

Comfortable atmosphere Entrees rather pricey

Recommended by travel agent Storm blowing in, rough waves

Long wait to get seated



MeetingsMeetings provide an arena for employees to identify problems, investigate their causes and develop workable solutions.

UseMeetings foster improved levels of communication and cooperationamong team members.

Components of a Meeting

• Select appropriate meeting time and location to maximize member participation.

• Prepare and distribute PAL (written agenda) before meeting.

• Have meeting recorder take minutes and note action items, responsibilities and expected completion dates.

• Distribute minutes as soon as possible after meeting.

• Post minutes, if appropriate.

• Evaluate meetings using Plus/Delta or Meeting Evaluation Form.

• Designate recorder to capture ideas on flip chart or other group visual tool.

• Designate timekeeper to work with team leader to ensure that all agenda items are covered in allotted time.

• Develop team Code of Conduct.




Meetings: Evaluation FormUseWhen handed out at the close of a meeting, this form allows teammembers to anonymously express their opinions of a meeting’s effec-tiveness. Team leaders can use this form to evaluate past meetings andappropriately improve future meetings.

Sample of a Meeting Evaluation Form

I was notified of this meeting in sufficient time to prepare for it.

I understood why this meeting was being held (i.e., informationsharing, planning, problem solving, decision making, opendiscussion, etc.) and what specific outcomes were expected.

I understood what was expected of me as a participant and whatwas expected of the other participants (including the leader,coordinator, chairperson, facilitator, etc.).

I understood how the meeting was intended to flow agenda,schedule, design, etc.) and when it would terminate.

Most participants listened carefully to each other.

Most participants expressed themselves openly, honestly and directly..

Agreements were explicit and clear, and conflicts were openlyexplored and constructively managed.

The meeting generally proceeded as intended the agendawas followed; it ended on time) and achieved its intended purpose.

My participation contributed to the outcomes achieved by the meeting.

Overall, I am satisfied with this meeting and feel my time herehas been well spent.

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly

DisagreeDisagree

UndecidedAgree

Strongly

Agree

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

Circle one number for each statement.

Meeting:Date:Time:

Adapted from The 1981 Annual Handbook for Group Facilitators, University Associates.

(i.e.,

(i.e.,



Meetings: Minutes FormUseThis form helps a recorder keep track of attendees, action items anddecisions reached. You may use the form shown below or modify it tobest suit your needs.

Sample of a Meeting Minutes Form

TEAM NAME MEETING DATE

TEAM MEMBERS

TOPICS DISCUSSED, ACTION ITEMS AND DECISIONS REACHED(Data, Lists, Matrices, etc.)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Next Meeting Date:Time: Location:

PRESENTPRESENT TEAM MEMBERS




Meetings: Observation SheetUseThis sheet can help a meeting facilitator keep track of team members’ participation.

Sample of a Meeting Observation Sheet

Suggests procedures

Requests facts

Names

Behavior

Summarizes or clarifesinformation

Pulls related ideastogether

Shows concern

Encourages others

Expresses own feelings

Solicits others’ feelings

Attempts to reconciledisagreement

Checks with group todetermine agreement

Offers compromise ideaat risk of own

Provides facts

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.



Meetings: Pre-meeting ChecklistA Pre-meeting Checklist can help a team leader focus on key issuesbefore a meeting so the meeting runs efficiently. The Checklist canhelp meeting participants make the most of their time.

Sample of a Pre-meeting ChecklistThe Purpose of the Meeting

Why is the team meeting today?

What would you like to see the team accomplish?

Can all of that realistically be done at the meeting?

The Meeting Agenda

Review the agenda you have planned. If none, plan one now.

How much time is planned for each item?

Is there sufficient time at the end to critique the meeting itself?

The Team Leader Role

How do you intend to open the meeting?

What quality improvement techniques will you use? Do youfeel comfortable using them? If not, where can you get help?

The Team Member Role

Do you have any specific task or people worries concerning themeeting?

What can be done about them in this meeting?

What can you – or they – do about them in the long term?

The Facilitator Role

Is there anything specific you still need from your facilitatorbefore the meeting?

When can you spend time with your facilitator after themeeting?




Meetings: Post-meeting ChecklistUseThis checklist can help a team leader evaluate a meeting from a processviewpoint, note items that could have been improved and modify goalsfor future meetings.

Sample of a Post-meeting ChecklistMeeting Purpose

Do you think the meeting achieved its purpose?

People Dynamics

Did you notice which members contributed – and how?

Were you satisfied with how the team interacted?

What would you like to see changed?

How can that change be brought about?

Observing Effective Performance

Describe the effective behavior.

Explain the importance of the behavior.

What can be done to reinforce the behavior?

The Team Leader’s Impact

How do you feel about how you led the meeting?

What, if anything, would you do differently?

Improving Ineffective Performance

Describe any evident problem behaviors.

What alternate behaviors would help the situation?

Facilitator’s Role

How do you feel about your facilitator’s role at the meeting?(Appropriate? Timely? Helpful? Supportive to your leadership?)

Were there times when you would have liked your facilitatorto do something differently? (When? How? Why?)



MissionA Mission statement states the core reason for existence of an organiza-tion, a department or a process. Every organization, department andprocess should have its own Mission statement, and each Mission state-ment should meet the following criteria:

• States core reason for organization, department or process to exist.

• Supports strategic direction of entire organization.

• Describes strategy of organization, department or process in achieving the vision (What we do).

• Reflects organization, department or process distinctive competence(How we do it).

• Externally focused – identifies customer (For whom).

• Clear and understandable.

• Serves as an energy force/is compelling.

• Actionable.

• Able to be measured.

• Dynamic.

• Broad enough to be flexible.

• Serves as decision-making template.

Example

George and Betty’s Mission is shown below:To organize fun vacations by planning ahead and staying within our budget. We will do this by using Sprint Quality tools and techniques.




MultivotingThe Multivoting technique uses a structured series of votes by a teamto help reduce a large number of ideas to a manageable few (usuallythree to five).

UseMultivoting is often used after a team has discussed items on a Brainstormlist, and the list is still too lengthy for everything to be addressed.

Steps1. First vote: Team members vote for as many items as they wish but

vote only once per item. Members agree on the number of votes thatdetermines whether an item should remain on the list. They circlethe items receiving a higher number of votes than the other items.

Example: A team of eight members generates a list of 14 items afterround one. The team decides to circle items receiving six or morevotes. In this example, the team circles eight items.

2. Second vote: Each person should vote a number of times equal tohalf the circled items.

Example continued: Each person gets to vote four times during thesecond vote.

3. Continue the Multivoting until the list is reduced to three to fiveitems. Never Multivote down to only one item, because this reducesthe process to a “one winner” scenario and creates a win/lose situation.Multivoting reduces the list to a workable number for group discussionand helps a group reach Consensus.



PALPAL is an acronym to help remember the three key points to planningand managing a meeting:

• P – Purpose

• A – Agenda

• L – Limits

UseA PAL tells participants what they are supposed to accomplish in ameeting and helps them complete the activities that will lead themtoward that accomplishment. A PAL can also include the date of themeeting, a list of the attendees and the exact location of the meeting.

Purpose: Establishing the purpose in advance lets everyone know theexpected outcome of the meeting. If the meeting gets off track, suggesta relevancy check to get it back on track. If the issue being discussed isirrelevant, stop discussing it. If the issue is important but not part ofthe agenda, either put the issue in the Parking Lot or gain agreementfrom the participants to change the purpose of the meeting.

Agenda: Create an agenda with as much detail as appropriate to helpkeep the meeting on track. Meeting minutes should reflect action itemsand decisions resulting from the meeting agenda. (Hint: creating a PALin advance often makes it easier to record meeting minutes.)

Limits: Establishing a specific meeting length in advance is respectful ofpeople. Starting on time and ending on time is a golden rule of meetingmanagement. If you need more time to complete the agenda, negotiatewith the meeting attendees and gain their agreement to continue beyondthe original time limits.

Note: Providing the PAL to attendees in advance of the meeting willhelp participants come to the meeting fully prepared.


Example

George and Betty made a PAL to make sure all of their questions wereanswered and needs were communicated during a meeting with theirtravel agent.

PAL – Meeting with Rhonda World, travel agentPurpose: To plan George and Betty’s trip to Sprintsville Beach, Florida

Agenda: • Introductions

• George and Betty’s expectations (explain last year’s fiasco)

• Options (hotels, airfare, activities)

• Pricing

• Set up next meeting date

Limits: 2 p.m. – 3 p.m.

Date: March 18, 1997

Place: Wide World Travel Agency

Attendees: George, Betty, Rhonda World





Parking LotA Parking Lot is a tool to keep meetings, classes, etc., on track whileallowing flexibility to deal with unanticipated issues.

UseA Parking Lot provides an easy way for participants to keep the meetingfocused on the proper agenda items.

Steps1. If an item not covered on the agenda is being discussed and the group

needs to move on, write the issue on a sticky note and place it in theParking Lot. The Parking Lot can be a blank flip chart page, a paperon a wall, a desktop, etc.

2. Revisit the Parking Lot after the agenda items have been completed.

3. If there is not enough time to discuss the Parking Lot issues, plan asecond meeting, if appropriate.

4. If the Parking Lot items should be handled by another group, passthe information to the appropriate department.


Plus/DeltaThe Plus/Delta technique determines the positive features of meetings,projects or other events, and it can help identify changes that wouldmake future events more effective. Plus/Delta also provides an easy wayto perform the “Check” step in PDCA (see Structured Problem Solving ).

UsePlus/Delta is used in meetings and can be used to critique and improveprojects and processes as well.

Example

After they returned home from their vacation, Betty and George created a Plus/Delta to evaluate their experience:

+• Great travel agency

• George learned to water-ski

• Didn’t overpack

• Great food _ choserestaurants well

• Exceptional hotel service

• Resolved disagreements quickly

• Educational _ learned aboutSprintsville Beach history

• Much better trip than last year

• Feel completely rested andalmost ready for work

• Planning with Sprint Qualitytools made trip go smoothly

∆• Bring more money for gifts or

create gift budget

• Betty needs more comfortableshoes

• Use sunscreen every day toavoid sunburn

• Research activities even moreto avoid boredom




Steps1. Using a flip chart, draw a line down the middle from top to bottom.

On the top left-hand side, put a +. On the top right-hand side, puta ∆ (the Greek letter delta – the symbol for change).

2. Ask the participants to provide their feedback on the positive featuresof the event. List these comments on the left-hand side of the flipchart under +.

3. Ask participants which features need to be changed and what thechanges should be to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of thenext event. List on the right-hand side of the flip chart under ∆.

Using Plus/Delta provides valuable feedback and is part of the PDCAprocess.

• Plan – Meeting purpose, agenda and limits (PAL)

• Do – Conduct the meeting

• Check – Plus/Delta

• Act – Modify next meeting to improve on Deltas and retain Pluses

Note: Plus/Delta is useful if you review it before your next meeting.Use the suggested improvements, assuming they are practical.


+ ∆


Tools forProblemSolving

withNumbers


Section 4 - Numbers.final 5/19/98 3:13 PM Page 1


Check SheetA Check Sheet (as opposed to a Checklist) is a simple form on whichdata are recorded using tick marks.

UseDesign the Check Sheet to display the different kinds of data that youwill collect.

Determine categories of data by asking fact-finding questions:

What (what happens)?

Who (who does it, who receives it, who is responsible)?

Where (what place, what part, what section)?

When (what time of day/month, how often)?

How (how does it happen, how much, how long)?

The Check Sheet should clearly indicate who collected the data andwhere, when and how it was collected.



Problem Solving with Numbers

Example

Led astray one time too many by incompetent travel agents, Betty and George were determined to find a good agency. Convinced thatmanaging by fact would help them, they collected data on severalagencies to find one with a reputation for providing exceptional satis-faction. To do this, they determined how many times an agency wasmentioned positively and negatively in several local publications.

Positive

Negative

Positive

Negative

Positive

Negative

BY: George and BettyON: January-February 1997AT: their home

FORMULA: N/A

DATA COLLECTED

Traveler’sJournal

JourneyCompanion

The TravelBuff Totals

3

4

12

0

1

6

U Travel, WeBook

Baldrige Travel

Funtime Travel

AGENCIES

MAGAZINES

Jan-Feb 1997 Jan-Feb 1997 Jan-Feb 1997


Control ChartsControl Charts are line graphs used to track the performance of aprocess over time. Process results fall into statistically predictable patterns,called “distributions.” A bell-shaped curve, in which most observationsfall in the center and fewer and fewer observations fall evenly on eitherside of the center, is an example of a “normal distribution.”

Control Charts illustrate the variability of a process within a pair of statistically calculated limits called control limits. All processes are subjectto variation, and Control Charts help determine how much variation isacceptable and what kinds of variation are controllable and, therefore,can be improved. The measure of the variation in a set of data is called“range,” which is calculated by subtracting the lowest value in the set ofdata from the highest.

There are two main sources of variation:

• A “common cause” is a source of variation that is always present, apart of the random variation inherent in the process itself.

• A “special cause” is a source of variation that is not always present; itis sometimes called an assignable cause. A special cause is identifiedby a point beyond the control limits or by a non-random patternwithin the control limits.

Statistical control occurs when all special causes have been removedfrom a process. This condition is illustrated on a Control Chart by theabsence of points beyond the control limits and by the presence of onlyrandom patterns within the control limits. When the fluctuations withinthe process occur in a non-random pattern or go outside a control limit,the process is “out of statistical control.”





Control limits are statistically derived from samples of a stable process.They are not to be confused with specification limits, which are deter-mined by Valid Customer Requirements, regardless of what the processis capable of achieving. Ideally, the control limits are well within thespecification limits, so there is confidence in the reliability of the process.If the control limits are very close to or outside the specification limits,the process is indicating that it may not be reliable in achieving thecustomer’s needs.

UseControl Charts monitor the performance of an ongoing process anddetermine answers to the following questions:

• Is the process in statistical control?

• Does action need to be taken to keep the process in control or bringit back into control?

• Is the variation a result of common causes, special causes or both?

• Does an opportunity for process or system improvement exist?

• Have implemented potential improvements truly improved the process?

Control Charts are used throughout PDCA and the QI Story processand can be particularly helpful in identifying problem areas and track-ing results.

Important Note: Control Charts are most useful when they are created while the processis operating. In this way, the process can be controlled in near-real time.Creating a Control Chart after the fact will indicate if a process producedexcessive variation in the past, but there is no way to eliminate the defectsproduced by that variation.


ExamplesControl Charts can be classified into two main groups, depending on thetype of data generated from the process. The chart below summarizes thetypes of Control Charts discussed on the following pages.

A Variable Control Chart deals with quantitative data – characteristicswhich can be measured. An example of variable data might be thenumber of days it takes Betty’s postcard to get to her friend, Janice, or the weight in pounds of George’s suitcase. You can construct an “X

–,

R” or “X, MR” chart to record data of this type.

An Attribute Control Chart deals with qualitative data that can be counted for recording and analysis. An example of attribute data mightbe whether or not Betty’s postcard got to her friend or the presence orabsence of luggage tags on George’s suitcase. When the results arerecorded in a simple yes/no fashion, you can construct c, u, np or pcharts. For additional information on Attribute Control Charts, youmay want to refer to pages 61-85 of Guide to Quality Control by KaoruIshikawa, available from the Sprint Corporate Research Center.


C CHARTU CHART

U CHART

FIXEDSAMPLE

SIZE

VARIABLESAMPLE

SIZE

P CHART

VARIABLESAMPLE

SIZE

NP CHARTP CHART

FIXEDSAMPLE

SIZE

DEFECTS DEFECTIVE UNITS

YES/NOGOOD/BADPASS/FAIL

ATTRIBUTE

DATA

SAMPLESIZE(1)

SAMPLESIZE(2-5)

VARIABLE

MEASURABLE

X, MRCHART

X,R CHART




Note: Because setting up Control Charts can involve a high degree ofcomplexity, you may want to contact a Statistical Process Control(SPC) specialist if you need help.

Variable Control Charts

X–

(X-bar), R Chart – This two-part Control Chart monitors processeswith variable data. The data used on these charts are reported insmall subgroups containing at least two (at most five) individual data readings.

Example: George and Betty sent five postcards per day. When theygot home, they called their friends to find out when their cardsarrived. On an X

–Chart, George and Betty plotted the average number

of days it took a particular day’s cards to get through the mail. Theydid this for each day of their vacation. They also computed the rangein number of days it took each day’s cards to reach their friends.

The X–

Chart tracks how the process average varies from one point toanother. The R (or range) chart tracks the variation that occurs.

X, MR (Moving Range) Chart – This two-part Control Chart also monitors processes with variable data. This is similar to the X

–, R

Chart, except that it observes one item at a time. In other words, theX, MR Chart tracks how each process data point varies from another.

Example: George and Betty plotted the number of days it took eachcard to reach its destination.


Steps1. Decide on a measure to use in monitoring performance. Put this on

the vertical axis.

2. Choose a time interval for taking measurements. Put this on the horizontal axis.

3. Calculate control limits. First, find the average and standard devia-tion for the data. The upper control limit (UCL) is the average plusapproximately three standard deviations, while the lower controllimit (LCL) is the average minus approximately three standard deviations. Mark these “control limits” on the vertical axis and drawa line for each horizontally along the length of the chart. Be awarethat the upper and lower control limits are not the same as the customer specification limits.

4. Enter your measurements (data points) chronologically on the chart.

5. Draw a line connecting the data points.





After constructing the Control Chart, examine it to see where the datapoints are located. If the process continues to be fairly consistent andstable, most of the data points will randomly fall within the establishedcontrol limits. Fluctuations within the process that occur in a non-randompattern or points that fall outside one of the control limits should bereported or investigated as special causes.

MoreComponents of Control Charts

Be sure to include these lines on your control chart

1. A Mean (X)– represents the average value of the process.

2. An Upper Control Limit (UCL) drawn at a calculated distance (approxi-mately three standard deviations) above the central line representsthe maximum variation that can be expected if only common causesof variation are present.

3. A Lower Control Limit (LCL) drawn at a calculated distance (approxi-mately three standard deviations) below the central line representsthe minimum variation that can be expected if only common causesof variation are present.

The horizontal axis tracks time or sequential order, and the vertical axistracks the factor being studied.

UCL

LCL

X

Ver

tica

l Axi

s

Horizontal Axis



Understanding Control Charts

All of the following patterns indicate that something is occurring in the process that should be investigated. These patterns indicate that thevariation results from a special cause.

Points Outside the Limit:

Control limits are calculated to measure the natural variability of aprocess. Any point on or outside the limits indicates a special cause ofvariation and requires investigation.

Run:

A Control Chart shows a run when points occur continually on oneside of the center line. A run of seven points is considered abnormal.Also considered abnormal are 10 out of 11, 12 out of 14, or 16 out of20 points on one side of the center line.

UCL

LCL

X

UCL

LCL

X




Trending:

Seven points in a continuous upward or downward direction signifya trend.

Cycling (periodicity):

Fourteen or more points which alternate up and down are consideredabnormal and require investigation.

UCL

LCL

X

UCL

LCL

X



Hugging the Center Line:

On a Control Chart, “hugging” the center line (X–

) occurs when mostpoints fall very close to the center line. This circumstance usuallymeans that different kinds of data have become mixed with the data of the test group; the data then must be resorted before constructinganother graph. To determine if your Control Chart exhibits hugging,try drawing one line halfway between the center line and the UCL,and one line halfway between the center line and the LCL. If most ofthe points on your Control Chart appear between these lines and thecenter line, your Control Chart is probably hugging the center line.

UCL

LCL

X

1/2 UCL

1/2 LCL




Hugging the Control Limits:

A line may also hug the control limits. If you draw one line that is two-thirds of the way between X

–and the UCL, and one line that is

two-thirds of the way between X–

and the LCL, and if two out of threepoints (or three out of seven points or four out of 10 points) graphedlie between the drawn lines and the closest control limit, your graphexhibits hugging of the control limits.

Note: Control Charts can be powerful diagnostic tools. If special causesare detected, determine root causes and correct the problems. If no specialcauses are present, it is not generally productive to investigate the causes ofindividual data points on the Control Chart. Instead, look at the entireprocess and improve the process using Flow Charts and other ProcessImprovement tools and techniques.

UCL

LCL

X

2/3 UCL

2/3 LCL


Cost/Benefit AnalysisUseCost/Benefit Analysis is a technique for determining the dollar impactof problems and potential improvements. This knowledge helps youprioritize and select improvements.

It is not necessary to have detailed accounting data in order to get ageneral idea of the financial impact of a problem or issue; it is all rightto make some assumptions and verify them as you gather data.

StepsThere are two approaches to estimating costs: the “bottom-up approach”and the “top-down approach.”

Bottom-up Approach: Start with smaller units and build the estimatetoward an overall amount.

1. Estimate how many times the problem occurs per unit of time.(Example: 12 occurrences/week)

2. Estimate cost per occurrence.(Example: $200 per occurrence)

3. Estimate total time involved.(Example: 52 weeks)

4. Calculate total annual cost by multiplying above factors.(Example: 12 X $200 X 52 = $124,800)





Top-down Approach: Start with the overall cost of some budget item or other known variable and an estimate of the percentage of the totalwhich represents the problem. Then calculate unit cost as shown below.

1. Estimate the percentage of some expenditure that applies to theproblem area (for example, percent of total labor devoted to theproblem, percent of total “downtime” attributed to the problem).

2. Multiply the percentage by the budgeted annual cost to get the estimated amount spent on the problem in one year.(Example: 10% of total labor x $185,000/year budgeted =$18,500/year)

3. Divide by unit of time.(Example: $18,500/year divided by 52 weeks/year = approximately $356/week)


Cost of QualityThe Cost of Quality is the amount a company, division or departmentspends for overall quality. Estimates put the Cost of Quality at 15% -30% of revenue for the average company.

Cost of Quality Consists of Three Components:

• The Cost of Conformance is the money and time spent to ensure thatValid Customer Requirements are being met. It includes money andtime spent on both prevention (finding mistakes before they happen)and inspection (finding mistakes after they happen but before delivery).

• The Cost of Lost Opportunity is the profit impact of lost revenues thatresult from failure to meet customer requirements. If a company losesbusiness because it has a reputation for poor quality, it loses revenue.The profit it could have made on that revenue is the cost of lostopportunity.

• The Cost of Nonconformance is the money spent to fix products andservices that do not meet Valid Customer Requirements. This costincludes money spent on warranties, credits and other customer con-cessions paid as a result of poor product or service performance.





Cycle TimeCycle Time is the time that elapses from the moment a process beginsto the moment the process ends. Reducing Cycle Time can lead to acompetitive advantage.

UseCycle Time reduction can affect such areas as new product development,production and delivery. Goals are frequently expressed in multiples(for example, Motorola’s “10X” program, which aims to reduce cycletimes by 10 times).

Adapted from Quality Outlook 1997-1998, The Conference Board.


DataData are “facts or figures from which conclusions can be drawn, a basisof reasoning, discussion or calculation.” Data, when properly organizedand analyzed, provide useful information and serve as the basis fordecision-making and action.

UseData can be organized as follows:

There are two kinds of numerical, objective data: Attribute and Variable.

Attribute Data:

When characteristics are identified only by name or label, rather thanby numeric value, they are called “Attribute Data.” For example, duringa test of circuit breakers, the breakers either pass or fail; there are nopossible values between classifications. The important point is that thesituation is either “go” or “no-go,” “green” or “not green,” “over $150”or “not over $150.”

Variable Data:

When it is important to identify, rank and precisely measure the distri-bution (the distance or interval between items), we collect “VariableData.” Variable Data are strictly quantitative; they are concerned withmeasurements (length of a board in meters, rate of disabling accidents inaccidents/week, etc.). These types of data are usually more expensive tocollect, but they provide much more information about the subject.


Data

Objective

Subjective

Words

Pictures

Numbers

Attribute

Variable




Graphs: Bar, Line and PieGraphs are visual displays that summarize a set of numbers or statistics.

UseUse graphs to display data, to aid in understanding and interpretingdata, and to manage with facts. You may also use graphs to illustratetargets, goals and benchmarks.

Bar Charts make it easier to recognize small differences in quantitiesand to compare one category with another. They are easy to construct.

Line Graphs make trends and data variations over time easy to track.They highlight change and can track more than one set of data at a time.

Pie Charts show relative proportion of each category to the whole.

Elements of Good Graphs

In general, good line graphs have the elements shown in the chart below:

X

YTitle

= Good

Target =Benchmark =

N =orn =

Units

Data Collected:

By:

On:

At:

Formula:

Fre

qu

ency


Every Graph should indicate:

• When the data were gathered.

• Where the data were gathered.

• Who gathered the data.

• Whether they are raw data, percentages, or averages.

• How the data were calculated (a formula).

Steps1. The scale used in a Graph can be adjusted to show the situation: it

can be expanded to emphasize variation or compressed to show control. All graphs should indicate the total number of data pointsrepresented. If all the data points (the “population”) are represented,this is indicated by a capital N =____. A sample number is indicatedby a lowercase n =____.

2. It is generally considered good practice to include the “0” (zero) point. If you want to magnify some portion of the graph to showdetailed variation, show the “0” (zero) point and indicate a departurefrom the scale with some wavy lines.

3. If there is a “good” direction, indicate this with an arrow. (For example, an arrow pointed up would indicate that a high mark onthe Y-axis is desirable, perhaps indicative of large profits.)

Checklist for a Complete Graph

TitleVertical axis – labeledHorizontal axis – labeledZero shown for both axes“Good” direction indicatedGoal or target, if applicableBenchmarks or comparisonsForecast of likely future trendData collection informationPopulation or sample size





Graphs: Bar ChartA Bar Chart is a graph that compares quantities using rectangles (bars)with heights representing numbers.

Example

Steps1. The horizontal axis shows the items being compared using vertical

bars of uniform width.

2. The vertical axis indicates the quantities by the heights of the bars.

George and Betty love watching pelicans and are hoping to see some on their trip. They asked the Sprintsville Beach Chamber of Commercefor information on how many pelicans had visited the beach during Julyin the last three years. The Chamber sent its reply in a bar chart format:

25

50

75

100

125

150

1993 1994 19950

Year

1996

Nu

mb

er o

f P

elic

ans

Sig

hte

d Good

Data Collected:

By:

On:

At:

Formula: N/A

Jill Cardwell

5/8/97

Sprintsville Beach, FL

Pelicans ’93-’96



Graphs: Line GraphA Line Graph uses connected data points to display data for comparisonor trending purposes.

Example

Steps1. Use a trend line to display some variable over a period of time.

2. If using multiple lines, use some method (dashes, dots, etc.) to distin-guish between them. The solid black line should receive the greatestemphasis, representing your own department or actual data.

3. If the Line Graph tracks over a period of time, show the most recentdata when presenting results.

4. When possible, include a forecast of the likely future trend for yourdata and for your comparison data.

At George and Betty’s request, the Sprintsville Beach Quality Resort analyzed how many satisfied customers had stayed at their resort overthe past four years as compared to two of its competitors. The QualityResort sent George and Betty a line graph to display this data.

’94 ’96 ’97

120

100

80

60

40

20

0’95

Number of Satisfied Customers Per Year

Good

N = 552

Data Collected:By: Paul RogersOn: 3/8/97At: Quality Resort

Formula: N/A

Quality Resort

QR = 274SI = 52SS = 226

Stopawhile InnSand N’ SurfMotel




Graphs: Pie ChartA Pie Chart is a graph that depicts the percentage an item contributesto the whole.

Example

To see how they spent their money on vacation, George and Betty constructed a Pie Chart as shown below:

Hotel46%

Food16%

Plane Tickets14%

Gifts andSouvenirs

11%

Activities13%

Expenses Breakdown

Data Collected:

By:

On:

At:

Formula: N/A

George and Betty

8/1/97

Home

N= $2,000


Steps1. Divide a circle (pie) into a number of wedges so that each wedge

represents a proportion of the total number of items.

2. Calculate the proportion of the item by dividing the item by thetotal. For example, the proportion for Gifts and Souvenirs shown on the previous page is $220 in gifts divided by $2,000 total expenses = 0.11, or 11%.

3. Convert the proportions into wedges by multiplying the proportionsby 360 degrees (example: 0.11 x 360 = 39.6 degrees).

4. Start with the largest wedge, beginning at the vertical position andgoing in a clockwise direction. Measure off the wedge sizes with aprotractor.

5. When using pie charts, follow these rules:

• Order your categories from largest to smallest. The “other” category,if one exists, is last, regardless of its size.

• Begin your first wedge with a starting line at the “12 o’clock” position.

• Construct the remaining wedges in descending order by size and ina clockwise direction with “other” last.





HistogramA Histogram, also called a frequency distribution, is a visual representa-tion of the distribution of data. It is a special case of a bar chart. Forexample, a Histogram might show the height, in inches, of 36 tourists.Information in a Histogram is represented by rectangles or bars ofequal width. The heights of these bars indicate the relative number ofdata points in each class.

To evaluate a Histogram, you need to know the central tendency(where most values fall), as well as the dispersion of the data.

10

8

6

4

2

059.5 62.5 65.5 68.5 71.5 74.5 77.5

3

6 6

9

8

4

Median

69.5"

Central Tendency

Mean68.94"

Mode70"

Height (Inches)

Nu

mb

er o

f T

ou

rist

s

N = 36


Measures of Central Tendency

(The calculations shown below use the data from the Histogram on the previous page.)

Mean (average) – The sum of all the measured data divided by the totalnumber of data points. In the example, all the data points addedtogether equal 2,482 divided by 36 = 68.94 inches.

Mode – The value repeated most often in the raw data. In this example,it is 70 inches.

Median – The middle of all the measured or counted data points. Forexample, in the data of 36 measurements, the median is the average ofthe middle values (69 + 70 = 139 divided by 2 = 69.5 inches).

Measures of Dispersion

Range – The maximum value minus the minimum value.

Standard Deviation (SD) or Sigma – A measurement that shows how widelydispersed any set of data is from the mean (average) of the entire datadistribution. The standard deviation takes into account all the datapoints. It is far less sensitive to the addition of another data point thanis the range, so it is a more consistent measure of variability.

UseUse a Histogram to provide information on the degree of variation ofdata and to indicate the distribution pattern. Drawing a curve around theheights of the bars of a Histogram shows the general shape of the dis-tribution. Depending on the subject on which data have been collected,dispersion of data can produce a variety of Histogram shapes. Some ofthe more common shapes are shown on the following pages.





Shapes of Histograms

Symmetric

Most values fall toward the center of the distribution with the variationbalanced on both sides of the center.

Precipiced

Most of the values appear on one side of the center line, as shown below.This type of distribution could occur where there is a natural barrier, orin cases where the data have been sorted. Precipiced distribution couldoccur when products which do not meet a particular specification limithave been removed from the data set.

Center

Center


Skewed

A skewed shape has a long tail on one side. There is more variation onone side than on the other, indicating a shift of some variable duringthe process.

Bi-Modal

In a bi-modal (or twin-peaked) shape, two peaks (modes) appear. Thisusually occurs when two different data groups are mixed (for example,a population of very short people is added to a population of extremelytall people). In effect, there are two Histograms pushed together.


Center

Center




Example

After packing their luggage, George thought the suitcases felt abnormally heavy. To reassure him, Betty called their airline andasked for weights of typical customers’ suitcases. In response, the air-line sent data which George and Betty used to create this Histogram.

10

8

6

4

2

0

30.5 33.5 36.5 39.5 42.5 45.5 48.5

6

7

10

5

3

Mean = 38.25 lbs

Mode = 39 lbs

Weight (lbs)

Nu

mb

er o

f S

uit

case

s

12

Median =37.5 lbs

5

n = 36

BY: Max and Lulu,baggage handlers

ON: 7/8/97AT: QualitAir

FORMULA: N/A

DATA COLLECTED

George and Betty saw that their suitcases, each weighing 38 pounds,were about average, and that George had nothing to worry about.


Steps1. To construct a Histogram, draw horizontal and vertical axes. The

horizontal (X-axis) shows class intervals; the vertical (Y-axis) showsfrequencies.

2. Draw a bar to represent the frequency of data in each class. The barsshould be touching.

* It is important to round numbers up to ensure that all data pointswill fall between the lines on the Histogram.

** A measurement unit (M) adds precision to the development of aHistogram. If the data being measured have values of 4.53, measurementunit is 0.01. If the data values are whole numbers, the measurementunit is 1. If the data values are in tenths, the measurement unit is 0.1.


Start with an unorganized set of at least 30 datapoints.

Arrange the numbers in ascending or descendingorder.

Each number is a data point. Count the number ofdata points.

The range (R) of the set is the largest (maximum)data point minus the smallest (minimum) data point.

The class (K) is used to calculate the number ofbars. Class equals the square root of N. As a ruleof thumb, K is a number from 6 to 12.

The class width (H) is used to calculate the width ofthe bars. It is calculated by dividing the range by theclass.

To begin constructing the Histogram, establish thestarting point for the first class. This is equal to theminimum data point minus (the measurement unitdivided by 2).

R=MAX-MIN

35, 34, 46, 31, 42, 39, 39, 36, 43,40, 32, 38, 31, 41, 44, 32, 39, 45,33, 46, 38, 34, 41, 43, 35, 39, 41,31, 34, 43, 37, 35, 38, 39, 37, 46

31, 31, 31, 32, 32, 33, 34, 34, 34,35, 35, 35, 36, 37, 37, 38, 38, 38,39, 39, 39, 39, 39, 40, 41, 41, 41,42, 43, 43, 43, 44, 45, 46, 46, 46

N = 36

R = 46-31 = 15

K = 36 = 6 (round up)*

H = 15/6 = 2.5 (round up)* = 3

31 = 1/2 = 30.5

N

H = R/K

MeasurementUnit (M)M = 1**Min - M/2

STEP EQUATION EXAMPLE

K = N




Now that you have established the starting point for the first class,construct a frequency table:

In Column 1 of the frequency table, add the class width (H) to your starting point.

In Column 2, calculate the midpoint of each class.

In Column 3, go back to your original set of data points and tally the number of points that fall within each class.

In Column 4, add the tallies from Column 3 and record them as the frequencies of their class.

Lower class limit + upper class limit2

Starting point + H30.5 + 3 = 33.5,so class limits are30.5 to 33.5,33.5 to 36.5,etc.

30.5 + 33.5 = 32 2= midpoint of first class

Suitcase weightsfall within first class

Six suitcases weigh between 30.5 and 33.5 lbs.

STEP EQUATION EXAMPLE

Frequency Table

Class Limits

30.5 to 33.5

33.5 to 36.5

36.5 to 39.5

39.5 to 42.5

42.5 to 45.5

45.5 to 48.5

Class Midpoint

32

35

38

41

44

47

Tally Frequency

6

7

10

5

5

3


MeanA Mean (X

–) is the arithmetic average of a set of data.

Note: X–

is pronounced “X bar.”

UseUse a Mean when you want one number to represent many differentnumbers or when you need to know the central tendency of a group of data.

Steps1. Add up the data points.

2. Divide the sum by the total number of data points.


Sum of Data Points

Total Number ofData Points

X =




Pareto ChartA Pareto Chart is a type of bar chart in which the bars are arranged indescending order from the left. The basis for Pareto analysis is the “80-20”rule – 80 percent of the problems result from 20 percent of the causes.

UseBecause it organizes data to show what major factors cause the problembeing analyzed, use the Pareto Chart to highlight “the vital few,” notthe “the trivial many.”

Example

One day during their vacation, George and Betty strolled past a flowershop where exquisite daffodils were on display. Since Betty loves daf-fodils, she and George stopped to talk with the shop owner. He expressedconcern that very few of his daffodil bulbs had survived long enough tobloom. “Aha!” thought George and Betty. “Here’s a chance for someSprint Quality problem solving!”

The shop owner explained that there are three reasons for failed blooms– too much water, too little water or a rare plant disease called daffodillikilli. “But I don’t know which of these is causing the most problems,”explained the shop owner, “so I don’t know which one to correct.”

George and Betty went to the garden and examined all of the daffodilbulbs that hadn’t bloomed. After determining which problem killed eachbulb, they created the Pareto Chart on the next page.


Steps1. Define categories (defects by shift, location, type, etc.) and sort the

data into the categories.

2. If possible, further stratify the data. (“Shift” may be broken downinto “day,” “night,” and “graveyard.”)

3. Make a Bar Graph with the bars ordered in decreasing frequencyfrom the left. Verify that the following items are done:• Bars touching. • Cumulative line from zero. • Left axis for actual data. • Right axis for percentage of total.

4. Check the chart for the Pareto pattern. A “flat” Pareto (i.e., cate-gories with similar percentages) may indicate the need for differentstratification of data. Or, a flat Pareto Chart may indicate that nospecial causes of variation are present.

Note: If an “other” category is used, this is placed last (farthest to theright) on the Pareto. The rule for the “other” category is that it shouldnot be larger than any of the labeled bars on the Pareto.


0

Nu

mb

er o

f B

ulb

s A

ffec

ted

Too Much Water Daffodilli Killi Too Little Water

Problems

60

50

40

30

20

10

70 100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

Daffodil Bulb Problems

87% 97%

N = 68 bulbs

BY: Shop owner, George and BettyON: 7/16/97AT: The garden

FORMULA: N/A

DATA COLLECTED

The Pareto Chart showed that “too much water” represented 87% ofthe overall problem.




Process IndicatorsProcess Indicators are in-process measures of conformance to processrequirements.

UseProcess indicators determine if a process is on track to meet the targetof an end-of-process indicator. Process indicators help signal whetherValid Customer Requirements will be met.

Example

Frequently, Process Indicators are dates by which you must completecertain processes. For example, if an end-of-process indicator is to “produce bills on time,” then Process Indicators are specific times anddates by which certain jobs in the billing process must be completed.

• Must book tickets by 2/97.

• Must plan activities by 5/97.

• Must pack by 7/10/97.

This will meet the Quality Indicator of “Completely preparedfor vacation on 7/11/97.”


Quality IndicatorsQuality Indicators (often called end-of-process indicators) are measures of how well the customer’s needs and reasonable expectationsare being met. They measure conformance to valid requirements.

UseSelect Quality Indicators and establish the current status (baseline).Improve the indicator by improving specific processes.

When conformance to Valid Customer Requirements is above 80%,you should then focus on nonconformance to aid your improvementefforts. By focusing on nonconformance, you maintain constant pressure to improve. When measurements show that you have attained 95.6% “goodness,” there is less motivation to improve than if your measure shows that at 95.6% you still have 7,522 defectsper month. Your focus must be on eliminating the 7000+ defects(assuming that it is cost-effective and adds value for the customer to do so), not on how “good” you are.

Example


For George and Betty, examples of their Quality Indicators are:

• Variance from budget.

• Overall satisfaction with vacation.

• Amount of knowledge gained.

• Degree of improvement over last vacation.




Scatter DiagramA Scatter Diagram shows the relationship between two variables (forexample: speed and gas consumption, hours worked and productionoutput). It provides an easy way to analyze data.

A Scatter Diagram clearly shows if there is a correlation between two variables:

Positive correlation: as X increases, so does Y.

Negative correlation: as X increases, Y decreases.

No correlation: one quantity has no particular relation to the other.

UseScatter Diagrams are typically used to verify a root cause theory.

Examples of Scatter DiagramsExample 1

Y

X

N = 31

Positive (Direct) Correlation:When X increases, Y increases.

Source:By:When:

X Source:By:When:

Example 2

Y N = 42

Negative (Inverse) Correlation:When X increases, Y decreases.

X

Example 3

Y N = 72

Source:By:When:

No Correlation:There is no immediate evidence that Yis directly affected by a change in X.


Steps1. Collect at least 30 pairs of data (X and Y) or at least enough to

observe a significantly long trend.

2. Find the lowest and highest values for X and Y. Determine the scalesfor the axes. (Try to have between three and 10 graduations.)

3. Arrange the axes so the suspected driving factor (independent variable) is on the X-axis and the one influenced by it (the dependent variable) is on the Y-axis.

4. Plot the data on the chart point by point. Be sure to complete thechart with the title, dates, places, etc.

5. Identify the degree of correlation between the two variables byobserving the pattern formed by the points.





SigmaSigma is a measure of the capability of a process to produce perfect work.

A defect is any mistake that results in customer dissatisfaction. Sigmaindicates how often defects are likely to occur. The higher the Sigmalevel, the lower the defect rate. The lower the defect rate, the higher the quality.

The mean (average) value of a distribution is usually designed to be asclose as possible to what the customer requires. One measure of variation around the mean is “standard deviation” or Sigma. By mathe-matical derivation, 68.26% (about two-thirds) of a normal distributionwill be within the first standard deviation (±1 Sigma; see chart below);95.44% will be within ±2 Sigma; etc. This relation is used to expressthe number of defects expected in the products of a process.

In a “one Sigma process,” 32% of the output would be defective. In a “two Sigma process,” 5% of the output would be defective. In a “six Sigma process,” only .0000002% of the output would be defective.

-6s -5s -4s -3s -2s -1s +1s +2s +3s +4s +5s +6s

68.26%of allitems

95.44% of all items

99.73% of all items

99.9937% of all items



= Sigmas


Taking the natural variation of even well-controlled processes intoaccount, we define a “six Sigma process” as one that is 99.99966%defect-free. This means that a “six Sigma process” generates 3.4 defects per million opportunities.

Use• Helps compare different products and services on an “apples to

apples” basis.

• Provides a common basis for benchmarking between Sprint and others.

• Measures how well an operation is performing. The higher the Sigmalevel, the better the performance.

(Also see Standard Deviation in this section.)





Correlation of Defects Per Million Opportunities and Sigma Levels

This table shows that for any level of defect occurrence, there is amathematically associated Sigma level.

Number of DefectsPer Million Opportunities Associated

for Error Sigma Level

66,810 3.00

38,950 3.25

22,750 3.50

11,870 3.75

6,210 4.00

2,890 4.25

1,350 4.50

560 4.75

233 5.00

86 5.25

32 5.50

10.5 5.75

3.4 6.00Note that the magnitude of improvement is not linear betweenSigma levels:

• 3 Sigma to 4 Sigma requires a 10-times improvement.



Adapted from Understanding Six Sigma, © Motorola, Inc. 1988.


Standard DeviationStandard Deviation is a measure of how close data come to the mean(average). Standard Deviation is represented by σ (Sigma).

UseUse Standard Deviation to summarize and/or compare certain charac-teristics of data. Use it to construct a Control Chart to determine theupper and lower control limits of a process. Use it also as part of the“checking stage” in the PDCA cycle after you have gathered the data.

Steps1. Start with a group of data.

2. Compute the mean (X–

).

3. From each data point (x1, x2, .....xN), subtract the value of the mean(X–

).

4. Square each of these values and add together.

5. Divide by the number of data points less one (N-1).

6. Take the square root of this result. This is the Standard Deviationfor this group of data.


{(x -X) +(x -X) +...(x -X) }2 2 2

21 N

(N-1)

N = number of data points

=


TargetsTargets are milestones, places of evaluation on the way to accomplishinga larger goal.

ExampleIndicator Target Goal

StepsTargets should be challenging but achievable during a reasonableamount of time – normally not more than a year. In setting Targets:

1. Consider the needs and reasonable expectations of the customer.If the customer’s needs are not immediately achievable, they shouldbe kept as an ultimate goal.

2. Consider the performance of similar operations or competitors.Compare this Target to your present performance to see if it isachievable. If not, it may become a goal. Set interim Targets to ultimately achieve this goal.

3. Past performance can be used to set a Target.If your performance was once significantly better, set that as a Targetand discover what has changed to make performance worse.

4. Set a Target by analyzing processes for waste.For example, if you break a process down into its components (i.e., processing, reviewing, shipping and waiting), you could try toreduce the waiting time, since it may not be necessary to the process.



How far in advancevacation is planned.

Number ofsuitcases.

Money saved.

Goal

Plan vacation sixmonths in advance.

Take one suitcaseand two carry-ons.

Save enough moneyto stay three weeks.

Target

Plan next vacation fourmonths in advance.

For next vacation, taketwo suitcases and twocarry-ons.

For next vacation, saveenough money to stay21/2 weeks.


Valid Customer RequirementsValid Customer Requirements are standards of work quality agreed uponby customers and their suppliers. Valid Customer Requirements must:

• Meet the S.M.A.R.T. criteria:

– Specific

– Measurable

– Attainable

– Relevant

– Timebound

• Meet customer needs and reasonable expectations.

• Meet corporate responsibilities (in keeping with Sprint’s Values; see Introduction to Sprint Quality).

UseAs a supplier, negotiate the Valid Customer Requirements with yourcustomers. Start by asking them to identify their needs and desires.Through questioning and consensus, agree on those requirements theyneed and can reasonably expect. Once established, the Valid CustomerRequirements serve as a goal for producing quality products and services.



Tools forProblemSolving

with Ideas


Section 5 - Ideas #1.final 5/19/98 2:56 PM Page 89

Activity Network DiagramAn Activity Network Diagram is a schedule for the completion of complex jobs.

UseIt can reduce the amount of time needed to develop a plan by allowingchanges to be made easily during early planning stages. Use the ActivityNetwork Diagram to establish a finely tuned plan. It can also help you torecognize dependencies or conflicts quickly, and adjust accordingly.

Example


George and Betty created an Activity Network Diagram to scheduletheir vacation plans.

Choose vacation site and date

Research: library,bookstores, Internet, travel

agencies, ask others

1 month 3/97 4/97

4

Book plane and hotelreservations

1 week 2/97

3

Choose travel agency

1 week 2/97

2

1 week 2/97

1

Develop itinerary andbudget

1 week 4/97 5/97

6

Arrange house, cat sitter

1 week 5/97 6/97

7

Pack

1 week 7/97

8

Purchase clothes,supplies, etc.

3 months 3/97 - 6/97

5

Go on vacation and enjoy!

2 weeks 7/97

9



Problem Solving with Ideas

Steps1. Record all of the tasks necessary to complete the plan. This list could

come from a Tree Diagram or a Brainstorming session.

2. Write each task in the upper right-hand portion of a job card.

Job Card Example:

3. Arrange the job cards in sequential and parallel order.

Ask: “Which tasks must be completed before this task? Which taskscan be completed while this task is being completed?”

A. Remove duplicate cards or add new ones as necessary.

B. When the cards are arranged, assign each task a number and writeit on the job card.

C. Draw arrows from each job card to the one immediately following it.

4. Estimate how long it will take to complete each job.

5. Record the estimated time to complete each task on the bottom-leftof the job card (“Duration”).

6. Determine the critical path by finding which path has the longestcompletion time from start to finish. This tells you how long it willtake to complete the project.

7. Beginning at the start node, calculate the earliest start time (EST)for each task, given its predecessors. Write the EST number on thejob card.

8. Beginning at the end node, determine the latest start time (LST)each task could be started to still finish the project on schedule.Write that number below the EST.

9. Schedule dates for final plan.

1Duration

Task

EST

LST


Affinity DiagramAn Affinity Diagram is a collection of ideas and/or issues organizedinto related groups for analysis.

UseIt aids in decision-making.

Example


Determined to make their vacation a success, Betty and George brain-stormed on “how we can make this vacation better than last year’s.”They organized their responses into an Affinity Diagram.

Go someplacewith betterclimate; not

so hot

Go someplacewhere we

know language

Eat betterfood; research

restaurantsmore

Know moreabout area

where we’regoing

Plan moreactivities;

don’t want tobe bored

Bringsomething todo if it rains

Double-checkhotel and

planereser vations

Get traveler’schecks

Rent car toget around

Have friendcheck on

house whilewe’re gone

Better hotelservice

Work withfriendlier

travel agency

Stay atcleaner hotel

Get moresleep; quieter

hotel

Pack less

Fight less

Stay healthy

Maintain morecheerful attitude

ServiceTravel

PreparationSite

PlanningPersonalAttitudes




Steps1. Choose a recorder.

2. Write the problem or issue on a flip chart. All members should agreeon this statement before the group proceeds.

3. Generate ideas about the problem or issue by open discussion,brainstorming or generating ideas silently. If you discuss or brain-storm, write down members’ responses as stated (one per sticky note or index card). Members should write their own responses ifthey generate ideas silently.

4. Put the sticky notes onto the wall or flip chart in any order. If youare using index cards, spread them out on a table.

5. Silently, team members should move similar sticky notes/index cards into clusters. Move a response as many times as necessary until you find a permanent home for it. A cluster may have onlyone item in it. Collect items that do not fit into any clusters andform a “miscellaneous” cluster.

6. Label each cluster with a header card through team discussion. Thelabel can be one of the responses in the cluster, but it does not haveto be. Once clusters are labeled, the team should review the items in the “miscellaneous” cluster to determine if they fit within anidentified group.

7. Identify clusters. If you are using sticky notes, draw a circle aroundeach cluster. If you are using index cards, tape the clusters to the flipchart paper, and then draw a circle around each cluster.

8. Discuss each cluster, its individual items and the relationship of theclusters to the problem to gain a better understanding of the issuesand plan future steps.


Baldrige (Malcolm)National Quality AwardThe Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award is an annual award to recognize U.S. companies for performance excellence. The President ofthe United States presents the awards, which may be given in each ofthree categories:

• Manufacturing Companies

• Service Companies

• Small Businesses

The Baldrige Award uses criteria in seven areas to select recipients:

1. Leadership

2. Strategic Planning

3. Customer and Market Focus

4. Information and Analysis

5. Human Resource Focus

6. Process Management

7. Business Results

These criteria serve several roles:

• Give feedback to applicants on strengths and areas for improvement.

• Help improve performance practices and capabilities.

• Facilitate communication and sharing of best practices.

• Serve as a working tool for understanding and managing performance,planning, training and assessment.

The criteria are designed to help companies enhance their competitive-ness through focus on dual, results-oriented goals:

• Delivery of ever-improving value to customers, resulting in marketplace success.

• Improvement of overall company performance and capabilities.Adapted from the 1998 Criteria for Performance Excellence, Malcolm Baldrige National QualityAwards.





Criteria Framework for Baldrige Award

Customer and Market FocusedStrategy and Action Plans

1Leadership

7BusinessResults

5Human Resource

Focus

2StrategicPlanning

3Customer

and MarketFocus

6Process

Management

4Information and Analysis


BenchmarkingBenchmarking is the process of searching for the best methods andprocesses, learning about them and using that knowledge to improveyour own processes.

UseUse Benchmarking as part of process improvement. Examine the practicesof companies that perform at higher levels than Sprint. Benchmarkingcan be conducted within the same industry, but sometimes the mostinnovative improvements result from studying completely differentindustries.

Benchmarking allows organizations to:

• See a need for change (compare company performance to other companies’ performance).

• Develop a vision for the future (and understand operations within those other companies).

• Know what needs to be changed (adapt practices from those companies exhibiting higher performance).

Sprint Benchmarking

• Determine performance gap and goals (current and future)

• Identify enabling practices

• Select and recommendimprovements

• Develop Action Plans

• Implement and monitor

• Focus on continuousimprovement


• Determine what process to study

• Understand own process,measurements and currentperformance

• Plan Benchmarking project

• Collect secondary data

• Determine Benchmarking participants

• Conduct study

A P

C D




The Benchmarking code of conduct is used by many high-performingcompanies to ensure a mutually beneficial relationship between theorganizations involved in the Benchmarking.

Rules for Benchmarking

Legality – Avoid discussions or actions that might lead to or implyrestraint of trade. Do not discuss costs if costs are an element of pricing.

Exchange – Be willing to provide the same level of information thatyou request.

Confidentiality – Treat interchanges as something confidential to theindividuals and organizations involved.

Use – Only use the information obtained to improve the participatingcompanies themselves.

Contact – Make contacts through proper channels.

Preparation – Be prepared at each step in the Benchmarking process,particularly at initial company contact.

More Sprint has a corporate Benchmarking office that serves as theBenchmarking educational, consulting and coordinating resource for the entire company. If you wish to learn more about pursuingSprint Benchmarking or if you are being contacted about participatingin Benchmarking, contact the corporate Benchmarking office for information and assistance.

Note: It is highly recommended that Sprint management and associatescontact the Benchmarking department before contacting any externalcompany. Benchmarking with external companies requires substantialpreparation and coordination to gain the desired results.



Brown PaperA Brown Paper is a flowchart technique. Teams draw a process on largepaper that is taped to a wall. Then they review and change the processto make it operate as effectively as possible.

UseThe Brown Paper technique is used to:

• Document steps, forms, interfaces, tools, decision points and information sources of a process.

• Show the big picture: “the forest and the trees.”

• Improve understanding of a process.

• Train people.

• Encourage participation and feedback.

• Define conditions such as:– As is (actual process in use today).– Should be (improved process).– Could be (ideal process).

Steps 1. Assemble the people who perform the process.

2. Identify one stream of activity and flow it from start to finish. (It’s confusing to try to understand and document several differentflows at once.)

3. Gather facts: ask “why” and evaluate the information after theBrown Paper is complete.

4. Understand that different people often perform the same processdifferently – try to incorporate all ways of performing the process.




5. Ask questions to cover all areas:What high-level processes do we perform?What causes the process to begin?How do we perform the processes?Where does the service or material come from? To whom do we send materials or provide service?When do we do this?What decisions do we make?What forms do we use?

6. Start process steps with an action verb.

7. Each time the process can split into more than one path, document how often each path is taken.

MoreHere are some additional tips for creating an effective Brown Paper:

• Place paper pieces 6"- 8" apart because:– They’re easier to read.– Details might be forgotten and will need to be added later.– Feedback from others is encouraged and comments can be added.

• Flow in a horizontal direction.

• Use different colors of markers for short alternative paths.

• Do not draw flow arrows until the Brown Paper is finished.

• Post in a public area and encourage comments.



Chairman’s Quality AwardThe Chairman’s Quality Award (CQA) is an improvement strategywhich includes an annual award presented by the Chairman and CEOof Sprint. The purpose of the CQA is “to provide recognition of excep-tional department/business unit performance in order to accelerateSprint’s achievements” (Chairman’s Quality Award, 1998). Applicantsfor the Award can receive commendation in three areas:

1. Chairman’s Quality Award (Gold, Silver, Bronze and Honorable Mention)

2. Facet of Excellence Award (exceptional performance in any of several areas)

3. Annual Improvement Award(score increase of 100 points or more, year over year)

The CQA Criteria match those of the Malcolm Baldrige NationalQuality Award:

• Leadership

• Strategic Planning

• Customer and Market Focus

• Information and Analysis

The CQA is also based on several core concepts:

• Customer Driven Quality

• Leadership

• Continuous Improvement and Learning

• Valuing Employees

• Fast Response

• Design Quality and Prevention

Applicants for the Chairman’s Quality Award receive a feedback reportdetailing strengths and areas for improvement in each of the areas thatmake up the criteria.

• Human Resource Focus

• Process Management

• Business Results

• Long-range View of the Future

• Management by Fact

• Partnership Development

• Corporate Responsibility andCitizenship

• Results Focus




ChecklistA Checklist (as opposed to a Check Sheet) is a list of items that needattention or steps that need action. For example: the QI Story ReviewForm is a Checklist for the QI Story process.

UseYou can use a technique such as Brainstorming to generate a good list.

Example

Recalling how annoying it was to arrive with no toothpaste or mascara, Betty made a Checklist of her toiletries to pack.

Pack the Following Completed

1. Toothbrush ✔

2. Toothpaste ✔

3. Contacts ✔

4. Contact solution ✔

5. Face soap ✔

6. Razor ✔

7. Shampoo ✔

8. Conditioner ✔

9. Comb ✔

10. Brush ✔

11. Makeup ✔



Step George andBetty Library Bookstore Travel

Agency

STARTIdentify

good travelbooks

Need tobuy?

Borrowfrom

library

Purchasebooks

1

2

3

4

5

Completeresearch

Makereservations

PI3

PI1

NO

YES

QI1, QI2

PI2

Example

For a more detailed layout of their process for researching Sprintsville Beach, George and Betty created a Control System.

Control SystemA Control System combines a process flow chart (see Flowcharts) withinformation such as measurements, responsibilities, time, standards orprocedures, etc.

UseUse a Control System to document procedures.

Make entries corresponding to the appropriate steps and decisionpoints. Each entry describes a Process Indicator (P1, P2, etc.) or aQuality Indicator (QI1, QI2, etc.).




Information contained in the entries may include the following:

The indicator – how data are calculated, frequency of measurement,responsibility for checking targets or limits, supporting standards or procedures.

The activity – purpose, frequency, responsibility, standards or procedures.

The time – length of time to complete (how much this process activitycontributes to total cycle time).

The standards or procedures – formal documentation of work process,where you might go to find how to handle “special causes.”

Limit orTarget Criteria Frequency Respon-

sibilityStandards

orProcedures

Remarks

$40

5

$0

1 perday

30 days

Number ofbooks that

provideuseful info

Totalspent

Resultingfrom late

return

Satisfyexpectations

From startof planning

toreservations

Pervacation

Daily

Pervacation

Pervacation

Georgeand

Betty

Summarizecheckbook

Keep trackof expenses

Georgeand

Betty

Georgeand

Betty

Georgeand

Betty

Georgeand

Betty

ProcessIndicator

PI1Number of

travel booksidentified

PI2Money

spent ontravel books

PI3Overdue

book fines

QI1Number ofactivities

QI2Time ittakes to

completeprocess



FlowchartsFlowcharts are graphic representations of a process that show how it proceeds.

UseFlowcharts help you:

• Identify how, when, or where to measure an existing process to see if it complies with valid requirements.

• Document or describe an existing process.

• Develop modifications to an existing process or investigate where problems might occur.

• Design an entirely new process.

Think of a Flowchart as a map of steps for completing a task or job.Specific symbols are used to indicate certain activities:

Oval Line or Arrow Square or Rectangle Diamond

or

Start andend points

Connects events,directs flow

Operation or activityidentified with brief

description

Decision point,characterized by

question

Triangle Document Continuation Continuation

Indicatesestablishment of file

and process offiling something;

identify different fileswith letters

Indicatesdocumentsand number

of copies

Means continued on same page

Meanscontinued onother page

A 1




Example

Choosing Things to DoSo much to do, so little time. Betty and George used a flowchart todefine the process they’ll use to choose activities at Sprintsville Beach.

YES

NO

Research: library,bookstores, Internet,

travel agency, ask others

Decide onpossible activities

START

Check on prices

Do activitiesfit within ourprice range?

Call places that offeractivities; check times

and availability

Do activities fit

into ourschedule?

Are thereavailablespaces?

Book activity reservations

END

NO

YES

NO

YES



Steps1. Identify the department and define the process to be flowcharted.

2. Determine where the process begins and who starts the process. Ifothers participate in the process, arrange for them to be interviewed.

3. Identify and list process steps, extending detail at this time only tothe level needed for understanding.

4. Continue and complete all steps of the process.

5. Use a draft Flowchart for review and corrections, if needed. Thefinal Flowchart may be used for improvements to the system. Drawa Flowchart of the improved process for future use.

Adapted from Total Management Team, Lewis Tisher, Amhurst, N.H.




Step George andBetty Library Bookstore Travel

Agency

STARTIdentify

good travelbooks

Need tobuy?

Borrowfrom

library

Purchasebooks

1

2

3

4

5

Completeresearch

Makereservations

NO

YES

MoreFlowchart Variations

Some variations of Flowcharts are Brown Papers, Control Systems,Process Flowcharts and Task-on-Arrow diagrams.

A Process Flowchart indicates who or what department is responsiblefor each step. Headings for each department are located across the topof the page. Time is represented by the process steps, shown runningdown the left-hand side of the flowchart. The process flows from left to right and from top to bottom.

Below is a flowchart showing the process George and Betty used to selectSprintsville Beach as their vacation destination.

Note: See Brown Paper, Control System and Task-on-Arrow for moreinformation.



Interrelationship DiagramAn Interrelationship Diagram is a creative process that shows how everyidea can be logically linked with more than one other idea at a time. It takes a central idea, issue, or problem and maps out sequential linksamong related items.

UseUse the Interrelationship Diagram to develop policies, implement improvements, promote group activities, rework departmental processes, etc.

Example

An Affinity Diagram helped George and Betty answer the question“What would make this year’s vacation better?” but they also wanted tofind out the key cause-and-effect factors for creating a better vacation.To do that, they created an Interrelationship Diagram.

How can we make thisyear’s vacation better

than last year’s?

Site PlanningService3/2 4/1

Personal Attitudes3/3

Travel Preparation2/2

After studying their diagram, George and Betty discovered that “siteplanning” was the key cause of their past horrible vacation, and “personal attitudes” was the key effect.




Steps1. After generating an Affinity Diagram, place the problem or issue in

the middle of a flip chart, drawing a double-lined circle around theproblem.

2. Arrange the header cards from the Affinity Diagram in a circle aroundthe problem.

3. Draw an arrow connecting related ideas. The idea with the arrowpointing to it is the effect, and the idea with the arrow pointing awayfrom it is the cause.

4. Once all cause-and-effect relationships have been established, count the number of arrows pointing away from and toward eachcard. Place these numbers on top of the idea card (i.e., numberaway/number toward).

5. Identify the key cause by determining the idea card with the mostarrows pointing away from it. Draw a double box around this idea card.

6. Identify the key effect by determining the idea card with the mostarrows pointing toward it.

7. Figure out the sequence of intermediate causes between the keycausal and key effect factors.



MoreTo create variations of an Interrelationship diagram:

• Construct an Interrelationship Diagram using one header card from theAffinity Diagram and the cards listed under it. This method focuses theInterrelationship Diagram on the relationships between the ideas thatcomprise one of the basic building blocks of the problem. You may wantto Brainstorm for more ideas to fill in any gaps about the problem.

• Construct an Interrelationship Diagram using all the cards from theAffinity Diagram. This method focuses the Interrelationship Diagramon all aspects of the problem, although it may yield a cumbersomediagram because of the number of items involved.

• Use a problem statement from a source other than an Affinity Diagram. If you use this method, you will need to Brainstorm for ideas relatedto the problem statement and write them on individual cards/stickynotes. Use these ideas to construct the Interrelationship Diagram.




Ishikawa Diagram(Cause-and-Effect or Fishbone)An Ishikawa Diagram (also known as a Cause-and-Effect Diagram or a Fishbone Diagram) is a picture composed of lines and words designedto show a meaningful relationship between an effect and its causes.This tool is often used after you have constructed a Pareto Chart tobetter define a problem area.

UseThis tool helps you identify a problem’s root causes so that you cantake corrective action.

Example:

D C

Effect

B A

To avoid making the same mistakes again, George and Betty analyzed theirlast vacation to see what went wrong. To help them determine root causes,they constructed an Ishikawa Diagram.

Had a horriblevacation at Servis

Terribla

People

MaterialsMachines

No money

No traveler’s checksWallet stolen

Kept wallet inback pocket

Didn’t payattention

Transportationproblems

Delayed flights

No car

Didn’t know we’dneed one

Planemalfunctions

Environment

Too hot

Didn’t bringright clothes

Didn’t checkweather

Fought all the time

George got sick

Drankcontaminated water

Methods

Poor hotel service

We chose poorly

Not enough researchinto lodgings

Not enough timeto prepare

Disagreed on what to do

Didn’t discussexpectationsbeforehand

Tired/irritable



Steps1. Draw the Ishikawa Diagram. Starting at the right, build the major

categories (bones) toward the left.

2. Write the problem statement in the head box of the Ishikawa Diagram.

3. Determine the major categories of the Ishikawa Diagram that relateto the effect. Here are three ways to determine the categories:

A. Review the generic categories of:• People• Methods• Machines• Materials• Environment

Match them, if possible, with major contributors to the problem.For example, George and Betty wanted to figure out the rootcauses for last year’s unsatisfactory vacation, so they used “trans-portation,” “the weather” and the other examples shown belowas the major bones of their Fishbone:

Generic Categories: Major Contributors:

People George and BettyMethods HotelMachines TransportationMaterials MoneyEnvironment Weather

B. Break down the process into its major activities by creating aFlowchart. Then assign each activity a major bone.

C. Brainstorm possible causes of the problem. Review in detailat least one instance of the problem. Be sure to understandhow it occurred and what the situation was when itoccurred. After generating the list, segment the ideas intomajor categories and use as major bones.

Note: Before attempting to draw the actual Ishikawa Diagram, it is helpful to use Brainstorming techniques and record the feedbackon flip charts. This method frequently reduces rework.




4. Prioritize the major categories in descending order, beginning with thecategory that has the highest likelihood of producing a root cause.Position the categories with the highest priority closest to the effect.

In the Ishikawa Diagram with four major categories or bonesshown above, the prioritization order would be A, C, B, D. (A is the major bone aligned most closely to the head of the fish,followed by C, B and D.)

5. Once you establish the major categories, begin with the categoryyou’ve identified as most likely to produce the actionable rootcause (the category aligned most closely to the head of the fish)and begin to ask “why”:

• Why does this occur?

• Why does this condition exist?

Show the answers to these “why” questions as smaller bones off themain bone. Try to break each bone into at least five sub-bones toget to the root of the problem.

D C

Effect

B A



Be sure to check the logic of your diagram in both directions, as shownbelow. (Item a1 is caused by a2, which is caused by a3. Then, in reverse,a3 caused a2, which caused a1.) Errors in logic often will not surfaceuntil you try the second direction.

Now revisit each sub-bone for additional causes; move back to a2 andask again, “Why does a2 occur?” Next, ask, “Why does a1 occur?”Continue this process of asking “why” back to the major bone.

6. Complete the entire Ishikawa Diagram before moving to the next step.

7. Identify the likely, actionable root cause(s) and circle (or cloud) thelast element in the chain.

8. Collect data to verify the most likely root cause.

Effect

B A

D C

a1a2

a3 a4 a5




An Alternative Ishikawa Diagramming Process1. Hand out pads of sticky notes to each team member.

2. Each team member should Brainstorm potential root causes, oneidea per sticky note. Follow the rules of Brainstorming (no ideas aredumb, no clarification at this point, etc.). Continue Brainstorminguntil all team members feel they have exhausted their ideas.

3. Team members put their sticky notes onto a flip chart page. Onemember reads all the ideas. Again, do not critique any ideas, butallow brief clarification.

4. Similar ideas are grouped by logical categories, (i.e., resourceissues, management issues, etc.). Do not group ideas according topeople, method, materials, machinery and environment. Instead,use whatever categories seem logical.

5. Where duplicate ideas are identified, reach Consensus on keepingone idea and discarding the others.

6. Where ideas are similar but not really duplicates, reach Consensuson consolidating ideas into one. (This may not be possible in allcases and should not be overdone.)

7. If a new idea surfaces during this phase, write it on a new stickynote and add it to the rest.

8. Reach final Consensus on Ishikawa categories. Strive for approxi-mately five categories (three, at minimum).

9. Reach final Consensus on what the sub-bones will say.

10. By category, place fishbones on flip chart worksheets with spacedesignated for multiples of five “why questions” under each bone(see George and Betty’s example on the next page).

11. Verify the logic of each fishbone until all fishbones on the worksheets are complete.

12. Transfer the worksheet information onto a true Ishikawa Diagram,and circle or cloud root causes.



Example

Alternative Ishikawa Diagramming ProcessChartCategories for why George and Betty had an awful vacation last year:

No money

Fought all the time

Transportation problems

Poor hotel service

Too hot

No traveler’s checks

George got sick

Delayed flights

We chosepoorly

Didn’t bringright clothes

No car

Tired/irritable Disagreed on what to do

Wallet stolen




Alternative Ishikawa Diagramming Process Chart

A flip chart for the category of ’fought all the time.‘

Fought allthe time Bone

fromBrainstorming

George got sick

Tired/irritable

Disageed on what to do

Worksheetfor “Why”s



Levels of QualityWe can think of quality as consisting of three levels that, when combined, determine the degree to which an organization can achieveperformance excellence.

The three levels are:Organizational Quality – where top management identifies the traitsrequired to be competitive, determines an appropriate strategy andestablishes the necessary policies, budgets, goals and measures.

Process Quality – where service is produced, including design, production, order-entry, materials acquisition, etc.

Individual Quality – where people create and provide services.




The Three Levels of Quality

EstablishOrganization

Strategy

DescribeOperational

System

ManageProcesses

(QI Story Step 1)

ImproveProcesses

(QI Story Steps 2-7)

DevelopProcess

Standards

Define IndividualResponsibilities

CommunicateExpectations

Create Recognition& Rewards Systems

Develop EmployeeSkills & Knowledge

Provide Resources

Provide Feedback

Measure EmployeeSatisfaction

EstablishCareer Plans

COMPONENTS

ORGANIZATIONLEVEL OFQUALITY

PROCESSLEVEL OFQUALITY

INDIVIDUALLEVEL OFQUALITY

SPRINT QUALITY OUTPUTS

• Vision & Mission Statements• Objectives Based on Customer

Requirements

• Organizational Chart• Key Responsibilities/Job Descriptions(Led by your senior level management)

• Process Identification and Assessment• Process/Subprocess Owners Established• Improvement Opportunities Ranking• Process Improvement Teams

• “As is” Process Assessment• Improving Opportunity and Appropriate

Methodology Selection• Business Review Document/QI Stories• Business Review Meetings

• Measurements• Documented Standards(Led by your middle management)

• Job Responsibility/Process Matrix• Job Responsibility/Standards

• Performance Expectations• Employee Performance Measures

• Management Support• Performance Assessment

• Development Plan• Performance Improvement

• Resource Monitoring System• Appropriate Budget

• Performance Monitoring System• Performance Review

• Employee Survey• Action Plans

• Assessment• Career Development Plan

(All employees participate in these activities)



Matrix DiagramA Matrix Diagram is a chart that helps identify the most importantitems within a large quantity of information.

UseUse the Matrix Diagram to clarify responsibilities and to identify priorities for improvements.

Example

One part of their last vacation that George and Betty particularly disliked was the number of fights they had. To figure out what they could do toreduce disagreements, they constructed a Matrix Diagram.

Travel Agent

George

Betty

Friends

Asktravel agent

Library

Bookstores

Ask friendswho’vetraveled

Internet

SecondaryResponsibility

PrimaryResponsibility

Keep Informed

Researcharea’s

activities

Bringguidebook

Didn’t knowfull range of

activitiesavailable

Both tired


Disagreed onwhich activities

to do

Georgegot sick

Foughttoo much

Problem Major Causes DetailsAssignable

Tasks

From Tree Diagram




Steps1. Select a problem or issue.

2. Identify the specific issues and their interrelationships that you will study.

3. Decide on the matrix format.

4. Place details about the issues on the Matrix Diagram so that they form the axes of the matrix. (These may come from TreeDiagrams.)

5. Draw in the lines of the matrix.

6. Determine the symbols you will use to illustrate relationships.Include a legend of the symbols on the Matrix Diagram.

• The most common symbols used to depict functional responsibilities are:

Primary Responsibility

Secondary Responsibility

Tertiary Responsibility

• The most common symbols used to depict relationships between quality characteristics are:

Extremely Important

Important

Less Important

7. Enter the appropriate symbol in each cell of the Matrix Diagram.The symbol should describe the nature of the relationship between the idea on the horizontal axis and the idea on the vertical axis.

8. Analyze the matrix by:

• Studying and understanding the relationships between the problems.

• Locating and plugging any holes between the issues being studied.


Potential Improvements MatrixThe Potential Improvements Matrix helps you show the relationshipbetween effects, root causes and potential improvements. It also helpsyou choose which potential improvements to implement.

Example


After George and Betty created their Ishikawa Diagram and figured outthe root causes of their terrible vacation last year, they wanted to pindown specific actions to make this year’s vacation better. To help themselves decide which improvements to make, they constructed aPotential Improvements Matrix.

After studying their Potential Improvements Matrix, George and Bettydecided to go to sleep earlier and start planning the vacation six monthsin advance.

Problem

Root Cause

PotentialImprovement

PracticalMethods

Start planning6 months in

advance

Take moretime off

beforehand

Exerciseregularly before

we go

Go tosleep earlier

duringday

Start earlier

Make time

Getmore

exercise

Getmoresleep

Low energymade uscranky

Not enoughtime toprepare

Had ahorriblevacation

Take nap




Effectiveness FeasibilityEffectivenessx Feasibility Action

5

5

4

4

5

3

5

3

2

5

15

25

12

8

25

N

Y

N

N

Y



Steps1. After verifying the significant root causes, fill in the first two

columns of the matrix (“problem” and “root cause”).

2. Next, identify potential improvements that address each of the root causes.

3. In the “practical methods” column, list specific tasks to accomplishthe potential improvement.

4. Consider the likely effectiveness and feasibility of each potentialimprovement and rate it accordingly. Assign higher ratings to thosepotential improvements that are more effective and more feasible.

5. Multiply the ratings and rank the potential improvements for implementation.

6. Determine how many of the potential improvements should beimplemented. They should be within your resources and allow you to achieve your target.

7. Write “yes” or “no” in the action column to indicate if the potentialimprovement will be implemented.

Note: When determining the ratings for effectiveness and feasibility, ithelps to come to Consensus on the ratings rather than using an averageof each participant’s ratings.




Prioritization MatrixA Prioritization Matrix helps evaluate several alternatives based onthree or more quality dimensions.

Example

George and Betty researched several hotels in the Sprintsville Beacharea. To help choose where to stay, they created a Prioritization Matrix.

After looking at each hotel’s score, George and Betty decided to stay atthe Quality Resort.

Sand ‘N’ SurfMotel

QualityResort

StopawhileInn

BeachheadResort

QualityDimensions

C. ServiceReputation

A. Price

B. Proximity toBeach

D. Room Size

E. Variety ofActivitiesOffered

3 4 5 2

3 5 1 5

2 5 3 4

3 5 2 4

2 4 1 5

OverallScore 108 2000 30 800

Alternatives


Steps1. Identify the quality dimensions that are important.

2. Describe an “ideal” item that would satisfy these quality dimensions.

3. Rate the alternatives against each of the specified quality dimensionsusing a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being closest to ideal. Do this by col-lecting actual data if it exists or by rating the alternatives subjectively.

4. Summarize the data in a table.

5. Compute an overall score by multiplying individual ratings downthe columns.

For an alternate display of the information, plot the data from thePrioritization Matrix. With spokes representing the quality dimensions,plot each of the alternative’s score and connect the dots. (See next pagefor an example.)





Example

Note: The following assumptions are made when constructing aPrioritization Matrix:

• The dimensions are independent of each other.

• The dimensions are equally important to the problem under study.

• It is possible to describe an ideal item with respect to the dimensionsunder study.

For an alternate display of their Prioritization Matrix, George and Bettyconstructed a plot of the hotel data they had compiled.

George and Betty knew that an ideal Prioritization Matrix Plot wouldshow a line hitting the outer end of all five spokes of the plot. TheQuality Resort came the closest to resembling this ideal.

A

CD

E

Criteria

A. Price

B. Proximity to Beach

C. Service Reputation

D. Room Size

E. Variety of Activities Offered

Hotel

Sand ‘N’ Surf Motel

Quality Resort

Stopawhile Inn

Beachhead Resort

B


Problem StatementA Problem Statement defines a problem using facts and data. It describesthe present undesirable situation in specific, concrete terms. A goodProblem Statement includes the following:

• It states the effect. It states what is wrong and defines the actual problemrather than the symptoms.

• It focuses on the gap between what is and what should be. The gap maybe a deviation from the standard or the customer’s expectation.

• It is measurable. It says how often, how much and when.

• It is specific. It avoids ambiguous words like “some,” “sometimes,” “a few,” “many,” etc.

• It is a statement. It does not pose problems as questions.

• It focuses on the pain. The Problem Statement highlights areas ofdiscomfort, hurt or annoyance.

Example


To make sure they improve this year’s vacation, George and Betty developed some Problem Statements about their dissatisfaction withlast year’s vacation.

Last year’s vacation resulted in our feeling that we wererushed, overpacked, poorly informed about the area’s activities,and we booked reservations at a shoddy hotel.

On last year’s vacation, our wallets were stolen and we lost $500.




A Problem Statement Checklist

Use a Problem Statement Checklist to evaluate Problem Statements.Problem Statements do not need to meet all six categories, but the morecategories each potential Problem Statement meets, the clearer it islikely to be.

ProblemStatement

It asksWho, What, When,Where - but NOT

Why.

(A)

It states theeffect, NOTthe cause.

(B)

It focuses onthe gap

between “whatis” and “whatshould be.”

(D)

It is specific– avoids

ambiguouswords.

(E)

It is stated –avoids

questions.

(F)

It focuses onthe pain -

HOW thingsare affected.

(C)

It ismeasurable.


ProcessA Process is a sequence of activities using specific inputs to producedesired outputs. Processes involve one or more of these components:

• People

• Machines (tools, equipment, PCs, etc.)

• Methods (procedures, policies, technology, etc.)

• Materials (forms, software, wire, etc.)

• Environment

Process analysis is the study of a process to identify and understand itsinputs, components and outputs.

Process capability is a measure of the ability of a process to produce aconsistent product or service.

A Process owner is an individual who, using a team approach, coordinatesa process and is ultimately accountable for its effectiveness.





Process Block DiagramA Process Block Diagram is a Flow Chart that helps develop a high-level understanding of a process. It shows how major work groupswithin the process interact with other organizations.

UseYou can use a Process Block Diagram to:

• Break a complex process down into subprocesses for more manageable analysis.

• Give a “big picture” view of how processes fit together.

• Trace various paths that materials and information can take from supplier input to final output.

• Show the hand-off points between sub-processes.

• Establish process ownership.

Example

George and Betty have made a final decision to stay at the QualityResort in Sprintsville Beach. They made a Process Block Diagram for thetravel reservation process:

Make Plane and Hotel Reservations

George andBetty Travel Agent Airline Agent Hotel Agent

Call travel agent; givedates for travel and

hotel stay

Reserve rooms forGeorge and Betty on

specified dates

Write down flightand reservation

numbers to take on trip

Call airline agent;make reservation for

George and Betty

Call hotel agent,make reservation for

George and Betty

Call George andBetty to confirm

reservations

Reserve seats forGeorge and Betty on

specified dates


Steps1. Getting Started – Questions to keep in mind:

• What activity triggers the process?

• What major job activities are performed?

• What other organizations are involved?

• Who “owns” those pieces of the process?

• What products or services are you accountable for?

• What are the activities you perform to produce these productsor services?

2. Process Naming

• Use the verb-noun format. Avoid the words “for,” “in,” or “with.”(These may show goals or objectives.) Example: Reserve Rooms

• Use present tense verbs. Don’t use “-ing,” “-tion,” or “-ment.”(These may show function rather than process.)

• Avoid multiple verbs and nouns joined by “and” or “or.” (These may indicate hidden sub-processes.)

• Identify “what” is being performed, not “how” or “why.”





Process Decision Program Chart A Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC) is a tool for identifying andpreventing potential problems.

UseThe PDPC can be used to set up LINK objectives, map out contingencies,plan projects or implement improvements.

Example

To investigate and prepare for problems that could arise during theirvacation, George and Betty constructed a Process Decision ProgramChart:

All hotelsalready full

Start discussingsites early

Choose off-peak dateand inform work in

advance

Go to site withmany hotels

to choose fromWon’t be able tofind quality hotel

in site area

Can’t get timeoff work

As vacationapproaches, gettoo busy to leave

Will choose samedate as everyone

else – crowds

Can’t agree

All sitesalready full

Choose vacationsite

Choose vacationdate

Choose hotelDevelopbudget

Makearrangements for

absence

Research

Make basicchoices

Planning avacation


Steps1. Lay out the basic flow of planned activities using a Tree Diagram.

2. Working with each branch of the Tree Diagram and starting withthe left-most item, Brainstorm the answer to “What are the potentialproblems that could arise while completing this action item?”

3. Record the problems on a new set of branches on the right side ofthe Tree Diagram.

4. Brainstorm causes for each problem. Add these to the diagram.

5. When you have broken down the problems into root causes,Brainstorm contingency plans for each of them. Record the contin-gency plans opposite the appropriate spot on the Tree Diagram.Enclose the contingency plans in small clouds.

6. Continue in this manner, moving to the right, until you have analyzed all branches of the Tree Diagram.





Process Decomposition DiagramA Process Decomposition Diagram depicts processes broken down intolower levels of detail (sub-processes).

UseThe Process Decomposition Diagram is used to:

• Break down a complex process for easier analysis.

• Give a “big picture” view of how processes fit together.

• Provide a foundation for process ownership.

Example

When Betty expressed interest in the Quality Resort’s process of pro-viding lodging, the part-time desk clerk, who was studying quality incollege, used a Tree Diagram to draw up a Process DecompositionDiagram for her.

Desk staff

Food service staff

Housekeeping staff

Beach staff

Activities staff

Bellhop staff

Manage staff

Bill customers

Keep accuraterecords

Book roomreservations

Provide lodging

Tier 2 Process Tier 3 ProcessTier 1 Process


Steps1. Getting Started – Questions to keep in mind:

• What is your assigned purpose?

• What major job activities do you perform?

• What are your major roles and responsibilities?

• What products or services are you accountable for?

• What are the activities you perform to produce these products or services?

2. Process Naming

Decompose to the lowest economical level that establishes account-ability, responsibility and control. You probably will not need toidentify elementary processes such as “open the mail” or “turn onthe computer.”

Remember:

• Decomposition Diagrams depict hierarchy – not sequence, decisionmatrices or organization charts.

• Follow the 5-to-9 guideline: Normally, a process should not bedecomposed into more than nine sub-processes or less than five sub-processes. Avoid one-to-one relationships.

• If a process has multiple sets of procedures, then multiple subprocesses may exist.

• If a process has one procedure step, then the process has beendecomposed too much.





Process ImprovementProcess Improvement is a systematic way to analyze and improveSprint’s processes, thereby improving the way Sprint operates. SeeLevels of Quality in this handbook for an approach to ProcessImprovement.

UseProcess Improvement helps:

• Reduce time devoted to crisis management and fire-fighting.

• Clarify work priorities.

• Eliminate rework and complexity.

• Identify and remove root causes.

Process Improvement addresses:

• How a process does work.

• How a process should work.

• Unnecessary steps and errors.

• Variation in inputs and outputs.

Process Improvement will improve:

• Customer Satisfaction

• Effectiveness

• Efficiency

• Morale

• Adaptability

Process Improvement will reduce:

• Cost

• Cycle Time

• Variation

• Bureaucracy



Understanding Process Improvement

Senior management selects high-level, high-impact processes that affectcustomers and the business and that need to be improved. Senior man-agement selects these processes using a type of process selection matrixthat consists of:

• Customer Impact

• Willingness to Change

• Current Performance

• Business Impact

• Cost of Nonconformance

Organizations should consider quality issues not only in their ownwork areas, but also throughout all areas covered by the process. Theyshould also be familiar with the three levels of quality shown below.

• Organizational

• Process

• Individual

Before you can improve a process, you must bring it into “control.”Control Charts provide an excellent tool for observing the state of a process.

If the process is “out of control,” you should form teams to solve theproblems that are responsible for the “special causes” – those pointsthat fall outside the upper and lower control limits (or which indicate aspecial cause pattern) on a Control Chart. Challenge or quality teamscould tackle these special causes.




If the process is “in control,” the next question is: “Is the process producing the desired output?” A process may be “in control” but still may not provide the output desired by the customer. For example,Cycle Time may be “in control” but may take too long for a particularcustomer. Or, defects may be “in control” but may be too great to meetthe Valid Customer Requirements.

At this point, form teams to perform Process Improvement (vs. prob-lem solving).

There is a small but significant distinction here: Problem solving worksto eliminate the “special causes” of variation, while Process Improvementworks to improve a process that has no special cause variation, only“common cause” variation.



Process MaturityProcess Maturity is a tool that helps processes become more stable andreliable. Process Maturity provides a foundation for continuous qualityimprovement.

UseThe Process Maturity Measurement Model is used to analyze the status of a process and the level of user knowledge about that process.The model:

• Identifies process accountability, ownership and responsibility.

• Sets the grounds for measurement.

The Process Maturity model has five levels:

Level 1 Initial

Level 2 Repeatable

Level 3 Defined

Level 4 Managed

Level 5 Optimized

The five levels and their characteristics are shown in the figure on thenext page. The steps required to move to higher levels of ProcessMaturity are described in Process Workbench.




The Process Maturity Measurement Model

Level 1 - InitialUnpredictable andpoorly controlled.

Level 2 - RepeatableUnstable but canrepeat previouslymastered tasks.

Level 3 - DefinedProcess characterized,fairly well understood.

Level 4 - ManagedProcess measuredand controlled.

Level 5 - OptimizedContinuous processimprovement.

Identify rolesand responsibilities.

Formalizeprocedures.

Introducequality control.

Measure, analyze,and improve.

INCREASIN

G PROCESS STABILITY

Developed by WattsHumphrey atCarnegie MellonUniversity, SoftwareEngineeringInstitute, for theDepartment ofDefense

How to move tonext level

Level

Characteristics



Process WorkbenchA Process Workbench is a tool for:

• Analyzing and documenting processes.

• Negotiating Valid Customer Requirements.

• Determining vendor/supplier requirements.

• Defining roles and responsibilities.

• Defining standards, procedures and measurements for quality control.

UseThere are three views of the Process Workbench to consider: the customer’s view, the supplier’s view and the producer’s view. • The customer views the Process Workbench from the output side

(right side of the diagram). Exit criteria define the quality of the out-put in measurable terms based on the Valid Customer Requirements.

• The supplier views the Process Workbench from the input side (leftside of the diagram). Entrance criteria define the required quality ofthe input in measurable terms. This is how the supplier knows whatis required of his or her organization.

• The producer views the Process Workbench from the inside. Thisperson produces the end product or the output. Work proceduresinform the producer about:

– Receiving input from the supplier(s)

– Verifying the quality of input using the entrance criteria

– Rejecting input that fails to pass the entrance criteria

– Converting the input into the desired output, including whichtools to use and when

– Verifying the quality of output using the exit criteria (standards)

– Reworking or otherwise properly handling output that fails topass verification

– Delivering output to the customer(s)




The steps of the procedure need to be detailed enough to identify all the tasks required by the process, but not detailed to the extent of defining every technical task.

Example

George and Betty wondered whether they had covered every aspect ofthe research process to find out what types of activities SprintsvilleBeach has to offer. To help them fully define their process, they createda Process Workbench.

REWORKREJECT

EntranceCriteria

Met?

ExitCriteria

Met?Work Procedures

Tools Standards

Process Name: Researching activities at Sprintsville Beach Last Updated: 3/15/97Process Purpose: To identify activities By: George and BettyProcess Owners: George and BettyProducers: George and Betty

Suppliers: Inputs: Quality Indicators:1. Library 1. Destination 1. QI1 – Number of activities2. Bookstores 2. Budget 2. QI2 – Overall satisfaction3. Internet 3. Expectations4. Travel agency 4. Time schedule5. Other people

Process Indicators: Outputs: Customer:1. PI1 – Number of books that 1. Activities 1. George and Betty

provide useful info 2. PI2 – Money spent on

travel books3. PI3 – Time spent researching

Entrance Criteria:1. Destination – one where both George and Betty want to go2. Budget – not in excess of vacation savings3. Expectations – clearly expressed4. Time schedule – fits work vacation schedule

Standards: Tools: Required Quality Attributes:1. Total spending is less 1. Books 1. Effectiveness

than or equal to budget 2. Itineraries 2. Satisfaction2. Rating on vacation 3. Brochures 3. Timeliness

compared to last year 4. Surveys



Level 1 – Initial Process

Characteristics: Process is unpredictable and poorly controlled.

Components: Process name, purpose, owner, producer, outputand inputs.

How to get to Level 1 (Initial) of the Process Maturity Model:

Step 1 – Identify process name, purpose, producer and owner.

Step 2 – Identify outputs.

Step 3 – Identify inputs.

Supplier View Customer ViewProcess:Process Purpose:Producer:Owner:

Producer View

Inputs: Outputs:




Level 2 – Repeatable Process

Characteristics: Process is unstable but can repeat previouslymastered tasks.

Components: Customers, suppliers and tasks performed in process(as in process flow).

How to mature process from Level 1 (Initial) to Level 2 (Repeatable):

Step 1 – Identify customers (recipients of output).

Step 2 – Identify suppliers (providers of input).

Step 3 – Identify “as is” process flow (steps, sequence, decision points,alternate paths and repetitive steps).

Note: Since Valid Customer Requirements concerning output have notbeen negotiated at this point, costly rework may become part of theprocess if and when the customer rejects output.


Producer View

Inputs: Outputs:

Suppliers: Customers:

Work Procedures

REWORK



Level 3 – Defined Process

Characteristics: Process characterized, fairly well understood

Components: Output requirements (exit criteria) as perceived by producer and input requirements (entrance criteria).Documentation of steps necessary (work procedures)to perform process, including any required tools.

Note: Entrance criteria should not be enforced, and inputs should bereworked in work procedures by producer until criteria can be negoti-ated with supplier, which occurs in the Level 4 (Managed) process.


Producer View

Inputs: Outputs:


Work Procedures

REWORKREWORK

EntranceCriteria

Met?

Tools

Entrance Criteria: Exit Criteria:




How to mature process from Level 2 (Repeatable) to Level 3 (Defined):

Step 1 – Identify output requirements (exit criteria).

Step 2 – Identify input requirements (entrance criteria).

Step 3 – Document work procedures (including necessary tools to exe-cute them) and communicate them to all who perform workprocedures.

Step 4 – Train producers on following work procedures.

Note: Even though entrance criteria have been identified, they may nothave been negotiated or communicated to suppliers. Therefore, producerwill probably do some rework as part of work procedures. Although exitcriteria have been established by producer, they have not been negotiatedwith customer. As such, customer will return certain amount of outputto producer for rework.



Level 4 – Managed Process

Characteristics: Process is measured and controlled.

Components: Exit criteria negotiated with customer. Standardsdeveloped from exit criteria to be measured againstoutput. Process measurements developed to identifyand record occurrences and conditions of defectsand rework.

How to mature process from Level 3 (Defined) to Level 4 (Managed):

Step 1 – Negotiate exit criteria with customer, establishing ValidCustomer Requirements. (See “Valid Customer Requirements.”)

Step 2 – Develop product standards based on Valid Customer Requirements.

Step 3 – Using quality checkpoints within work procedures, identifyand eliminate defects.

Step 4 – Enforce entrance criteria after negotiating with suppliers.

Step 5 – Return input to supplier if it does not meet entrance criteria.

Step 6 – Develop process measurements to identify and record occurrencesand conditions of rework.


Producer View

Inputs: Outputs:


EntranceCriteria:

ExitCriteria:

REWORKREJECT

EntranceCriteria

Met?

ExitCriteria

Met?Work Procedures

Tools Standards




Level 5 – Optimized process

Characteristics: Continuous process improvement.

Components: Measurement analysis and process optimization forcontinuous quality improvement.

How to mature process from Level 4 (Managed) to Level 5 (Optimized):

Step 1 – Implement continuous analysis of measurement data.

Step 2 – Use measurement data to determine root cause for rework.

Step 3 – Implement process improvements.

Step 4 – Use process and quality indicators to verify improvement.


Producer View

Inputs: Outputs:


EntranceCriteria:

ExitCriteria:

REWORKREJECT

EntranceCriteria

Met?

ExitCriteria

Met?Work Procedures

ToolsStandards

Measurement Analysis andContinuous ProcessImprovement



QI Story ChecklistThe Quality Improvement (QI) Story Checklist contains all of thesteps, tools and checkpoints used in the QI Story.

To identify general problem area and the reason for working on it.

1. Management ownership of the process(es) was clearly established.2. “As Is” process(es) were documented.3. The criteria for selection were customer oriented.4. The indicator correctly represented the theme.5. The need for improvement was demonstrated using data.6. A schedule for completing the QI Story steps was developed.To select a problem and set a target for improvement.7. The situation was stratified to a component level specific

enough to analyze.8. Customer valid requirements were identified.9. Problem statement addressed the gap between the current

and targeted values.10. The methodology in establishing goals/target was identified.To identify and verify the root causes of the problem.11. Cause-and-effect analysis was performed on the problem.12. Root causes were taken to an actionable level.13. Root causes with probable greatest impact were selected.14. Data was used to verify the problem.To plan and implement potential improvements that will correct the root causes of the problem.15. Selected options attacked verified root causes.16. Options were consistent with meeting customer valid

requirements.17. Options were cost beneficial.18. Action plan answered who, what, when, where, & how.19. Action plan reflected the Drivers & Restrainers necessary for

successful implementation.To confirm that the problem and its root causes have beendecreased and the target for improvement has been met.20. Root causes have been reduced.21. Tracking indicator was the same one used in Step 1.

22. Results met or exceeded target. (If not, cause was addressed.)

To prevent the problem and its root causes from recurring.23. Method to assure solution becomes part of daily work was

developed (include applicable training).24. Periodic checks were put in place with assigned responsibility

to monitor the solution.25. Specific areas for replication were considered.

To plan what to do about any remaining problemsand to evaluate the problem-solving process.26. Any remaining problems of the theme will be addressed.27. Applied PDCA to lessons learned.

1Reason for

Improvement

Control ChartHistogramGraphPareto ChartChecksheetProblem StatementMatrixOther

Cause & EffectAnalysisHistogramGraphPareto ChartScatter DiagramChecksheetOther

Cost EstimationPotential ImprovementMatrix

D&RAction PlanOther

GraphControl ChartPareto ChartHistogramOther

Control ChartGraphControl SystemProcedureTrainingOther

Action PlanPDCAOther

2Problem

Identification

3Root Cause

Analysis

4Potential

Improvements

5Verification

6Full

Implement-ation

7FuturePlans

Objective/Checkpoints CommentsTools/Techniques

(enter appropriatecheckpoint no.)

QIStorySteps

Team Name:Problem Statement:

QI Story Checklist

Team Number

Brainstorming/MultivotingGraphControl ChartFlow ChartTheme SelectionMatrixOther

© Marshall◆Qualtec




QI StoryboardA Quality Improvement (QI) Storyboard is used to illustrate the stepstaken by a team in the improvement process. It provides a standardway of communicating team progress.

Note: The “team information” square is typically used to display basicinformation about the improvement process: a photo that tells who isdoing the improvement, team meeting minutes that tell what andwhen, and the project planning worksheet that outlines how the teamintends to improve the process.

© Marshall♦Qualtec

Quality Improvement Story

Project Planning Worksheet Graph Flow Chart Pareto Chart Graph

Good

Target

Good

Good

Pareto Chart

Before After

EffectTarget

Before After

Graph

A P

DC

Control System

33132

21312

63334

Team Information 1 Reason for Improvement 2 Problem Identification

3 Root Cause Analysis 4 Potential Improvements

5 Verification 6 Full Implementation 7 Future Plans



Seven Management andPlanning ToolsThe Seven Management and Planning Tools assist in working withinformation which is subjective or qualitative (as compared to theSeven Quality Control Tools – Pareto Chart, Check Sheet, etc.).

The Seven Management and Planning Tools are:

• Affinity Diagram

• Interrelationship Diagram

• Tree Diagram

• Prioritization Matrix

• Matrix Diagram

• Process Decision Program Chart

• Activity Network Diagram

Note: See entries on these tools elsewhere in this handbook.

UseThese tools help formulate plans to close the gap between customerneeds and process performance. You can use these tools in a three-phase process as illustrated on the following page.




Typical Flow of the Seven Management and Planning Tools

Steps1. Phase One – Identify the problem. You can begin with either the

Affinity Diagram or the Interrelationship Diagram to narrow yourfocus to a few issues for study. While the Affinity Diagram usesConsensus to identify broad categories, the Interrelationship Diagramuses cause-and-effect arrows to identify root causes and the relationships between the problems parts.

2. Phase Two – Determine actions to resolve the problems discovered in Phase One. Use the Tree Diagram to break the issue into greaterimplementation detail and generate solutions. You can use aPrioritization Matrix to compare the options (what could be doneabout the problem) listed on the lowest level of the Tree Diagram. If the lowest level of your Tree lists actions (what must be done aboutthe problem), you can use the Matrix Diagram to identify key itemsor responsibilities. The Matrix Diagram also works after thePrioritization Matrix.

Phase One

Phase Two

Phase Three

AffinityDiagram

InterrelationshipDiagram

TreeDiagram

Matrix DiagramPrioritizationMatrix

Process DecisionProgram Chart

Activity NetworkDiagram



3. Phase Three – Develop an implementation plan for the actions developedin Phase Two. After you complete the Matrix Diagram, you have twooptions: the Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC) can anticipatepotential problems, while the Activity Network Diagram can map out asequence of tasks with time intervals for each. Both are helpful in forminga complete management plan.

Adapted from The Memory Jogger Plus, © Goal/QPC, 1989.




Seven Quality Control ToolsThe Quality Control (QC) Tools can help you examine and improveboth work processes and results. The QC Tools provide a commonmeans of communication and decision-making to ensure objectivityand clarity. The QC Tools separate data-based logic from opinions soyou can manage with facts by:

• knowing what the process involves – its inputs, activities and outputs.

• tracking the facts about this process and keeping records which can becompared to see how well the process works and where it can improve.

The Seven Quality Control Tools are:

• Check Sheet

• Control Chart

• Graphs (Bar, Line, Pie)

• Histogram

• Ishikawa Diagram

• Pareto Chart

• Scatter Diagram



Task-on-Arrow Task-on-Arrow (TOA) is a technique used to illustrate a sequence oftasks (represented by solid arrows) and outcomes (represented by circles).TOA is an alternative to other process documentation methods, such asBrown Papers, Process Flowcharts and Process Workbenches. Typically,TOA process models are developed with professional facilitation.

UseTOA models are used as a communication tool between executiveprocess owners, process owners, subject matter experts, suppliers, and internal and external customers. Overlays show current or futureinformation systems, employee roles, activity-based accounting, failure points, and performing locations, for example.

Example

Taking Care of WoofGeorge and Betty wanted to remember to leave everything that theircat, Woof, would need while they were away. With the help of a facili-tator, they made a Task-on-Arrow diagram to map out theirpreparations:

START

Foodbought

Vetcalled

Birdfeederrefilled

Woof’sfood/meds

leftDirections

left

Pick upmedicine

Buyfood

Callvet Medicine

picked up

Refill bird feeder(outside Woof's window)

Leave foods/meds(in convenient

place)

Leavedirections

(for Janice)

10

20

30

40

50 60(Required for 50)




Theme Selection MatrixThe Theme Selection Matrix helps quickly select a theme for studyusing factors such as need for improvement and impact on customer.

UseThe matrix is used after the team, through Multivoting, has decided upona list of three to five themes. The potential themes should then be placedon the matrix, and the team should complete the remaining categoriesto help gain Consensus on the most appropriate theme for study.

Example

After they got back from Sprintsville Beach, George and Betty useda Theme Selection Matrix to decide what could make their nextvacation better.

Using the Theme Selection Matrix, George and Betty decided to workon getting more comfortable shoes for Betty and creating a gift budget.

Scale: 1 = None, 2 = Somewhat, 3 = Moderate, 4 = Very, 5 = Extreme

X

X

X

X

X

X

Theme Impact on George andBetty’s Satisfaction

Need to Improvefrom Last Year = Overall Score

More comfortable shoesfor Betty

5

More money for gifts 2

Create gift budget

Use sunscreen daily

Research activitiesfurther

4

4

4

4

3

5

4

2

20

6

20

16

8



The four sections of the matrix are:Themes – Teams should consider only themes within their responsibilityand control.

Impact on Customer – A rating based on the team’s present knowledgeand judgment of the direct effect this theme has on customer satisfaction.Give higher ratings to themes which have a more direct effect on customers.

Need to Improve – A rating based on the team’s present knowledge andjudgment of the difference between the present performance and theValid Customer Requirements. Give higher ratings to themes with agreater need to improve.

Overall – Impact on Customer multiplied by Need to Improve.Investigate the theme that received the highest ranking.




Tree DiagramA Tree Diagram presents a map of the tasks you need to accomplish tosolve a problem, achieve a goal or resolve an issue.

UseUse a Tree Diagram to deploy plans, generate problem-solving ideasand develop policies, objectives and improvement plans.

Example

George and Betty constructed a Tree Diagram to help them avoid all thefights they had on previous vacations.

Problem MajorCauses

Details AssignableTasks

Foughttoo much

Georgegot sick

Both tired

Disagreed onwhich activities

to do

Didn’t getimmunized

Drankcontaminated

water

Hotel roomnoisy

Both getimmunized

Betty call healthagency, checksafety of area’s

water


Discussexpectationsbeforehand

Research area’sactivities

Bring guidebook

Didn’t know fullrange of activities

available

George call hoteland request room

at end of hall

Hotel innoisy area

Book atsecluded

hotel

Bring earplugs



Steps1. Write the problem or issue on a sticky note or index card.

2. Generate a list of details and tasks to better understand the problem.Helpful questions include “Will xxx result in yyy”? Write each ideaon a sticky note or index card.

3. Place the problem statement on the left side of a flip chart page.

4. Locate the ideas most closely related to the problem statement by asking questions such as “What must happen to achieve yyy”? or“What causes yyy”? Place them next to the problem statement card.

5. If no existing idea card provides the information needed to continuethe flow on the Tree Diagram, brainstorm for new ideas. Write theseon sticky notes/cards and arrange them on the Tree Diagram in theirappropriate places.

6. Repeat Steps 4 and 5 for each of the rightmost assignable task ideacards. Continue the process until all idea cards have been placed onthe Tree Diagram. Repeat as many times as necessary to create acomplete path between the problem or issue under study and ideasthat are specific enough to be assignable tasks and action items.

Note: Items generated while developing an Affinity Diagram may beuseful in creating the Tree Diagram.


Appendix


Section 6 - Appendix.final 5/19/98 1:23 PM Page 161


Courses on Sprint QualityFor further information on Sprint Quality and the tools and conceptsdiscussed in this handbook, you might consider taking one or more ofthe numerous quality-related courses offered by the University ofExcellence. A summary of courses is provided below.

Course Course Number Name

3998 Achieving Extraordinary Customer Relations

5323 Chairman’s Quality Award Overview

5370 Chairman’s Quality Award Self-Assessment Training

4422 Conflict Management

40311 Constructing Control Charts (CBT - Macintosh)

40313 Constructing Control Charts (CBT - Windows)

5319 Customer Relations: Clarify Needs

5320 Customer Relations: Diffuse Conflict

5318 Customer Relations: Maximize Effectiveness

5321 Customer Relations: Negotiate Demands

2106 Facilitative Leadership

8210 Fundamentals of Fourth Generation Management –UE Lead

8205 Fundamentals of Fourth Generation Management –Manager Lead

8211 Fundamentals of Fourth Generation Management –Participant Workbook for Manager Lead

Course listing as of February 1998.



Appendix

Course Course Number Name

3472-IL Fundamentals of Sprint Quality

6449-SP Fundamentals of Sprint Quality (CBT - Macintosh)

6450-SP Fundamentals of Sprint Quality (CBT - Windows)

5714 Internal Consulting Skills

5851 Leading and Managing Change

196 Leading Others Effectively

4028 Leading Sprint Quality

4032 LINK: Performance Management

192 National Management Practices

3789 Negotiate to Yes

202 Problem Solving and Decision Making

4027 Process Analysis and Maturity

5146 Quality Team Training

232 Seven Habits of Highly Effective People

4030 Statistical Process Control

198 Valuing Diversity

3919 Working Together



Enrolling at the University of Excellence

EnrollmentSubmit your course enrollment request using one of the ways shownbelow. Not all enrollment methods are available to all employees.Please choose the method that applies to you.• On-line enrollment through the Employee Development Management

System (EDMS). This is the easiest way to register. Call 800-775-8633 for details.

• Phone in your enrollment by calling University of Excellence coordinators at 800-775-8633. Have the course number or name,session number and location ready.

• Fax enrollment by completing an enrollment form and faxing it. Call 800-775-8633 for details.

Instruction FormatsThe University of Excellence provides training in three forms:

• Self-paced Learning – The University of Excellence provides a varietyof independent study options that include workbooks, audio/videomaterials, hands-on learning, or personal computer-based exercises.

• Distance Learning – Distance learning is the live broadcast of instructor-led programs to remote classrooms, providing two-way interactionbetween instructor and participants.

• Instructor-led Learning – The University of Excellence offers many programs presented in a classroom environment. Many instructor-ledprograms can be taught “on location” to accommodate work-groupand scheduling requirements.

Questions? Call 800-775-8633.



Appendix

Ordering Sprint Quality Materials



Sprint Quality Reading ListThe following books, videotapes and audiotapes provide additionalinformation on the quality tools presented in this handbook. Materialis listed alphabetically by title.

BooksA History of Managing for Quality: The Evolution, Trends, and FutureDirections of Managing for Quality. J. M Juran, editor-in-chief.Milwaukee, Wisc.: ASQC Quality Press, 1995.

Business Process Improvement. H. James Harrington. New York, N.Y.:McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991.

Corporate Culture and Performance. John P. Kotter and James L.Heskett. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press, 1991.

Corporate Strategy. Michael E. Porter. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press,1991.

Deming Guide to Quality and Competitive Position, The. Howard S. andShelly J. Gitlow. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1987.

Deming Management Method, The. Mary Walton. New York, N.Y.:Perigee Books, 1986.

Deming Route to Quality and Productivity, The. William W.Scherkenbach. Washington, D.C.: CEEPress Books, GeorgeWashington University, 1986.

Flawless Consulting – A Guide to Getting Your Expertise Used. PeterBlock. San Diego, Calif.: University Associates, Inc., 1981.

Fourth Generation Management: The New Business Consciousness. Brian L.Joiner. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994.

Goal, The. Eliyahu M. Goldratt and Jeff Cox. Croton-on-Hudson,N.Y.: North River Press, 1986.

Guide to Quality Control. Kaoru Ishikawa. White Plains, N.Y.: UnipubQuality Resources, 1986.



Appendix

I Know It When I See It. John Guaspari. New York, N.Y.: AmericanManagement Association, 1985.

Improvement Process, The. H. James Harrington. New York, N.Y.:McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1987.

In Search of Excellence. Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr. New York, N.Y.: Harper and Row, 1982.

Juran on Leadership for Quality – An Executive Handbook. J.M. Juran.New York, N.Y.: The Free Press, 1989.

Kaizen. Masaeld Imai. New York, N.Y.: Random House, 1986.

Leadership is an Art. Max DePree. New York, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1989.

Managing Quality. David A. Garvin. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press,1986.

Memory Jogger Plus, The. Michael Brassard. Methuen, Mass.:GOAL/QPC, 1989.

Out of the Crisis. W. Edwards Deming. Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology Center for Advanced Engineering Study, 1986.

Power of Ethical Management, The. Kenneth Blanchard and Norman Vincent Peale. New York, N.Y.: William Morrow andCompany, 1988.

PIMS Principle Linking Strategy to Performance, The. Robert D. Bozzelland Bradley T. Gail. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press – A Division of MacMillan, Inc., 1987.

Quality or Else. Lloyd Dobyns and Clare Crawford-Mason. Boston,Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1991.

Quality is Free. Philip B. Crosby. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill BookCompany, 1979.

Race, The. Eliyahu M. Goldratt and Jeff Cox. Croton-on-Hudson,N.Y.: North River Press, 1986.



Service America – Doing Business in the New Economy. Homewood, Ill.:Dow Jones-Irwin, 1985.

Theory Why. John Guaspari. New York, N.Y.: American ManagementAssociation, 1986.

Thriving on Chaos. Thomas J. Peters. New York, N.Y.: Alfred J. Knopf,Inc., 1987.

Winning with Quality. John J. Hudiberg. White Plains, N.Y.: QualityResources, 1991.

TapesMalcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Winners. American Society ofQuality (videotapes). 800-248-1946

The Quest of Excellence, An Executive Conference Featuring Winners of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. La Crescenta Calif.:Audio Archives International (multiple audio tapes). 818-957-0874



Appendix

Handbook Evaluation FormThe Corporate Quality Development Team would appreciate yourinput. Please feel free to use the following Plus/Delta format to giveus your feedback on the Sprint Quality Handbook.

Please send to:Sprint Corporate Quality DevelopmentMailstop KSWESB02142330 Shawnee Mission ParkwayWestwood, KS 66205

+ ∆




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