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Australian Association for Research in Education

International Education Research ConferenceBrisbane 2008

30 November - 4 December 2008

FIL081140

A Smarter Way to Teach Physics Cheryl Fillmore

([email protected] )Associate Professor Juhani Tuovinen

( [email protected] )

University of the Sunshine Coast

ABSTRACT

Physics education is in crisis as the number of students studying Physics at all levels is declining rapidly.Physics is a difficult subject to learn where maximum effort is required and the resulting grades may not alwaysreflect the effort that students have expended.

This research reports a smarter way to teach Physics. The cognitive load theory was used to understand thereasons why Physics is so hard to learn and then to design instructional materials and to select the Tablet PC asthe best supporting technology to assist students to cope with the innate complexity of Physics.

The resulting Tablet/Workbook Pedagogy was trialled in the researchers high school Physics classes usingdesign-based research methods. Quantitative and qualitative data was collected and a blended methodsapproach was used to assess the effect of the pedagogy on students learning outcomes and students

perceptions of the reasons for its success. Evidence suggested that students learned Physics better when theteacher taught using the Tablet/Workbook Pedagogy and that the reasons for the improvement support thecognitive load theory. The results will be generalisable to learning in other complex cognitive subjects (such asmathematics, engineering and computer science) at high school level or university level.

This research is timely and significant because there are few studies providing empirical evidence that the use of Tablet PCs in teaching improves students learning outcomes and those reported come from the university sector rather than from the secondary school sector.

INTRODUCTION

Physics education is in crisis in Australia, in the United Kingdom (UK) and in the United States of America (USA) as the number of students studying Physics at all levels is declining rapidly. There aredire predictions of the consequences for industrialized societies as fewer and fewer technicalinnovators emerge from the education systems (Smithers and Robinson, 2007). The reasons include alack of specialist Physics teachers and a perception amongst students that Physics is too hard(Smithers and Robinson, 2007). Physics is a difficult subject to learn where maximum effort isrequired and the resulting grades may not always reflect the effort that students have expended ( Prow,2003 ).


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Tablet PCs are not widely used in primary and secondary schools in Australia (Neal & Davidson,2008) and there are few published studies from Australian schools research. Similarly, the majority of recent international publications about the educational use of Tablet PCs have centred on universitylevel research (Neal and Davidson, 2008). The United Kingdom provides an exception as schools inthe UK were early adopters of Tablet PC technology and the British literature refers to numerousTablet PC projects in primary and secondary school settings (Sheehy et al, 2005). However, themajority of studies refer to the very expensive student-centred model for Tablet PC use with oneTablet PC per student. The majority of these studies report the ways in which the technology wasused and include attitudinal survey data. Wise, Toto and Lim (2006) suggest the need for researchwhich provides a direct measure of the effect of Tablet PC usage on actual student performance data.This research provides such data in a high school Physics classroom setting with the much moreaffordable teacher-centred model with one Tablet PC per classroom used predominantly by the teacheras a teaching tool.

The research reported here, conducted in 2007/2008 with high school Physics classes, developed andevaluated the Tablet/Workbook Pedagogy integrating the digital inking capabilities of the Tablet PCwith an electronic workbook. The electronic workbook contains a structured but incomplete record of

the information, diagrams and images pertinent to the lesson. As the lesson develops through dynamicteacher/class interactions elaborating on the basic material in the electronic workbook, the teacherannotates the electronic workbook and the students annotate their own paper copy of the workbook. Asingle Tablet PC connected to the Internet and a data projector in an otherwise standard classroom wasused.

The Tablet/Workbook Pedagogy is grounded in Cognitive Load Theory and incorporates theprinciples of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2001).

Significant improvements in learning outcomes were achieved.

BACKGROUND THEORY

The capabilities and limitations of the human cognitive architecture are important determinants to takeinto account when designing learning systems for education. Human cognitive architecture is thoughtto consist of a sensory memory, a working memory and a long-term memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin,1968; Baddeley, 1990). Figure 1 illustrates this model.

Figure 1: Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model (Adapted from Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)


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Sensory information is first processed in the sensory memory and then passed onto the workingmemory. The working memory is the space where conscious processing or thinking occurs. However,the working memory has limited capability for processing, where only a few elements, usuallyconsiderably less than ten, can be processed simultaneously (Miller, 1956). How then is consciousthought carried out? The secret lies in the long-term memory and its memory structures, calledschemas. The capacity of the long-term memory is huge. The working memory can draw on thecontents of the long-term memory and on the instantaneous sensations received form the outside worldto solve problems.

Since individual memorized elements are linked together in networks or schemas in the long termmemory, they can be treated as single elements or chunks to be processed by the working memory,and thereby relieve its congestion. When the working memory is congested its processing becomeserratic, leading to poor problem solving and learning. However, even if schemas are recalled from thelong-term memory there are still major limits on the possible processing by the working memory. TheCognitive Load Theory (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2004; Sweller, van Merrinboer, & Paas, 1998) wasdeveloped as researchers sought to find effective ways around these processing limitations. Some of the key findings of the Cognitive Load Theory (in particular, The Split Attention Effect and the use of

completion tasks ) provide a basis for understanding the results of investigations into the effects thatTablet PCs may have on learning.

It is thought that the cognitive processing load involved in learning something new consists of threemain types. Firstly, there is the intrinsic cognitive load of processing the essential aspects of the newcontent without which it is impossible to learn the new material. Secondly, there is the extrinsic load,where superfluous aspects of the way the learning task is presented add a harmful extra amount to theoverall processing load. Thirdly, there is the germane cognitive load associated with additional helpfulprocessing demand which leads to better learning of the content (Paas, et al., 2004). Figure illustratesthe three components of cognitive load.

Figure 2: The three components of the cognitive load experienced by students as they learn.

In a complex subject such as Physics where there are many interacting elements which must beprocessed simultaneously for understanding to occur, the intrinsic cognitive load of the material to belearned is high. Consequently, it is important that the instructional materials and methods used to


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present the information is carefully planned so as not to unnecessarily introduce additional cognitiveload (extraneous cognitive load). Paradoxically, students learn better if germane cognitive load isintroduced by actively directing students attention to the activities and information pertinent toschema construction. Figures 3 and 4 summarise some ways in which extraneous cognitive load maybe reduced and germane cognitive load increased. Each of these suggestions was incorporated in to thedesign of the Tablet/Workbook Pedagogy. A selection of the most salient suggestions will now bediscussed in more detail.


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Figure 3 : Ways in which extraneous cognitive load was decreased in the Tablet/WorkbookPedagogy

Minimiseextraneouscognitive

load

Multiplesources of

information

Split-attention

effect

Physically integrate multiple sourcesof information.

Temporal/spatial contiguity

Modality effect

Make use of audio and visual modesfor multiple sources of information:

diagrams, images, movies,animations

Redundancy effect Eliminate redundant information.

Search Reduce search

Problemsolvingpractice

questions

Workedexample

effect

Provide worked examples for novicesrather than problem solving practice.

Figure 4: Ways in which germane cognitive load was increased in the Tablet/WorkbookPedagogy


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Chandler and Sweller found that if the information was scattered over many different physical places,the students working memories would be so occupied by the extraneous cognitive load (load that isnot beneficial for new schema construction), that there was very little, if any, room for beneficialdevelopment of new understanding (Chandler & Sweller, 1992). This is known as the Split AttentionEffect.

Their solution was to integrate the text and graphics into a single entity avoiding the harmfulunnecessary search for information. In teaching with Tablet PCs and workbooks, teachers reduce theextraneous student searching. The annotations on the Tablet PC are added to an existing presentationof information, which is then recorded in workbooks by the students. Thus the tablet display and thestudents workbook documentation are contiguous, both spatially and temporarily (Mayer, 2001),reducing harmful split-attention effects.

The second relevant effect was the use of completion tasks to raise the engagement of students withthe learning content (Van Merrinboer & De Croock, 1992) while keeping the working memory loadwithin reasonable limits. This is especially important for learning the complex material found inphysics or mathematics courses. Reading a large number of worked examples is better for learning

than solving many problems (Ward & Sweller, 1990). However, Van Merrinboer and De Croock (Van Merrinboer & De Croock, 1992) found that sometimes students did not study the workedexamples sufficiently to benefit from them. Thus they compelled the students to read the workedexamples carefully, by providing partly completed worked examples, which students had to read inorder to be able to complete the remaining part of the exercise.

The Tablet/Workbook Pedagogy incorporates completion tasks. The workbooks already contain aconsiderable amount of the knowledge representation, but students add more detail to complete theworkbook record following the teachers annotations on the Tablet PC in an identical electronicworkbook. Thus to understand the added work that is being presented by the teacher, the student has tofirst attend to the given information, i.e. the worked out part of the problem. Then they need to applythe learned information to solve the remainder of the problem. A variety of types and difficulty of

problems is presented (The Variability Effect (Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J., 2004)) and support insolving the problems is gradually withdrawn (The Guidance-Fading Effect (Paas and Kalyuga 2005)).

THE RESEARCH CONTEXT

The research was conducted at an independent school in Queensland. The participants were themembers of the 2007 Year 11 and Year 12 Physics classes. The primary researcher was their Physicsteacher. All students were invited to participate with 37 students accepting including 28 boys and 9girls. This represents 93% of the cohort.

The classroom was arranged so that the large screen (1800mm x 1800mm) was positioned high(860mm from the floor) in a darker corner of the room without the need for curtaining (see Figures 5and 6). The screen had a matt finish to reduce glare and was angled towards the students. Neither thestudents nor the teacher needed to be directly in the projectors light beam. This arrangement complieswith recently published guidelines for the safe use of data projectors (British Health and SafetyExecutive (HSE), 2007). The same cannot be said for the way in which interactive whiteboards areoften used.

Students frequently commented in interviews about the way this arrangement improved classroomlogistics. Typical examples of student comments are provided:

The projector screen is larger than the whiteboard. It's easy to see no glare.

The teacher is not in the way of writing.


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Figure 5: Schematic layout of the Physics classroom

Figure 6: Photograph of the Physics classroom


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TABLET/WORKBOOK PEDAGOGY

The workbooks contained a structured but incomplete record of the information, diagrams and imagespertinent to the lesson. As the lesson developed through dynamic teacher/class interactions, it wascaptured by the teacher in digital ink in the electronic workbook. Students completed the missingdetails (key terms, worked examples, annotations over diagrams, results of experiment, etc.) in theirpaper workbooks. This method of note-taking uses limited class time very efficiently and allows moretime to be devoted to the activities, discussions and problem solving which assist students to constructmeaning and develop schemas.

The electronic workbook stores a full colour record of the lesson for future reference (e.g. laterclassroom review or for electronic transmission to absent students). Figure 7 shows an annotated pagefrom an electronic workbook. The students typically commented very favorably on this aspect of thepedagogy.

Its easy to catch up on missed work or go over previous work.

Online digital resources feature and add an engaging visual element to lessons. This satisfies studentsdemands to show me dont just tell me! Instant availability of information, images, animationsand videos adds a real world flavor to the lessons and provides the flexibility to pursue questions andsuggestions offered by students during classroom discussions.


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Figure 7: An annotated page from an electronic workbook.

THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

As the research was conducted in the context of normal 2007 Year 11 and Year 12 Physics classes, itwas neither ethically nor practically possible to rigidly control all experimental variables. Designexperiment methodology is suited to this real world environment and was the natural choice of methodology for this project (Brown, 1992; Cobb, Confrey, diSessa, Lehrer, & Schauble, 2003). ABlended Methods approach was chosen to enable collection of data from several perspectives,allowing triangulation of results (Thomas, 2003).

All participants completed a survey to sample their perceptions and opinions about learning with theTablet/Workbook Pedagogy. They were then given an opportunity to elaborate verbally in an

interview situation. Quantitative data about student learning outcomes was collected in the form of their Year 11 and Year 12 Queensland Studies Authority (QSA) verified scores.


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RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Student Assessment Data

The 2007 Year 12 class was the focus of the project as they had learned predominantly with thetraditional pedagogy in Year 11 and the new Tablet/Workbook pedagogy in Year 12. The primaryresearcher was their teacher for both years. A paired sample t test was used to compare their QSAverified scores for Year 11 and Year 12. A significant improvement was noted in the cohorts averagescore from 65.6%, SD = 14.4, in Year 11 to 72.1%, SD = 16.0, in Year 12, t(15) = 4.269, p < 0.05.The detailed results are shown in Table 1.

A gender-based analysis of the scores showed a significant improvement in the boys average scorefrom 66.1%, SD = 13.8 to 74.1%, SD = 14.6, t(10) = 4.349. p < 0.05. A small improvement in thegirls scores was not statistically significant with only five girls in the cohort.

It may be argued that students grades will always show an improvement from Year 11 to Year 12with the students growing maturity. To test this hypothesis, a control group was sought where theclass was taught by the same teacher over the two years using traditional pedagogy. The only suitabledata set available was the 2000/2001 cohort.

The control group showed no significant improvement in results for all students or for boys or girlsindividually (see Table 2). This is despite the fact that the control cohort was twice the size of the2007 group.

Table 1: Comparison of QSA Verified Raw Scores for 2006/2007 group (Paired Samples t Test)Year 11 Year 12

Grouping N Mean%

SD%

Mean%

SD%

t df p Comment

All 16 65.6 14.4 72.1 16.0 4.269 15 .001 Significant improvement

Female 5 64.4 17.3 67.5 19.8 1.407 4 .232 No significant change

Male 11 66.1 13.8 74.1 14.6 4.349 10 .001 Significant improvement

Table 2: Comparison of QSA Verified Raw Scores for 2000/2001 control group (Paired Samplest Test)

Year 11 Year 12Grouping N Mean

%SD%

Mean%

SD%

t df p Comment

All 34 60.8 14.3 62.1 16.4 0.738 33 .466 No significant change

Female 10 63.9 13.2 62.7 13.3 -0.407 9 .693 No significant change

Male 24 59.8 14.8 61.8 17.8 1.159 23 .258 No significant change

Figures 8 - 10 show these comparisons graphically.


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Figure 8: Comparison of Physics Grades for all students taught with Tablet/WorkbookPedagogy with Control Group

Figure 9: Comparison of Physics Grades for Male students taught withTablet/Workbook Pedagogy with Control Group


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Figure 10: Comparison of Physics Grades for Female students taught withTablet/Workbook Pedagogy with Control Group

Survey dataA survey collected information about the students attitudes to different aspects of learning with theTablet/Workbook pedagogy. A five point Likert (Very Negative to Very Positive) was used. Theaggregated median response summarising the students attitudes to learning with the Tablet/Workbook Pedagogy was Very Positive with 2 (df = 4, n = 146) = 338, p < 0.05. This data is displayed inFigure 11.


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Figure 11: Student survey responses aggregating students attitudes to different aspects of learning with the Tablet/Workbook pedagogy.

Students used another five point scale (Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree) to respond to a set of statements. For instance, the median response to the statement, I think that Physics concepts are

easier to understand when the teacher uses the tablet computer to help to explain them. was Agreewith 2 (df = 4, n = 36) = 37.3, p < 0.05. The same is true for the statement, It is better to use a tabletcomputer in class than an interactive whiteboard. with 2 (df = 4, n = 36) = 26.0, p < 0.05. This datais displayed in Figures 12 and 13.

Figure 12: Student survey responses to the statement: I think that Physics concepts are easier tounderstand when the teacher uses the tablet computer to help to explain them.

V e r y

N e g a

t i v e

N e g a

t i v e

N o

t S u r e

P o s

i t i v e

V e r y

P o s

i t i v e

TABLET/WORKBOOK a ttitude

for Items A3,A12,A13,A14

0

25

50

75

100

C o u n

t

n=1 n=30 n=115

N Valid = 36

N Missing = 1

Median = Agree

2( DF=4, n=146) = 37.333,

p < .001


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Figure 13: Student survey responses to the statement: It is better to use a tablet computer inclass than an interactive whiteboard.

DISCUSSION

The introduction of the Tablet/Workbook Pedagogy in Physics lessons has resulted in a measurableimprovement in learning outcomes. This finding is consistent with the survey results and thebackground theory. Typical student comments about the way in which the Tablet/Workbook Pedagogyassists their learning give an insight into the mechanisms by which the improvements are achieved.

Student comments suggest that a reduction in cognitive load can be achieved through use of theworkbooks and the scaffolding provided. They also reflect on the way the Tablet/Workbook Pedagogyreduces split attention and improves schema development (Chandler & Sweller, 1992).

Spatial contiguity (Mayer, 2001) is enhanced by the inclusion of diagrams and images, with space forthe annotations resulting from dynamic interactions between the teacher and the class. Instant accessto online resources also ensures an element of temporal contiguity (Mayer, 2001) which can beresponsive to student suggestions. This unique combination of both temporal and spatial contiguitywith reduced split attention heightens motivation.

The electronic workbook and the annotations include relevant, visually stimulating, colourful imagesexploiting the Multimedia Principle which states that students learn better from words and picturesthan from words alone (Mayer, 2001).

The following student comments are typical of those collected during the research:

I found the use of the workbook a huge help. It meant that I could read ahead and stay ahead of the class .

S t r o n g

l y D i s a g r e e

D i s a g r e e

I n d i f f e r e n

t / U n

d e c

i d e

d

A g r e e

S t r o n g

l y A g r e e

"It is be tter to use a tablet compute r in class

than an interactive whiteboard."

0

4

8

12

C o u n

t

n=9 n=13 n=14


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The workbooks would not be nearly as able in teaching if they were used in conjunction with normalwhiteboard techniques, instead of the tablet and overhead projection. The effect that the two havetogether is quite substantial .

Working along with the teacher is one of the best aspects of the tablet computer.

with a subject like physics, the aim of the teacher is to take huge complex ideas, and explain them inthe simplest way possible, which 9 out of 10 times requires a diagram of the situation to be drawn, onthe electronic workbook, and the notes working around that diagram a normal laptop restricts youto simply working between the lines.

However, the downright greatest by-product of the use of a tablet pc is the fact that it significantlyimproves a students enthusiasm for learning. Its something different, new, and exciting. We can begoing through our normal theory work when the teacher will say look at this link, and in a split second we are ... watching electrons spiral as they pass through a magnetic field, or watching anunder-engineered bridge buckle and fall to the ground. We can learn our theory, then immediatelywatch real life aspects of it, helping to deepen our understanding of it all, but keeping us enthused and

interested at the same time. With this enthusiasm comes a greater motivation and academic performance increases.

Some student comments hint at possible extensions to theory and relate to the unique characteristics of pen-based technology. There may be an additional element of contiguity (Mayer, 2001), which relatesto the dynamic development of a handwritten record of the lesson.

To be able to look down and see what you are doing, then look at the screen and see the teacher doing the exact same thing, somehow works to click everything into a greater perspective. It helpssomehow to link that question to that setting out, which for some reason stores in your memory muchmore efficiently. And when I am reading through my workbook, when preparing for an exam, it somehow triggers the memory more efficiently, of the exact process the teacher used, when she did it

on the tablet.

Handwritten notes show a more natural flow of formulas and working.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of the tablet/workbook pedagogy produced significant improvements in learning. Previousexperience in senior Physics of using Tablet PCs or workbooks in isolation did not produce markedimprovements in learning. So the evidence argues for a highly powerful synergy between tablet PCs,workbooks and teachers employing appropriate pedagogy. Each of these factors contributessignificantly to the students success.

Comments made by students in a survey and in interviews reinforce this finding and offer insights intothe reasons for the improvements that resonate with the Cognitive Load Theory and the establishedprinciples of Multimedia Learning.

A final comment made by Matthew Jones, dux of the 2007 Physics class aptly summarises the successof the Tablet/Workbook Pedagogy in assisting students to learn Physics.

All in all, my perspective as a student who has been confronted by both identical physics classes withand without a tablet pc, is that this piece of equipment, when optimized by the use of workbooks and inconjunction with a teacher who is both enthusiastic about learning and adventurous in different approaches to teaching, has the potential to increase student performance. It does this by giving theteacher more flexibility to conquer different learning styles, with the use of the internet and other audio visual accessories, by creating a greater enthusiasm in the students towards learning, and by


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bridging the gap between the work done by the teacher to teach, and the work done by the students tolearn.

Tablet PCs really do facilitate a smarter way to teach Physics.

REFERENCES

Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its controlprocesses. In K. Spence & J. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.

Baddeley, A. (1990). Human memory. Theory and practice . Hillsdale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum.

British Health and Safety Executive (HSE) (2007). HSE advice on the use of interactivewhiteboards . from http://www.hse.gov.uk/radiation/nonionising/whiteboards.htm.

Brown, A. L. (1992). Design Experiments; Theoretical and Methodological Challenges inCreating Complex Intervention in Classroom Settings. The Journal of the LearningSciences, 2 (2), 141-178.

Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1992). The split-attention effect as a factor in the design of instruction. British Journal of Psychology, 62 , 233-246.

Cobb, P., Confrey, J., diSessa, A., Lehrer, R., & Schauble, L. (2003). Design Experiments inEducational Research. Educational Researcher, 32 (1), 9-13.

Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning . New York: Cambridge University Press.Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number, seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our

capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63 , 81-97.Neal, G., & Davidson, K. (2008). Successfully Integrating Tablet PC Technology Into The

Australian Secondary School Curriculum . Paper presented at the Workshop on theImpact of Pen-Based Technology on Education (WIPTE) 2008. Retrieved 26/10/08,Paas, F., & Kalyuga, S. (2005). Cognitive Measurements to Design Effective Learning

Environments . Paper presented at the I C L E P S WORKSHOP Retrieved 03/05/08,fromwww.ou.nl/Docs/Expertise/OTEC/Nieuws/icleps%20conferentie/11%20Fred%20Paas%20&%20Slava%20Kalyuga.ppt -

Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2004). Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional implicationsof the interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture.

Instructional Science, 32 (1-2), 1-8.Prow, T. (2003). Physics is Hard, Not Impossible. Engineering Outlook, 42 .

Sheehy, K., Kukulska-Hulme, A., Twining, P., Evans, D., Cook, D., & Jelfs, A. (2005).Tablet PCs in schools: A review of literature and selected projects : BECTA.Smithers, A., & Robinson, P. (2007). Physics in Schools and Universities III. Bucking the

Trend : Centre for Education and Employment Research at the University of Buckingham.

Sweller, J., van Merrinboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture andinstructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10 , 251-296.

Thomas, R. M. (2003). Blending Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods in Thesesand Dissertations . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Van Merrinboer, J. J. G., & De Croock, M. B. M. (1992). Strategies for computer-basedprogramming instruction: program completion vs. program generation. Journal of

Educational Computing Research, 8 (3), 365-394.


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Ward, M., & Sweller, J. (1990). Structuring effective worked examples. Cognition and Instruction, 7 , 1-39.

Wise, J. C., Toto, R., & Lim, n. K. Y. (2006). Introducing Tablet PCs: Initial Results Fromthe Classroom. Paper presented at the Frontiers in Education. 36th AnnualConference.

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