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Syrian Civil War The Syrian Civil War (Arabic : ة وري س ل ا ة ي هل الأ رب ح لا), also known as the Syrian Revolution (Arabic : ة وري س ل ا ورة ث لا), is an ongoing armed conflict taking place in Syria . The unrest began in the early spring of 2011 within the context of Arab Spring protests, with nationwide protests against President Bashar al-Assad 's government, whose forces responded with violent crackdowns. The conflict gradually morphed from prominent protests to an armed rebellion after months of military sieges. The armed opposition consists of various groups that were formed during the course of the conflict, primarily the Free Syrian Army , which was the first to take up arms in 2011, and the Islamic Front formed in 2013. In 2013, Hezbollah entered the war in support of the Syrian army. In the east, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), a jihadist militant group originating from Iraq , made rapid military gains in both Syria and Iraq , eventually conflicting with the other rebels. By July 2014, ISIL controlled a third of Syria's territory and most of its oil and gas production, thus establishing itself as the major opposition force. By July 2013, the Syrian government was in control of approximately 30–40% of the country's territory and 60% of the Syrian population. A United Nations report in late 2012 described the conflict as being "overtly sectarian in nature ", between mostly Alawite government forces, militias and other Shia groups , fighting largely against Sunni -dominated rebel groups, although both opposition and government forces have denied it. Due to foreign involvement this conflict has been called a proxy war . As of January 2015 the death toll had risen above 220,000, with estimates in April 2015 as high as 310,000. International organizations have accused the Syrian government, ISIL and other opposition forces of severe human rights violations, with many massacres occurring . Chemical weapons have been used many times during the conflict as well. The Syrian government is reportedly

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Syrian Civil WarTheSyrian Civil War(Arabic: ), also known as theSyrian Revolution(Arabic: ), is an ongoing armed conflict taking place inSyria. Theunrestbegan in the early spring of 2011 within the context ofArab Springprotests, with nationwide protests against PresidentBashar al-Assad's government, whose forces responded with violent crackdowns. The conflict gradually morphed from prominent protests to an armed rebellion after months of military sieges.The armed opposition consists of various groups that were formed during the course of the conflict, primarily theFree Syrian Army, which was the first to take up arms in 2011, and theIslamic Frontformed in 2013. In 2013,Hezbollahentered the war in support of the Syrian army.In the east, theIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant(ISIL), a jihadist militant group originating fromIraq, made rapid military gains in both Syriaand Iraq, eventuallyconflictingwith the other rebels. By July 2014, ISIL controlled a third of Syria's territory and most of its oil and gas production, thus establishing itself as the major opposition force.By July 2013, the Syrian government was in control of approximately 3040% of the country's territory and 60% of the Syrian population.A United Nations report in late 2012 described the conflict as being "overtlysectarian in nature", between mostlyAlawitegovernment forces, militias and otherShiagroups, fighting largely againstSunni-dominated rebel groups,although both opposition and government forces have denied it.Due toforeign involvementthis conflict has been called aproxy war. As of January 2015 the death toll had risen above 220,000,with estimates in April 2015 as high as 310,000.International organizations have accused the Syrian government, ISIL and other opposition forces of severe human rights violations, withmany massacres occurring.Chemical weaponshave beenused many times during the conflictas well.The Syrian government is reportedly responsible for the majority of civilian casualties and war crimes, often through bombings. In addition, tens of thousands of protesters and activists have been imprisoned and there are reports oftorturein state prisons. The severity of the humanitarian disaster in Syria has been outlined by the UN and many international organizations. More than 6.5 million Syrians have been displaced, almost 4 million Syrians have fled the country to countries such as Turkey, Lebanon,Jordan,Iraq, andEgyptand becomerefugees, and millions more have been left in poor living conditions with shortages of food and drinking water.Background Assad government Syria became an independent republic in 1946, although democratic rule was ended by a coup in March 1949, followed by two more coups that same year.A popular uprisingagainst military rule in 1954 saw the army transfer power to civilians; from 1958 to 1961 abrief union with Egyptreplaced Syria's parliamentary system with a highly centralized presidential regime.TheBa'ath Syrian Regional Branchgovernment came to power in 1963 aftera successful coup d'tat. In 1966,another coupoverthrew the traditional leaders of the party,Michel AflaqandSalah al-Din al-Bitar.GeneralHafez al-Assad, the Minister of Defense, seized power in a "corrective revolution" in November 1970, becomingPrime Minister. In March 1971, Assad declared himselfPresident, a position that he held until his death in 2000. Since then, the secular Syrian Regional Branch has remained the dominant political authority in what is virtually asingle-party statein Syria; Syrian citizens may only approve the President byreferendumand until the government-controlled multi-party2012 parliamentary election could not vote in multi-party elections for the legislature. Bashar al-Assad, the President of Syria andAsma al-Assad, his wife who is a British-born and British-educated Sunni Muslim,initially inspired hopes for democratic and state reforms and a "Damascus Spring" of intense social and political debate took place between July 2000 and August 2001.The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums orsalons, where groups of like-minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues. Political activists such asRiad Seif,Haitham al-Maleh,Kamal al-Labwani,Riyad al-TurkandAref Dalilawere important in mobilizing the movement.The most famous of the forums were theRiad Seif Forumand theJamal al-AtassiForum. The Damascus Spring largely ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and a campaign of civil disobedience.From 2001 even reformists in Parliament had begun to criticize the legacy of stagnation since the rule of former President Hafez al-Assad; Bashar al-Assad has talked about reform but carried out very little, and he has failed to deliver on promised reforms since 2000, analysts say. Demographics Arab-Sunni(60%)Arab-Alawite(Shia) (12%)Kurd-Sunni (9%)Arab-Greek Orthodox,Greek Catholic,Roman Catholic(Latin Rite),Oriental Orthodox(9%)Armenian Christian(4%)Arab-Druze(3%)Arab-Ismaili(Shia) (2%)Turkmen-Sunni,Circassian-Sunni,Assyrian Christian, and others (1%)TheAssad familycomes from the minorityAlawitereligious group, an offshoot ofShi'ite Islamthat comprises an estimated 12 percent of the totalSyrianpopulation.It has maintained tight control on Syria's security services,generating resentment among someSunni Muslims,a religious group that makes up about three-quarters of Syria's population. Ethnic minoritySyrian Kurdshave also protested and complained over ethnic discrimination and denial of their cultural and language rights.Assad's younger brotherMaher al-Assadcommands thearmy's eliteFourth Armoured Division, and his brother-in-law,Assef Shawkat, was the deputy minister of defense until the latter's assassination in the18 July 2012 Damascus bombing.Socio-economicsDiscontent against the government was strongest in Syria's poorer areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis.These included cities with high poverty rates, such asDaraaandHoms, rural areas hit hard by a drought in early 2011, and the poorer districts of large cities. Socio-economic inequality increased significantly after free market policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on theservice sector, these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo.By 2011, Syria was facing a deterioration in the national standard of living and steep rises in the prices of commodities. The country also faced particularly high youth unemployment rates. Human rights The state of human rights in Syria has long been the subject of harsh criticism from global organizations.The country was underemergency rulefrom 1963 until 2011, banning public gatherings of more than five people,and effectively granting security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention.Bashar al-Assad is widely regarded as having been unsuccessful in implementing democratic change, with a 2010 report fromHuman Rights Watchstating that he had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power, although some minor aspects had seen improvement. In December 2010, mass anti-government protests began in Tunisia and later spread across other parts of theArab world, includingSyria. By February 2011, revolutions occurred in Tunisia and Egypt, while Libya began to experienceits own civil war. Numerous other Arab countries also faced protests, with some attempting to calm the masses by making concessions and governmental changes. The uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt are supposed to have inspired the mid-March 2011 protests in Syria. Rights offree expression,associationandassemblywere strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising.The authorities harass and imprisonhuman rights activistsand other critics of the government, who are often indefinitely detained and torturedin poor prison conditions.Women andethnic minoritieshave faced discrimination in the public sector.Thousands ofSyrian Kurdswere denied citizenship in 1962 and their descendants continued to be labeled as "foreigners".A number of riots in 2004 prompted increased tension in Syria's Kurdish areas,and there have been occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and security forces ever since.Course of events Anti-Assad protests in Baniyas, April 2011Protests, civil uprising, and defections (January July 2011)Small protests began in Syria on 28 January 2011. Mass protests erupted on 15 March in Damascus and Aleppo, and spread in the following days to more cities, while growing in size. The week of 1521 March is considered by news media as the beginning of the Syrian uprising. On 18 March, the protests turned bloody when the Syrian government reacted with deadly violence. On 20 March in Daraa, after security forces opened fire on the protesting crowd, protesters burned the local Ba'ath Party headquarters, the towns courthouse and a telephone company building. That day 15 demonstrators and 7 policemen were killed in Daraa. By 25 March, 90 civilians and 7 policemen had been killed in Syria. In his 30 March 2011 speech addressing the protests, Assad claimed that conspirators and foreign powers sought to topple his government.The protesters' demands until 7 April were predominantly democratic reforms, release of political prisoners, more freedom, abolition of emergency law and an end to corruption. After 8 April, the emphasis in demonstration slogans gradually shifted towards the call for overthrowing the Assad government. Protests spread: on Friday 8 April, they occurred simultaneously in ten cities. By Friday 22 April protests occurred in twenty cities. On 25 April, theSyrian Armystarted a series of large-scale deadly military attacks on towns, using tanks, infantry carriers, and artillery, leading to hundreds of civilian deaths. By the end of May 2011, 1,000 civiliansand 150 soldiers and policemenhad been killed and thousands detained;among the arrested were many students, liberal activists and human rights advocates. Significant armed rebellion against the state began on 4 June inJisr al-Shugur, a city inIdlib Governoratenear the Turkish border, after security forces on a post office roof had fired at a funeral demonstration. Protesting mourners set fire to the building, killing eight security officers, and then overran a police station, seizing weapons from it. Violence continued and escalated over the following days. Unverified reports claim that a portion of the security forces in Jisr defected after secret police and intelligence officers executed soldiers who had refused to fire on civilians.Later, more protesters in Syria took up arms, and more soldiers defected to protect protesters.Both sides in the conflict used propaganda to promote their own righteousness and their opponents' wickedness (seeReporting, censoring and propaganda in the Syrian Civil War). By the end of July 2011, around 1,600 civilians and 500 security forces had been killed and 13,000 arrested.Protests and armed insurgency (July October 2011)On 29 July 2011, seven defecting Syrian officers formed theFree Syrian Army(FSA), composed of defectedSyrian Armed Forcesofficers and soldiers, aiming "to bring this regime [= the Assad government] down" with united opposition forces.\On 31 July, a nationwide crackdown nicknamed the "Ramadan Massacre" resulted in the death of at least 142 people and hundreds of injuries. On 23 August, a coalition of anti-government groups was formed, theSyrian National Council. The group, based in Turkey, attempted to organize the opposition. However, the opposition, including the FSA, remained a fractious collection of political groups, longtime exiles, grass-roots organizers and armed militants, divided along ideological, ethnic or sectarian lines. Throughout August, Syrian forces stormed major urban centres and outlying regions, and continued to attack protests. On 14 August, the Siege of Latakiacontinued as theSyrian Navybecame involved in the military crackdown for the first time. Gunboatsfiredheavy machine gunsat waterfront districts in Latakia, as ground troops and security agents backed by armour stormed several neighbourhoods. The Eid ul-Fitrcelebrations, started in near the end of August, were muted after security forces fired on protesters gathered in Homs, Daraa, and the suburbs of Damascus. By September 2011, organized units of Syrian rebels were engaged in an active insurgency campaign in multiple areas of Syria. A major confrontation between the FSA and the Syrian armed forcesoccurred in Rastan. From 27 September to 1 October, Syrian government forces, backed by tanks and helicopters, led a major offensive on the town ofAl-RastaninHoms Governorate, in order to drive out army defectors.The 2011 battle of Rastan between the government forces and the FSA was the longest and most intense action up until that time. After a week of fighting, the FSA was forced to retreat from Rastan.To avoid government forces, the leader of the FSA, Col. Riad Asaad, retreated to the Turkish side of Syrian-Turkish border.Many of the rebels fled to the nearby city of Homs. By October, the FSA started to receive support from Turkey, who allowed the rebel army to operate itscommand and headquartersfrom the country's southernHatay Provinceclose to the Syrian border, and itsfield commandfrom inside Syria.The FSA would often launch attacks into Syria's northern towns and cities, while using the Turkish side of the border as a safe zone and supply route. A year after its formation, the FSA gained control over many towns close to the Turkish border.In October 2011, clashes between government and defected army units were being reported fairly regularly. During the first week of the month, sustainedclashes were reported in Jabal al-Zawiyain the mountainous regions of Idlib Governorate. Syrian rebels captured most of Idlib city as well.In mid-October, other clashes in Idlib Governorate include the city ofBinnishand the town ofHassin the governorate near the mountain range ofJabal al-Zawiya.In late October, other clashes occurred in the northwestern town of Maarrat al-Nu'manin the governorate between government forces and defected soldiers at a roadblock on the edge of the town, and near the Turkish border, where 10 security agents and a deserter were killed in a bus ambush.It was not clear if the defectors linked to these incidents were connected to the FSA. According to defectors, in 2011 the Syrian government intentionally released imprisoned Islamic radicals and provided them with arms "in order to make itself the least bad choice for the international community." Escalation (November 2011 March 2012)In early November, clashes between the FSA and security forces in Homs escalated as thesiegecontinued. After six days of bombardment, the Syrian Army stormed the city on 8 November, leading to heavy street fighting in several neighborhoods. Resistance in Homs was significantly greater than that seen in other towns and cities, and some in opposition have referred to the city as the "Capital of the Revolution". Unlike events in Deraa and Hama, operations in Homs have thus far failed to quell the unrest. November and December 2011 saw increasing rebel attacks, as opposition forces grew in number. In the two months, the FSA launched deadly attacks on anair force intelligence complexin the Damascus suburb ofHarasta, the Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch youth headquarters inIdlib Governorate, Syrian Regional Branch offices in Damascus,an airbase in Homs Governorate, and an intelligence building in Idlib.On 15 December, opposition fighters ambushed checkpoints and military bases around Daraa, killing 27 soldiers, in one of the largest attacks yet on security forces. The opposition suffered a major setback on 19 December, when a failed defection in Idlib governorate lead to 72 defectors killed. In January 2012, Assad began using large-scale artillery operations against the insurgency, which led to the destruction of many civilian homes due to indiscriminate shelling.By this time, daily protests had dwindled, eclipsed by the spread of armed conflict. January saw intensifiedclashes around the suburbs of Damascus, with the Syrian Army use of tanks and artillery becoming common.Fighting in Zabadanibegan on 7 January when the Syrian Army stormed the town in an attempt to rout out FSA presence. After the first phase of the battle ended with a ceasefire on 18 January, leaving the FSA in control of the town,the FSA launched an offensive into nearby Douma.Fighting in the townlasted from 21 to 30 January, before the rebels were forced to retreat as result of a government counteroffensive. Although, the Syrian Army managed to retake most of the suburbs, sporadic fighting continued.Fighting erupted in Rastanagain on 29 January, when dozens of soldiers manning the town's checkpoints defected and began opening fire on troops loyal to the government. Opposition forces gained complete control of the town and surrounding suburbs on 5 February. On 3 February, the Syrian army launcheda major offensiveto retake rebel-held neighborhoods. In early March, after weeks of artillery bombardments and heavy street fighting, the Syrian army eventually captured the district of Baba Amr, a major rebel stronghold. The Syrian Army also captured the district of Karm al-Zeitoun by 9 March, where activists said that government forces killed 47 women and children. By the end of March, the Syrian army retook control of half a dozen districts, leaving them in control of 70 percent of the city.[159]By 14 March, Syrian troops successfullyousted insurgentsfrom the city of Idlib after days of fighting.[160]By early April, the estimated death toll of the conflict, according to activists, reached 10,000.[161]Ceasefire attempt (April May 2012)[edit]Main articles:Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria,Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (JanuaryApril 2012)andTimeline of the Syrian Civil War (MayAugust 2012)

A Syrian soldier manning a checkpoint near DamascusKofi Annanwas acting as UNArab LeagueJoint Special Representative forSyria. His peace plan provided for a ceasefire, but even as the negotiations for it were being conducted, Syrian armed forces attacked a number of towns and villages, and summarily executed scores of people.[162]:11Incommunicado detention, including of children, also continued.[163]In April, Assad began employingattack helicoptersagainst rebel forces.[153]On 12 April, both sides, the Syrian Government and rebels of the FSA entered a UN mediated ceasefire period. It was a failure, with infractions of the ceasefire by both sides resulting in several dozen casualties. Acknowledging its failure, Annan called for Iran to be "part of the solution", though the country has been excluded from the Friends of Syria initiative.[164]The peace plan practically collapsed by early June and the UN mission was withdrawn from Syria. Annan officially resigned in frustration on 2 August 2012.[165]Renewed fighting (June July 2012)[edit]Main article:Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (MayAugust 2012)Following theHoula massacreof 25 May 2012, in which 108 people were summarily executed and the consequent FSA ultimatum to the Syrian government, the ceasefire practically collapsed, as the FSA began nationwide offensives against government troops. On 1 June, President Assad vowed to crush the anti-government uprising.[166]On 5 June,fighting broke out in Haffaand nearby villages in the coastal governorate ofLatakia Governorate. Government forces were backed byhelicopter gunshipsin the heaviest clashes in the governorate since the revolt began. Syrian forces seized the territory following days of fighting and shelling.[167]On 6 June 78 civilians were killed in theAl-Qubeir massacre. According to activist sources, government forces started by shelling the village before theShabihamilitia moved in.[168]The UN observers headed to Al-Qubeir in the hope of investigating the alleged massacre, but they were met with a roadblock and small arms fire and were forced to retreat.[169]

After aerial bombardment by the Syrian government of rebel-held areas ofAzazin Aleppo governorateOn 12 June 2012, the UN for the first time officially proclaimed Syria to be in a state of civil war.[170]The conflict began moving into the two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo. In both cities, peaceful protests including a general strike by Damascus shopkeepers and a small strike in Aleppo were interpreted as indicating that the historical alliance between the government and the business establishment in the large cities had become weak.[171]On 22 June, a TurkishF-4 fighter jetwasshot down by Syrian government forces, killing both pilots. Syria and Turkey disputed whether the jet had been flying in Syrian or internationalairspacewhen it was shot down. Despite Turkish Prime MinisterRecep Tayyip Erdoan's vows to retaliate harshly against Assad's government, no such intervention materialised. Bashar al-Assad publicly apologised for the incident. By 10 July, rebel forces had captured most of the city ofAl-Qusayr, inHoms Governorate, after weeks of fighting.[172]By mid-July, rebels had captured the town ofSaraqeb, in Idlib Governorate.[173]Battles of Damascus and Aleppo (July October 2012)[edit]Main articles:Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (MayAugust 2012),Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (SeptemberDecember 2012),Battle of Damascus (2012),Battle of Aleppo (2012present)andRif Dimashq offensive (AugustOctober 2012)

Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo, October 2012.By mid-July 2012, with fighting spread across the country and 16,000 people killed, theInternational Committee of the Red Crossdeclared the conflict acivil war.[174]Fighting in Damascus intensified, with amajor rebel pushto take the city.[175]On 18 July,Syrian Defense MinisterDawoud Rajiha, former defense ministerHasan Turkmani, and the president's brother-in-law GeneralAssef Shawkatwere killed by asuicide bomb attackin Damascus.[176]The Syrian intelligence chiefHisham Ikhtiyar, who was injured in the same explosion, later succumbed to his wounds.[177]Both the FSA and Liwa al-Islam claimed responsibility for the assassination.[178]In late July, government forces managed to break the rebel offensive on Damascus, althoughfighting still continued in the outskirts. After this, the focus shifted to thebattle for control of Aleppo.[179]On 25 July, multiple sources reported that the Assad government was using fighter jets to attack rebel positions in Aleppo and Damascus,[180]and on 1 August, UN observers in Syria witnessed government fighter jets firing on rebels in Aleppo.[181]In early August, the Syrian Army recaptured Salaheddin district, an important rebel stronghold in Aleppo. In August, the government began using fixed-wing warplanes against the rebels.[153][154]On 19 July, Iraqi officials reported that the FSA had gained control of all four border checkpoints between Syria and Iraq, increasing concerns for the safety of Iraqis trying to escape the violence in Syria.[182]On 19 September, rebel forces seized a border crossing between Syria and Turkey inAr-Raqqah Governorate. It was speculated that this crossing could provide opposition forces with strategic and logistical advantages.[183]In late September, the FSA moved its command headquarters from southern Turkey into northern Syria.[184]On 9 October, rebel forcesseized control of Maarat al-Numan, a town in Idlib governorate on the highway linking Damascus with Aleppo.[185]By 18 October, the FSA had capturedDouma, the biggest suburb of Damascus.[186]Lakhdar Brahimi arranged for a ceasefire during Eid al-Adha in late October, but it quickly collapsed.[187]Rebel offensives (November 2012 April 2013)[edit]Main articles:Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (SeptemberDecember 2012)andTimeline of the Syrian Civil War (JanuaryApril 2013)Further information:Battle of Aleppo (2012present),Rif Dimashq offensive (November 2012February 2013),2012 Hama offensive,Damascus offensive (2013),Battle of ShadadehandBattle of Raqqa

A Syrian rebel sniper inKhan al-Asal, Aleppo Governorate.After Brahimi's ceasefire agreement ended on 30 October, the Syrian military expanded its aerial bombing campaign in Damascus. A bombing of the Damascus district of Jobar was the first instance of afighter jetbeing used to bomb Damascus. The following day, Gen. Abdullah Mahmud al-Khalidi, a Syrian Air Force commander, was assassinated by opposition gunmen in the Damascus district of Rukn al-Din.[188]In early November 2012, rebels made significant gains in northern Syria. The rebel capture ofSaraqibin Idlib governorate, which lies on the M5 highway, further isolated Aleppo.[189]Due to insufficient anti-aircraft weapons, rebel units attempted to nullify the government's air power by destroying landed helicopters and aircraft on air bases.[190]On 3 November, rebels launched an attack on theTaftanaz air base.[191]On 18 November, rebelstook control ofBase 46 in theAleppo Governorate, one of the Syrian Army's largest bases in northern Syria, after weeks of intense fighting. Defected General Mohammed Ahmed al-Faj, who commanded the assault, stated that nearly 300 Syrian troops had been killed and 60 had been captured, with rebels seizing large amounts of heavy weapons, including tanks.[192]On 22 November, rebels captured theMayadeenmilitary base in the country's easternDeir ez-Zor Governorate. Activists said this gave the rebels control of a large amount of territory east of the base, stretching to the Iraqi border.[193]On 29 November, at approximately 10:26UTC, the Syrian Internet and phone service was shut off for a two-day period.[194]Syrian government sources denied responsibility and blamed the blackout onfiber opticlines near Damascus becoming exposed and damaged;[195]Edward Snowdenin August 2014 claimed that this Internet breakdown had been caused, though unintendedly, by hackers of theNSAduring an operation to intercept Internet communication in Syria.[196]

A destroyed tank on a road in Aleppo.In mid-December 2012, American officials said that the Syrian military had firedScudballistic missiles at rebel fighters inside Syria. Reportedly, six Scud missiles were fired at the Sheikh Suleiman base north of Aleppo, which rebel forces had occupied. It is unclear whether the Scuds hit the intended target.[197]The government denied this claim.[198]Later that month, a further Scud attack took place near Marea, a town north of Aleppo near the Turkish border. The missile appeared to have missed its target.[197]That same month, the BritishDaily Telegraphreported that the FSA had now penetrated into Latakia Governorate's coast through Turkey.[199]In late December, rebel forces pushed further into Damascus, taking control of the adjoiningYarmoukand Palestine refugee camps, pushing out pro-governmentPopular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Commandfighters with the help of other factions.[200]Rebel forces launchedan offensivein Hama governorate, later claiming to have forced army regulars to evacuate several towns and bases,[201]and stating that "three-quarters of western rural Hama is under our control."[202]Rebels also captured the town of Harem near the Turkish border in Idlib governorate, after weeks of heavy fighting.[203]On 11 January 2013, Islamist groups, including al-Nusra Front, took full control of theTaftanazair base in the Idlib governorate, after weeks of fighting. The air base was often used by the Syrian military to carry out helicopter raids and deliver supplies. The rebels claimed to have seized helicopters, tanks and multiple rocket launchers, before being forced to withdraw by a government counter-attack. The leader of the al-Nusra Front said the amount of weapons they took was a "game changer".[204]On 11 February, Islamist rebels captured the town ofAl-ThawrahinAr-Raqqah Governorateand the nearbyTabqa Dam, Syria's largest dam and a key source ofhydroelectricity.[205][206]The next day, rebel forces took control of Jarrah air base, located 60 kilometres (37mi) east of Aleppo.[207]On 14 February, fighters from al-Nusra Front took control of Shadadeh, a town inAl-Hasakah Governoratenear the Iraqi border.[208]On 20 February, acar bombexploded in Damascus near the Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch headquarters, killing at least 53 people and injuring more than 235.[209]None of the groups claimed responsibility.[210]On 21 February, the FSA in Quasar began shelling Hezbollah positions in Lebanon. Prior to this, Hezbollah had been shelling villages near Quasar from within Lebanon. A 48-hour ultimatum was issued by a FSA commander on 20 February, warning the militant group to stop the attacks.[211]On 2 March, intense clashes between rebels and the Syrian Army erupted in the city of Raqqa, with many reportedly killed on both sides.[212]On the same day, Syrian troops regained several villages near Aleppo.[213]By 3 March, rebels had overrun Raqqa's central prison, allowing them to free hundreds of prisoners, according to the SOHR.[214]The SOHR also stated that rebel fighters were now in control of most of anAleppo police academyinKhan al-Asal, and that over 200 rebels and government troops had been killed fighting for control of it.[215]By 6 March, the rebels had captured the city of Raqqa, effectively making it the first provincial capital to be lost by the Assad government. Residents of Raqqa toppled a bronze statue of his late fatherHafez Assadin the centre of the city. The rebels also seized two top government officials.[216]On 18 March, the Syrian Air Force attacked rebel positions in Lebanon for the first time. The attack occurred at the Wadi al-Khayl Valley area, near the town of Arsal.[217]On 21 March, a suspected suicide bombing in the Iman Mosque in Mazraa district killed as many as 41 people, including the pro-Assad Sunni cleric, SheikhMohammed al-Buti.[218]On 23 March, several rebel groups seized the 38th division air defense base in southern Daraa governorate near a highway linking Damascus to Jordan.[219]On the next day, rebels captured a 25km strip of land near the Jordanian border, which included the towns ofMuzrib, Abdin, and the al-Rai military checkpoint.[220]On 25 March, rebels launched one of their heaviest bombardments of Central Damascus since the revolt began. Mortars reached Umayyad Square, where the Ba'ath Party headquarters, Air Force Intelligence and state television are located.[221]On 26 March, near the Syrian town of al-Qusayr, rebel commander Khaled al Hamad, who commands the Al Farooq al-Mustakilla Brigade and is also known by his nom de guerre Abu Sakkar, ate the heart and liver of a dead soldier and said "I swear to God, you soldiers of Bashar, you dogs, we will eat from your hearts and livers! O heroes of Bab Amr, you slaughter the Alawites and take out their hearts to eat them!" in an apparent attempt to increase sectarianism.[222][223]Video of the event emerged two months later and resulted in considerable outrage, especially from Human Rights Watch which classified the incident as a war crime. According to the BBC, it was one of the most gruesome videos to emerge from the conflict to-date.[224]On 29 March, rebels captured the town ofDa'elafter fierce fighting. The town is located inDaraa Governorate, along the highway connecting Damascus to Jordan.[225]On 3 April, rebels captured a military base near the city ofDaraa.[226]Government and Hezbollah offensives (April June 2013)[edit]Main articles:Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (JanuaryApril 2013)andTimeline of the Syrian Civil War (from May 2013)Further information:Al-Qusayr offensiveandBattle of al-Qusayr (2013)On 17 April, government forces breached a six-month rebel blockade in Wadi al-Deif, near Idlib. Heavy fighting was reported around the town of Babuleen after government troops attempt to secure control of a main highway leading to Aleppo. The break in the siege also allowed government forces to resupply two major military bases in the region which had been relying on sporadic airdrops.[227]On 18 April, the FSA took control of Al-Dab'a Air Base near the city of al-Qusayr.[228]The base was being used primarily to garrison ground troops. Meanwhile, the Syrian Army re-captured the town of Abel. The SOHR said the loss of the town will hamper rebel movements between al-Qusayr and Homs city. The capture of the airport would have relieved the pressure on the rebels in the area, but their loss ofAbelmade the situation more complicated.[229]The same day, rebels reportedly assassinated Ali Ballan, who was a government employee, in the Mazzeh district of Damascus.[230]On 21 April, government forcescaptured the town of Jdaidet al-Fadl, near Damascus.[231]In April, government andHezbollahforces launchedan offensiveto capture areas near al-Qusayr. On 21 April, pro-Assad forces captured the towns of Burhaniya, Saqraja and al-Radwaniya near the Lebanese border.[232][233]By this point, eight villages had fallen to the government offensive in the area.[234]On 24 April, after five weeks of fighting, government troops re-took control of the town of Otaiba, east of Damascus, which had been serving as the main arms supply route from Jordan.[235]Meanwhile, in the north of the country, rebels took control of a position on the edge of the strategic Mennagh Military airbase, on the outskirts of Aleppo. This allowed them to enter the airbase after months of besieging it.[236]On 2 May, government forces captured the town ofQaysain a push north from the city's airport. Troops also retook the Wadi al-Sayeh central district of Homs, driving a wedge between two rebel strongholds.[237]SOHR reporteda massacreof over 100 people by the Syrian army in the coastal town of Al Bayda, Baniyas. However, this could not be independently verified due to movement restrictions on the ground.[238]Yet the multiple video images that residents said they had recorded particularly of small children, were so shocking that even some government supporters rejected Syrian television's official version of events, that the army had simply "crushed a number of terrorists."[239]On 3 May, the Syrian army backed by theShabihareportedly committed a massacre of civilians near the city of Baniyas. TheSyrian Observatory for Human Rightssaid that at least 50 people and possibly as many as 100 were killed and that dozens of villagers were still missing.[240]On 8 May, government forces captured the town ofKhirbet Ghazaleh, situated along the highway to the Jordanian border. Over 1,000 rebel fighters withdrew from the town due to the lack of reinforcements and ammunition. The loss of the town also resulted in the reopening of the government supply-route to the city of Daraa. The rebels continued to withdraw from other towns so as to not face the Army's advance along the highway.[241]On 11 May, the rebels managed to cut a newly build desert road used as an Army supply route between central Syria and Aleppo's airport.[242]On 12 May, government forces took control of Khirbet Ghazaleh and secured the highway near the town.[243]By mid-May, due to the recent Army gains in retaking strategically important locations, military analysts pointed out that the government would have a major advantage in any future peace talks. Analysts on both sides credited the government advances to the restructuring of their forces, which they filled with thousands of militia irregulars trained partly by Hezbollah and Iranian advisers in counter-insurgency operations.[244]The government's success was also credited to the shift by the Army from trying to recapture the whole country to holding on to strategic areas.[245]On 13 May, government forces captured the towns of Western Dumayna, Haidariyeh, and Esh al-Warwar allowing them to block supplies to the rebels in al-Qusayr.[246][247]On 16 May, rebels stated that they recaptured the town ofAl-Qisa.[248]On 17 May, rebels captured four villages in Eastern Hama, including the Alawite town of Tulaysiah. The villages were abandoned by its residents before the rebels arrived.[249]On 19 May, government forces captured the town of Halfaya in Hama governorate.[250]The Syrian army also launched its offensive against the town of Qusayr. A military source reported that the Army entered Qusayr, capturing the city center and the municipality building.[251]One opposition activist denied this,[252]but another confirmed the Army was in control of 60 percent of the city.[253]During the day's fighting, Hezbollah commander Fadi al-Jazar was killed.[254]An opposition source said the attack was launched from the east and the south and that Hezbollah fighters took control of the town hall within a few hours. He added that the fighting was then concentrated in the northern part of the city.[255]The attack appeared to surprise the rebels, who expected the army to push by the north on several rebel-controlled villages before attacking the city. The turning point of the offensive was reached when Hezbollah fighters took control of the Al Tal area overlooking Qusayr. Several rebels fighters accused some commanders from fleeing the Al tal area at the last minute.[256]Meanwhile, SOHR reported that the Syrian army was at the area by the western neighborhood of al-Quseir in order to lay siege on the city itself.[257]On 23 May, rebels captured a military base near the town of Nairab.[258]By 29 May, government forces captured the al-Dabaa air base, north of al-Qusayr.[259]On 1 and 2 June, after heavy fighting, the Syrian Army recaptured three of the Alawite villages that had been previously captured by the rebels in Eastern Hama governorate.[260]On 5 June, rebel forces withdrew fully from al-Qusayr.[261]The following day, government forces captured the nearby village of Dabaa.

Za'atri camp for Syrian refugees in JordanOn 6 June, rebels temporarily captured theQuneitraborder crossing which links the Israeli-occupiedGolan Heightswith Syria. However, the same day, government forces counter-attacked with tanks and armoured personnel carriers, recapturing the crossing.[262][263]On 7 June, Syrian troops backed by Hezbollah captured two villages north of al-Qusayr: Salhiyeh and Masoudiyeh.[264]The next day, they captured the village of Buwaydah, the last rebel-held village in the al-Qusayr region.[265]Between 7 and 14 June, Army troops, government militiamen, and Hezbollah fighters launched operations inAleppo Governorate. Over a one-week period, government forces had advanced both in Aleppo city and the countryside around the city. However, on 14 June, according to an opposition activist, the tide had started reversing, after rebels managed to halt an armoured reinforcement column from Aleppo city for two government-held Shiite villages northwest of the city. Rebels claimed they destroyed one tank and killed 20 government soldiers northwest of the town of Maaret al-Arteek. Before the column was stopped, government forces had captured the high ground at Maaret al-Arteek, threatening rebel positions. Government forces also made some advances in the southern part of Aleppo governorate, capturing the village of Ain-Assan.[266][267]During the fighting in Aleppo city itself, on 13 June, government forces managed to temporarily advance into the rebel-held Sakhour district from two directions, but were soon repelled.[268]Some described it as possibly a probing attack and not a full assault.[269]On 10 June, Shia pro-government fighters from the village of Hatla, east of Deir al-Zour, attacked a nearby rebel position, killing four rebels.[270]The next day, in retaliation for the attack, thousands of rebels attacked and captured the village, killing 60 residents, fighters and civilians, according to SOHR. 10 rebel fighters were killed during the attack.[270]At dawn on 13 June, rebels seized an Army position on the northern edge of the town of Morek, which is located on the north-south highway,[271]in fighting that killed six soldiers and two rebels. Later in the day, the Army shelled the base and sent reinforcements.[272][273]On 14 June, the Al Nusra front captured a military barracks near Idlib city.[274]On 15 June, the Syrian Army captured the Damascus suburb of Ahmadiyeh near the city's airport. Rebels said fighting began after rebels entered the town to use it as a position to launch mortars on the Damascus airport. They added that fighting was ongoing.[275][276]On 22 June, the Syrian Army captured the rebel stronghold town ofTalkalakh.[277][278]Four days later, the Army captured the town of Al-Qariatayn, also in Homs governorate.[279]Continued fighting (July October 2013)[edit]Main article:Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (MayDecember 2013)Further information:2013 Syrian KurdishIslamist conflictandGhouta chemical attackOn 28 June, rebel forces captured a major military checkpoint in the city of Daraa.[280]On 12 July FSA reported that one of its commanders, Kamal Hamami, had been killed by Islamists a day before. The rebels declared that the assassination by theIslamic State of Iraq and Levant, was tantamount to a declaration of war.[281]On 17 July, FSA forces took control of most of the southern city ofNawaafter seizing up to 40 army posts stationed in the city.[282]On 18 July, Kurdish YPG forces secured control of the northern town ofRas al-Ain, after days of fighting with the al-Nusra Front.[283]In the following three months, continued fighting between Kurdish and mainly jihadist rebel forces led to the capture of two dozen towns and villages inHasakah Governorateby Kurdish fighters,[284]while the Jihadists made limited gains in Aleppo and Raqqah governorates after they turned on the Kurdish rebel groupJabhat al-Akradover its relationship with the YPG. In Aleppo governorate, Islamists massacred the Kurds leading to a mass migration of civilians to the town of Afrin.[285]On 22 July, FSA fighters seized control of the western Aleppo suburb ofKhan al-Asal. The town was the last government stronghold in the western portion of Aleppo governorate.[286]On 25 July, the Syrian army secured the town ofal-Sukhnah, after expelling the al-Nusra Front.[287]On 27 July, after weeks of fighting and bombardment in Homs, the Syrian Army captured the historicKhalid ibn al-Walid Mosque,[288]and two days later, captured the district of Khaldiyeh.[289]On 4 August, around 10 rebel brigades, launcheda large-scale offensiveon the government stronghold ofLatakia Governorate. Initial attacks by 2,000 opposition members seized as many as 12 villages in the mountainous area. Between 4 and 5 August, 20 rebels and 32 government soldiers and militiamen had been killed in the clashes. Hundreds of Alawite villagers fled to Latakia. By 5 August, rebel fighters advanced to 20 kilometers from Qardaha, the home town of the Assad family.[290][291]However, in mid-August, the military counter-attacked and recaptured all of the territory previously lost to the rebels in the coastal region during the offensive.[292][293]A Syrian security force source "told AFP the army still had to recapture the Salma region, a strategic area along the border with Turkey."[294]According to aHuman Rights Watchreport 190 civilians were killed by rebel forces during the offensive, including at least 67 being executed. Another 200 civilians, primarily women and children, were taken hostage.[295][296]On 6 August, rebels capturedMenagh Military Airbaseafter a 10-month siege. The strategic airbase is located on the road between Aleppo city and the Turkish border.[297][298]On 21 Augusta chemical attacktook place in the Ghouta region of the Damascus countryside, leading to thousands of casualties and several hundred dead in the opposition-held stronghold. The attack was followed by a military offensive by government forces into the area, which had been hotbeds of the opposition.[299]On 24 August, rebels captured the town ofAriha. However, government forces recaptured Ariha on 3 September.[300][301]On 26 August, rebel forces took over the town ofKhanasirin Aleppo governorate which was the government's last supply route for the city of Aleppo.[302]On 8 September, rebels led by the al-Nusra Frontcaptured the Christian town of Maaloula, 43km north of Damascus,[303]The Syrian Army launched a counterattack a few days later, recapturing the town.[304]On 18 September, theIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant(ISIS) overran the FSA-held town of Azaz in the north. The fighting was the most severe since tensions rose between militant factions in Syria earlier in the year.[305][306]Soon after ISIS captured Azaz, a ceasefire was announced between the rival rebel groups. However, in early October, more fighting erupted in the town.[307]On 20 September, Alawite militias including the NDF killed 15 civilians in the Sunni village ofSheik Hadidin Hama Governorate. The massacre occurred in retaliation for a rebel capture of the village of Jalma, in Hama, which killed five soldiers, along with the seizure of a military checkpoint which killed 16 soldiers and 10 NDF militiamen.[308][309]In mid-September, the military captured the towns of Deir Salman and Shebaa on the outskirts of Damascus. The Army also captured six villages in eastern Homs.[310]Fighting broke out in those towns again in October.[311]On 28 September, rebels seized the Ramtha border post inDaraa Governorateon the Syria Jordan crossing after fighting which left 26 soldiers dead along with 7 foreign rebel fighters.[312]On 3 October, AFP reported that Syria's army re-took the town ofKhanasir, which is located on a supply route linking central Syria to the city of Aleppo.[313]On 7 October, the Syrian Army managed to reopen the supply route between Aleppo and Khanasir.[314]On 9 October, rebels seized the Hajanar guard post on the Jordanian border after a month of fierce fighting. Rebels were now in control of a swath of territory along the border from outside of Daraa to the edge of Golan Heights.[315]The same day, Hezbollah and Iraqi Shiite fighters, backed up by artillery, air-strikes and tanks, captured the town of Sheikh Omar, on the southern outskirts of Damascus. Two days later, they also captured the towns of al-Thiabiya and Husseiniya on the southern approaches to Damascus. The capture of the three towns strengthened the government hold on major supply lines and put more pressure on rebels under siege in the Eastern Ghouta area.[316][317]On 14 October, SOHR reported that rebels captured the Resefa and Sinaa districts ofDeir ez-Zorcity, as well as Deir ez-Zor's military hospital.[318]Government and Hezbollah offensives (October December 2013)[edit]Further information:Aleppo offensive (OctoberDecember 2013)andBattle of QalamounThe Syrian Army along with its allies, Hezbollah and theal-Abas brigade, launched an offensive on Damascus and Aleppo.[319][320]On 16 October, AFP reported that Syrian troops recaptured the town of Bweida, south of Damascus. On 17 October, the Syrian government's head of Military Intelligence inDeir ez-Zor Governorate, Jameh Jameh, was assassinated by rebels in Deir ez-Zor city. SOHR reported that he had been shot by a rebel sniper during a battle with rebel brigades.[321]On 24 October, the Syrian army retook control of the town of Hatetat al-Turkman, located southeast of Damascus, along the Damascus International Airport road.[322]On 26 October, Kurdish rebel fighters seized control of the strategic Yarubiya border crossing between Syria and Iraq from Al Nusra in Al Hasakah Governorate.[323]Elsewhere, in Daraa Governorate, rebel fighters captured the town ofTafasfrom government forces after weeks of clashes which left scores dead.[324]On 1 November, the Syrian army retook control of the key city ofAl-Safira[325]and the next day, the Syrian Army and its allies recaptured the village of Aziziyeh on the northern outskirts of Al-Safira.[326]From early to mid-November, Syrian Army forces captured several towns south of Damascus, including Hejeira and Sbeineh. Government forces also recaptured the town of Tel Aran, southeast of Aleppo, and a military base near Aleppo's international airport.[327]On 10 November, the Syrian army had taken full control of "Base 80", near Aleppo's airport.[328]According to the SOHR, 63 rebels,[329]and 32 soldiers were killed during the battle.[329]One other report put the number of rebels killed between 60 and 80.[330]Army units were backed-up by Hezbollah fighters and pro-government militias during the assault.[329]The following day, government forces secured most of the area around the airport.[331][332]On 13 November, government forces captured most of Hejeira.[333]Rebels retreated from Hejeira toAl-Hajar al-Aswad. However, their defenses in besieged districts closer to the heart of Damascus were still reportedly solid.[334]On 15 November, the Syrian Army retook control of the city of Tell Hassel near Aleppo.[335]On 18 November, the Syrian troops stormed the town of Babbila.[336]On 19 November, government forces took full control of Qara.[337]The same day, the Syrian army captured al-Duwayrinah.[338]On 23 November, al-Nusra Front and other Islamist rebels captured the al-Omar oil field, Syria's largest oil field, in Deir al-Zor governorate causing the government to rely almost entirely on imported oil.[339][340]On 24 November, rebels captured the towns of Bahariya, Qasimiya, Abbadah, and Deir Salman in Damascus's countryside.[341]On 28 November, the Syrian army recaptured Deir Attiyeh.[342]On 2 December, rebels led by the Free Syrian army recaptured the historic Christian town ofMa'loula. After the fighting, reports emerged that 12 nuns had been abducted by the rebels. However, the FSA disputes this and said that the nuns had been evacuated to the nearby rebel held town ofYabruddue to the Army shelling.[343][344]In early December, the Islamic Front seized control of Bab al-Hawa border crossing with Turkey, which had been in hands of FSA.[345]The groups also captured warehouses containing equipment delivered by the U.S. In response, the U.S. and Britain said they halted all non-lethal aid to the FSA, fearing that further supplies could fall in hands ofal-Qaedamilitants.[346]On 10 December, the Army took full control of Nabek,[347]with fighting continuing in its outskirts.[216]Fighting between ISIS and other rebel groups (January March 2014)[edit]Main article:Syrian oppositionIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant conflictTension between moderate rebel forces and ISIS had been high since ISIS captured the border town ofAzazfrom FSA forces on 18 September 2013.[348]Conflict was renewed overAzazin early October[349]and in late November ISIS captured the border town ofAtmefrom an FSA brigade.[350]On 3 January 2014, the Army of the Mujahideen, the Free Syrian Army and the Islamic Front launched an offensive againstISISin Aleppo and Idlib governorates. A spokesman for the rebels said that rebels attacked ISIS in up to 80% of all ISIS held villages in Idlib and 65% of those in Aleppo.[351]By 6 January, opposition rebels managed to expel ISIS forces from the city of Raqqa, ISIS's largest stronghold and capital of the Raqqa Governorate.[352]On 8 January, opposition rebels expelled most ISIS forces from the city of Aleppo, however ISIS reinforcements from theDeir ez-Zor Governoratemanaged to retake several neighborhoods of the city of Raqqa.[353][354]By mid January ISIS retook the entire city of Raqqa, while rebels expelled ISIS fighters fully from Aleppo city and the villages west of it.On 29 January, Turkish aircraft near the border fired on an ISIS convoy inside the Aleppo Provence of Syria, killing 11 ISIS fighters and 1 ISIS emir.[355][356]In late January it was confirmed that rebels had assassinated ISIS's second in command,Haji Bakr, who was al-Qaeda's military council head and a former military officer in Saddam Hussein's army.[357]By mid-February, the Al-Nusra Front joined the battle in support of rebel forces, and expelled ISIS from the Deir Ezzor Governorate.[358]By March, the ISIS forces fully retreated from the Idlib Governorate.[359][360]On 4 March, ISIS retreated from the border town of Azaz and other nearby villages, choosing instead to consolidate around Raqqa in an anticipation of an escalation of fighting with Al Nusra.[361]Continued government and Hezbollah offensive (March 2014)[edit]On 4 March, theSyrian armytook control of Sahel in the Qalamoun region.[362]On 8 March, government forces took over Zara, in Homs Governorate, further blocking rebel supply routes from Lebanon.[363]On 11 March, Government forces andHezbollahtook control of the Rima Farms region, directly facing Yabrud.[364]On 16 March, Hezbollah and government forces capturedYabrud, after Free Syrian Army fighters made an unexpected withdrawal, leaving the Al Nusra Front to fight in the city on its own.[365]On 18 March, Israel used artillery against Syrian Army base, after four of its soldiers had been wounded by a roadside bomb while patrolling Golan Heights.[366]On 19 March, the Syrian army captured Ras al-Ain nearYabrud, after two days of fighting and al-Husn in Homs Governorate, while rebels in the Daraa Governorate captured Daraa prison, and freed hundreds of detainees.[367][368][369]On 20 March, theSyrian armytook control of theKrak des Chevaliersin al-Husn.[369]On 29 March, Syrian army took control of the villages ofFlitahand Ras Maara near the border with Lebanon.[370]Continued fighting (March May 2014)[edit]On 22 March, rebels took control of the Kesab border post in the Latakia Governorate.[371]By 23 March, rebels had taken most of Khan Sheikhoun in Hama.[372]During clashes near the rebel-controlled Kesab border post in Latakia, Hilal Al Assad, NDF leader in Latakia and one ofBashar Al Assad's cousins was killed by rebel fighters.[373][374]On 4 April, rebels captured the town of Babulin, Idlib.[375]On 9 April, the Syrian army took control ofRankousin the Qalamoun region.[376]On 12 April, rebels in Aleppo stormed the government-held Ramouseh industrial district in an attempt to cut the Army supply route between the airport and a large Army base. The rebels also took the Rashidin neighbourhood and parts of the Jamiat al-Zahra district.[377]On 26 April, the Syrian army took control ofAl-Zabadani.[378]According to SOHR, rebels took control of Tell Ahrmar, Quneitra.[379]Rebels in Daraa also took over Brigade 61 Base and the 74th battalion.[380]On 26 April, the FSA announced they had begun an offensive against ISIS in the Raqqa Governorate, and had seized five towns west of Raqqa city.[381]On 29 April, activists said that the Syrian army captured Tal Buraq near the town of Mashara in Quneitra without any clashes.[382]On 7 May, a truce went into effect in the city of Homs, SOHR reported. The terms of the agreement include safe evacuation of Islamist fighters from the city, which would then fall under government control, in exchange for release of prisoners and safe passage of humanitarian aid for Nubul and Zahraa, two Shiite enclaves besieged by the rebels.[383]On 18 May, the head of Syria's Air Defense, GeneralHussein Ishaq, died of wounds sustained during a rebel attack on an air defense base near Mleiha the previous day. In Hama governorate, rebel forces took control of the town of Tel Malah, killing 34 pro-Assad fighters at an army post near the town. Its seizure marked the third time rebels have taken control of the town.[384][385]Presidential election (June 2014)[edit]Main article:Syrian presidential election, 2014Syria held a presidential election in government-held areas on 3 June 2014. For the first time in the history of Syria more than one person was allowed to stand as a presidential candidate.[386]More than 9,000 polling stations were set up in government-held areas.[387][388]According to theSupreme Constitutional Court of Syria, 11.63 million Syrians voted (the turnout was 73.42%).[389]PresidentBashar al-Assadwon the election with 88.7% of the votes. As for Assad's challengers,Hassan al-Nourireceived 4.3% of the votes andMaher Hajjarreceived 3.2%.[390]Allies of Assad from more than 30 countries were invited by the Syrian government to follow the presidential election,[391]including Bolivia, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, India, Iran, Iraq, Nicaragua, Russia, South Africa and Venezuela.[392][393]The Iranian officialAlaeddin Boroujerdiread a statement by the group saying the election were "free, fair and transparent".[394]TheGulf Cooperation Council, theEuropean Unionand theUnited Statesall dismissed the election as illegitimate and a farce.[395][396][397][398]State employees were told to vote or face interrogation.[399]On the ground there were no independent monitors stationed at the polling stations.[400][401][402]It is noted by analysts that as few as 6 million eligible voters remained in Syria.[403][404]Due to rebel, Kurdish and ISIS control of Syrian territories there was no voting in roughly 60% of the country.[405][406]ISIL offensives and U.S. airstrikes (June 2014 January 2015)[edit]See also:Timeline of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant events in 2014,Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (August 2014present)and2014 American intervention in SyriaStarting on 5 June,ISILseized swathes of territory inIraqin addition to heavy weapons and equipment from theIraqi Army, some of which they brought into Syria. Government airstrikes targeted ISIL bases inAr-RaqqahandAl-Hasakahin coordination with an Iraqi Army counteroffensive.[407]On 14 June, government forces retook the town ofKessabin northernLatakia Governorate, while rebels took over Tall al-Gomo near the town ofNawain theDaraa Governorate, as well as reentering theQalamoun area.[408][409]According to theSyrian Observatory for Human Rights, on 17 July ISIL took control of theShaar oil field, killing 90 pro-government forces while losing 21 fighters. In addition, 270 guards and government-aligned fighters were missing. About 30 government persons managed to escape to the nearby Hajjar field.[410]On 20 July, the Syrian Army secured the field, although fighting continued in its outskirts.[411]On 25 July, the Islamic State took control of the Division 17 base near Raqqah.[412]On 7 August, ISIL took the Brigade 93 base in Raqqah using weapons captured from their offensive in Iraq. Multiplesuicide bombsalso went off before the base was stormed.[413]On 13 August, ISIL forces took the towns ofAkhtarinand Turkmanbareh from rebels inAleppo. ISIL forces also took a handful of nearby villages. The other towns seized include Masoudiyeh,Dabiqand Ghouz.On 14 August, theFree Syrian Armycommander Sharif As-Safouri admitted working withIsraeland receivinganti-tankweapons from Israel and FSA soldiers also received medical treatment inside Israel.[414]On 14 August, theSyrian Armyas well asHezbollahmilitias retook the town of Mleiha inRif Dimashq Governorate. The Supreme Military Council of the FSA denied claims of Mleiha's seizure, rather the rebels have redeployed from recent advances to other defensive lines.[415]Mleiha has been held by theIslamic Front. Rebels had used the town to fire mortars on government held areas inside Damascus.[416][417]Meanwhile, ISIL forces in Raqqah were launching a siege onTabqa airbase, the Syrian government's last military base in Raqqah. Kuwaires airbase inAleppoalso came under fierce attack by ISIL.[418][419]On 16 August, there were reports that 22 people were killed in the village ofDaraaby acar bomboutside a mosque. The bomb was thought to be detonated by ISIS. Also on 16 August, the Islamic State seized the village of Beden in the Aleppo Governorate from rebels.[420][421]On 17 August, SOHR said that in the past two weeks ISIL jihadists killed over 700 tribal members in oil-richDeir ez-Zor Governorate.[422]On 19 August, a senior figure in ISIL who had prepared planned car and suicide bombs across Syria, Lebanon and Iraq was killed. Some reports said that he was killed by Hezbollah fighters. There were also several reports that he was killed by the Syrian Army in the Qalamoun region, near the border withLebanon.[423][424][425]On 19 August, American journalistJames Foleywas executed by ISIL, who claimed it was in retaliation for the United States operations in Iraq. Foley was kidnapped in Syria in November 2012 byShabihamilitia.[426]ISIL also threatened to executeSteven Sotloff, who was kidnapped at the Syrian-Turkish border in August 2013.[427]There are reports ISIS captured a Japanese national, two Italian nationals, and a Danish national as well.[428]At least 70 journalists have been killed covering the Syrian war, and more than 80 kidnapped, according to theCommittee to Protect Journalists.[429]On 22 August, theal-Nusra Frontreleased a video of captured Lebanese soldiers and demanded that Hezbollah withdraw from Syria under threat of their execution.[430]On 23 August, the Tabqa airbase was no longer encircled by ISIL fighters and the Syrian Army had taken back the M-42 Highway from ISIL fighters, which leads to the city ofSalamiyahin theHama Governorate.[431]Also in Raqqah, the Syrian Army took control of the town of Al-Ejeil.[432][433]ISIL reportedly sent reinforcements from Iraq to the governorate of Raqqah. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said at least 400 ISIL fighters had also been wounded in the previous five days in clashes with the Syrian Army andNational Defence Forcein Raqqah alone.[432][434]At the same time, Several seniorUKandUSfigures urgedTurkeyto stop allowing ISIL to cross the border to Syria and Iraq.[435]On the following day, the Islamic State seized Tabqa airbase from government forces.[436]The battle for the base left 346 ISIL fighters and 195 soldiers dead.[437]Prisoners taken by ISIL forces were executed and a video from the mass killing was posted on YouTube. The death toll varied from 120 to 250.[438]On 26 August, the Syrian Air Force carried out airstrikes against ISIL targets in the Governorate of Deir ez-Zor. This was the first time the Syrian army attacked them inDeir ez-Zoras the Syrian Army pulled out of Raqqah and shifted to Deir ez-Zor in a bid to seize its oil and natural gas resources as well as strategically splitting ISIL territories.[439][440]American jets began bombing ISIL in Syria on 23 September 2014, raising U.S. involvement in the war-torn country. At least 20 targets in and around Raqqa were hit, the opposition group Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said. Foreign partners participating in the strikes with the United States were Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Jordan. The US and "partner nation forces" began striking ISIL targets using fighters, bombers and Tomahawk missiles, Pentagon spokesman Rear Adm. John Kirby said.[441]US aircraft includeB-1 bombers,F-16s,F-18sandPredator drones, with F-18s flying missions off theUSSGeorge H.W. Bush(CVN-77)in the Persian Gulf.Tomahawk missileswere fired from the destroyerUSSArleigh Burke(DDG-51)in theRed Sea. Syria's Foreign Ministry told the Associated Press that the US informed Syria's envoy to the U.N. that "strikes will be launched against the terrorist group in Raqqa".[442]The United States informed the Free Syrian Army beforehand of the impending airstrikes, and the rebels said that weapons transfers to the Free Syrian Army had begun.[443]The United States also attacked a specific faction of Al-Nusra called theKhorasan Group, who according to the United States had training camps and plans for attacking the United States in the future.[444]For its part, Turkey launched an official request to the UN for a no-fly zone over Syria.[445]The same day, Israel shot down a Syrian warplane after it entered the Golan area from Quneitra.[446]By 3 October, ISIL forces wereheavily shelling the city of Kobaneand were within a kilometer of the town.[447]Within 36 hours from 21 October, the Syrian air force carried out over 200 airstrikes on rebel-held areas across Syria and US and Arab jets attacked IS positions around Kobane. Syrian Information MinisterOmran al-Zoubisaid the YPG forces in Kobane had been provided with military and logistical support.[448][449]Syria reported that its air force had destroyed two fighter jets being operated by IS.[450]By 26 January, the Kurdish YPG forced ISIL forces in Koban to retreat,[451]thus fully recapturing the city.[452]The U.S. confirmed that the city had been cleared of ISIL forces on 27 January,[453]and ISIL admitted defeat in Koban city three days later, although they vowed to return.[454]The Southern Front (October 2014 February 2015)[edit]In February 2014, theSouthern Front of the Free Syrian Armyformed in southern Syria. Six months later, they started a string of victories in Daraa and Quneitra during the2014 Quneitra offensive, theDaraa offensive (October 2014), theBattle of Al-Shaykh Maskin, theBattle of Bosra (2015)and theBattle of Nasib Border Crossing. A government counter-offensive (the2015 Southern Syria offensive) during this period, that included theIRGCandHezbollah, recaptured 15 towns, villages and hills,[455][456][457]but the operation slowed soon after[458]and stalled.[459]Since early 2015, opposition military operations rooms based in Jordan and Turkey began increasing cooperation,[460]with Saudi Arabia and Qatar also reportedly agreeing upon the necessity to unite opposition factions against the Syrian government.[461]Northern Al-Nusra Front and Islamist takeover (October 2014 March 2015)[edit]In late October 2014, a conflict erupted between the Al-Nusra Front on one side and the western-backedSRFandHazzm Movementon the other (Al-Nusra FrontSRF/Hazzm Movement conflict). ISIL reportedly reinforced Al-Nusra. By the end of February 2015 Al-Nusra had defeated both groups, captured the entireZawiya Mountainregion in Idlib province and several towns and military bases in other governorates, and seized weapons supplied by theCIAto the two moderate groups.[462][463]The significant amount of weapons seized included a small number ofBGM-71anti-tank missiles similar to weapons systems al-Nusra Front had previously captured from government stockpiles such as FrenchMILANs, ChineseHJ-8sand Russian9K111 Fagots.[464]Reuters reported that this represented al-Nusra crushing pro-Western rebels in the north of the country.[465]According to FSA commanders in northern Syria, however, the elimination of Harakat Hazm and the SRF was a welcome development due to the leaders of those factions allegedly involved in corruption.[466]The Western-backed 30th Division of the FSA remained active elsewhere in Idlib.[467]By 24 March 2015 the Al-Nusra Front dominated most of Idlib province, except for the government-held provincial capital,Idlib, which they had encircled on three sides along with its Islamist allies.[468]On 28 March a joint coalition of Islamist forces, theArmy of Conquest, captured Idlib.[469][470][471]This left the north largely taken over byAhrar ash-Sham, Al-Nusra Front and other Islamist rebels, with the south of the country becoming the last significant foothold for the mainstream, non-jihadist opposition fighters.[472]Army of Conquest advances in Idlib (April 2014 June 2015)[edit]On 22 April,a new rebel offensivewas launched in the north-west of Syria and by 25 April, the rebel coalitionArmy of Conquesthad captured the city ofJisr al-Shughur.[473]At the end of the following month, the rebels also seized seized theAl-Mastumahmilitary base,[474]andAriha, leaving government forces in control of tiny pockets of Idlib, including the Abu Dhuhur military airport.[475]In addition, according to Charles Lister (Brookings Doha Center), the Army of Conquest coalition was a broad opposition effort to ensure that the Al-Qaeda-affiliated Al-Nusra Front was contained, with the rearguard involvement of Western-backed factions being regarded as crucial.[466]Still, according to some, the FSA in northern Syria had by this point all but dissipated. Many of the moderate fighters joined more extremist organizations, such asAhrar ash-Sham, the largest faction in the Army of Conquest, which led to the subsequent rise of the Islamist Army of Conquest coalition.[476]Rebel advances led to government and Hezbollah morale plunging dramatically.[477]In north-west Syria these losses were countered by a Hezbollah-led offensive in the Qalamoun mountains north of Damascus, on the border with Lebanon, that gave Hezbollah effective control of the entire area.[478]Resurgent ISIL advance (May 2015)[edit]On 21 May, ISIL took control ofPalmyra, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, after eight days of fighting.[479]The jihadists also captured the nearby towns of Al-Sukhnah and Amiriya, as well as several oil fields.[480]Following the capture of Palmyra, ISIL conducted mass executions in the area, killing an estimated 217329 government civilian supporters and soldiers, according to opposition activists.[481][482][483]Government sources put the number of killed at 400450.[484]By early June, ISIL reached the town of Hassia, which lays on the main road from Damascus to Homs and Latakia, and reportedly took up positions to the west of it, creating a potential disaster for the government and raising the threat of Lebanon being sucked further into the war.[485]On 25 June, ISIL launched two offensives. One was a surprise diversionary attack on Koban, while the second targeted government-held parts of Al-Hasakah city.[486]The ISIL offensive on Al-Hasakah displaced 60,000 people, with the UN estimating a total of 200,000 would be displaced.[487]Advanced weaponry and tactics[edit]See also:Equipment of the Syrian ArmyandList of military equipment used by Syrian opposition forcesChemical weapons[edit]Main articles:Syria and weapons of mass destructionandUse of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil warSee also:Syria chemical weapons programA UN fact-finding missionwas requested by member states to investigate 16 alleged chemical weapons attacks. Seven of them have been investigated (nine were dropped for lack of "sufficient or credible information") and in four cases the UN inspectors confirmed use ofsaringas. The reports, however, did not blame any party of using chemical weapons.[488]Many countries, including the United States and the European Union have accused the Syrian government of conducting several chemical attacks, the most serious of them being the2013 Ghouta attacks. Following this incident and international pressure, thedestruction of Syria's chemical weaponsbegan. In 2015 the UN mission disclosed previously undeclared traces of sarin compounds[disputeddiscuss]in a "military research site".[489]Cluster bombs[edit]The Syrian army began usingcluster bombsin September 2012. Steve Goose, director of the Arms division at Human Rights Watch said "Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs", "The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward."[490]Scud missile attacks[edit]In December 2012, the Syrian government began usingScudmissiles on rebel-held towns, primarily targeting Aleppo.[491]On 19 February, four Scud missiles were fired, three landed in Aleppo city and one onTell Rifaattown, Aleppo governorate. Between December and February, at least 40 Scud missile landings were reported.[492]Altogether, Scud missiles killed 141 people in the month of February.[493]The United States condemned the Scud missile attacks.[494]On 1 March, a Scud missile landed in Iraq. It is believed that the intention was to hit the Deir Ezzor governorate.[495]On 29 March, a Scud missile landed onHretan, Aleppo, killing 20 and injuring 50.[496]On 28 April, a Scud missile landed on Tell Rifaat, killing four, two of them women and two of them children, SOHR reported.[497]On 3 June, a surface to surface missile, not confirmed as a Scud, hit the village ofKafr Hamraharound midnight killing 26 people including six women and eight children according toSOHR.[498]Suicide bombings[edit]Further information:List of bombings during the Syrian Civil WarRebel suicide bombingsbegan in December 2011; the Al-Nusra Front has claimed responsibility for 57 out of 70 similar attacks through April 2013.[74][499]The bombings have claimed numerous civilian casualties,[500]including 47 mainly Alawite children killed in Homs on 1 October 2014.[501]Barrel bombs[edit]Main article:Barrel bombA barrel bomb is a type ofimprovised explosive deviceused by the Syrian Air Force. Typically, a barrel is filled with a large amount of TNT, and possiblyshrapnel(such as nails) and oil, and dropped from a helicopter. The resulting detonation can be devastating.[502][503][504]Thermobaric weapons[edit]Thermobaric weapons, also known as "fuel-air bombs", have been used by the government side during the Syrian civil war. Since 2012, rebels have said that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during theBattle of Aleppoand also inKafr Batna.[505][506]A panel of United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the strategic town of Qusayr in March 2013.[507]In August 2013, the BBC reported on the use of napalm-like incendiary bombs on a school in northern Syria.[508]Belligerents[edit]Main article:List of armed groups in the Syrian Civil WarSyrian government and affiliated parties[edit]Syrian Armed Forces[edit]Main article:Syrian Armed Forces

Two destroyed Syrian Army tanks in Azaz, August 2012Before the uprising and war broke out, the force of the Syrian Armed Forces was estimated at 325,000 regular troops, of which 220,000 were 'army troops' and the rest in the navy, air force and air defenses. There were also approximately 280,000300,000 reservists. Since June 2011, defections of soldiers have been reported. By July 2012, theSyrian Observatory for Human Rightsestimated that tens of thousands of soldiers have defected, and a Turkish official estimated that 60,000 soldiers have defected.National Defense Force[edit]Main article:National Defense Force (Syria)The Syrian NDF was formed out of pro-government militias. They receive their salaries, and their military equipment from the government,[509][510]and numbers around 100,000.[511][512]The force acts in an infantry role, directly fighting against rebels on the ground and running counter-insurgency operations in coordination with the army, which provides them logistical and artillery support. The force has a 500-strong women's wing called "Lionesses of National Defense" which operates checkpoints.[513]NDF soldiers are allowed to takelootfrom battlefields, which can then be sold for extra money in locations dubbed the "Sunni markets".[509]Shabiha[edit]Main article:ShabihaTheShabihaare unofficial pro-government militias drawn largely from Assad'sAlawiteminority group. Since the uprising, the Syrian government has frequently usedshabihato break up protests and enforce laws in restive neighborhoods.[514]As the protests escalated into an armed conflict, the opposition started using the termshabihato describe any civilian Assad supporter taking part in the government's crackdown on the uprising.[515]The opposition blames theshabihafor the many violent excesses committed against anti-government protesters and opposition sympathizers,[515]as well as looting and destruction.[516][517]In December 2012, theshabihawere designated a terrorist organization by the United States.[518]Bassel al-Assadis reported to have created theshabihain the 1980s for government use in times of crisis.[519]Shabihahave been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad's regime";[520]"gunmen loyal to Assad",[521]and, according to the Qatar-based Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies, "semi-criminal gangs comprised of thugs close to the regime".[521]Despite the group's image as an Alawite militia, someshabihaoperating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunnis.[522]In 2012, the Assad government created a more organized official militia known as theJaysh al-Sha'bi, allegedly with help from Iran and Hezbollah. As with theshabiha, the vast majority of Jaysh al-Sha'bi members are Alawite and Shi'ite volunteers.[523][524]Christian militias[edit]A CBS report reported thatChristians in Syriaare largely in favour of the government because it claimed that they believe their survival is linked to his largely secular government.[525][526]Christian militias are fighting on the Syrian government's side.[527][528]According to theWorld Tribune.com, "The sources said thousands of Christians were joining the Syrian Army as well as such regime militias as National Defense Forces and the Popular Committees. They said NDF helped organize Christian units to protect communities, particularly in eastern Syria. A major unit has been called the Christian Resistance, said to operate in the Homs province."[529]Hezbollah[edit]Main article:Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian Civil WarGeneral SecretaryHassan Nasrallahdenied Hezbollah had been fighting on behalf of the Syrian government, stating in a 12 October 2012 speech that "right from the start the Syrian opposition has been telling the media that Hezbollah sent 3,000 fighters to Syria, which we have denied".[530]However, according to the LebaneseDaily Starnewspaper, Nasrallah said in the same speech that Hezbollah fighters helped the Syrian government "retain control of some 23 strategically located villages [in Syria] inhabited by Shiites of Lebanese citizenship". Nasrallah said that Hezbollah fighters have died in Syria doing their "jihadist duties".[531]In 2012, Hezbollah fighters crossed the border from Lebanon and took over eight villages in theAl-Qusayr Districtof Syria.[532]The former secretary general of Hezbollah, SheikhSubhi al-Tufayli, confirmed in February 2013 that Hezbollah was fighting for the Syrian army.[533]On 12 May, Hezbollah, with the Syrian army, attempted to retake part ofQusayr.[253]By the end of the day, 60 percent of the city, including the municipal office building, were under pro-Assad forces.[253]In Lebanon, there have been "a recent increase in the funerals of Hezbollah fighters" and "Syrian rebels have shelled Hezbollah-controlled areas."[253]As of 14 May, Hezbollah fighters were reported to be fighting alongside the Syrian army, particularly in theHoms Governorate.[534]Hassan Nasrallah has called on Shiites and Hezbollah to protect the shrine of Sayida Zeinab.[534]President Bashar al-Assad denied in May 2013 that there were foreign fighters, Arab or otherwise, fighting for the government in Syria.[535]On 25 May, Nasrallah announced that Hezbollah was fighting in the Syria against Islamic extremists and "pledged that his group will not allow Syrian militants to control areas that border Lebanon".[536]He confirmed that Hezbollah was fighting in the strategic Syrian town of Qusayr on the same side asAssad's forces.[73]In the televised address, he said, "If Syria falls in the hands of America, Israel and thetakfiris, the people of our region will go into a dark period."[73]According to independent analysts, by the beginning of 2014, approximately 500 Hezbollah fighters had died in the Syrian conflict.[537]Iran[edit]Main article:Iranian support for Syria in the Syrian Civil WarSince the start of the civil war, Iran has expressed its support for the Syrian government and has provided it with financial, technical, and military support, including training and some combat troops.[538]IranandSyriaareclose strategic allies. Iran sees the survival of the Syrian government as being crucial to its regional interests.[539][540]Iran'ssupreme leader,Ali Khamenei, was reported in September 2011 to be vocally in favor of the Syrian government.[541]In thecivil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war, Iran provided Syria with technical support based on Iran's capabilities developed following the20092010 Iranian election protests.[541]As the uprising developed into theSyrian civil war, there were increasing reports of Iranian military support, and of Iranian training of NDF (National Defence Forces) both in Syria, and in Iran.[542]Iranian security and intelligence services are advising and assisting the Syrian military to preserve Bashar al-Assad's hold on power.[539]Those efforts include training, technical support, combat troops.[538][539]By December 2013 Iran was thought to have approximately 10,000 operatives in Syria.[540]But according to Jubin Goodarzi, assistant professor and researcher ofWebster University, Iran aided the Assad regime with a limited number of deployed units and personnel, "at most in the hundreds ... and not in the thousands as opposition sources claimed".[543]LebaneseHezbollahfighters backed by Tehran has taken direct combat roles since 2012.[540][544]In the summer of 2013, Iran and Hezbollah provided important battlefield support for Assad, allowing it to make advances on the opposition.[544]In 2014, coinciding with thepeace talks at Geneva II, Iran has stepped up support for Syrian President Assad.[540][544]Syrian Minister of Finance and Economy announced that the "Iranian government has given more than 15 billion dollars" to Syria.[545]Iranian Revolutionary Guards CorpsQuds ForcecommanderQasem Suleimaniis in charge of Syrian President Assad's security portfolio and has overseen the arming and training of thousands of pro-government Shi'ite fighters.[149][546]Syrian Opposition[edit]Main articles:Syrian OppositionandSyrian Interim Government

Coalition members inDoha. In center, presidental-Khatib, along with VPsSeifandAtassi, as well as allSNCchairmenGhalioun,SiedaandSabra.Syrian National Coalition[edit]Main article:National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition ForcesOn 11 November 2012 in Doha, the National Council and other opposition forces united as theNational Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces.[547]The following day, it was recognized as the legitimate government of Syria by numerousPersian Gulfstates. Delegates to the Coalition's leadership council are to include women and representatives of religious and ethnic minorities, including Alawites. The military council will reportedly include the Free Syrian Army.[548]The main aims of the National Coalition are replacing theBashar al-Assadgovernment and "its symbols and pillars of support", "dismantling the security services", unifying and supporting theFree Syrian Army, refusing dialogue and negotiation with the al-Assad government, and "holding accountable those responsible for killing Syrians, destroying [Syria], and displacing [Syrians]".[549]Free Syrian Army[edit]Main article:Free Syrian Army

Free Syrian Army fighters being transported by pick up truckThe formation of the Free Syrian Army (FSA) was announced on 29 July 2011 by a group of defectingSyrian Armyofficers. In a video, the men called upon Syrian soldiers and officers to defect to their ranks, and said the purpose of the Free Syrian Army was to defend civilian protesters from violence by the state, and "to bring this [Syrian] regime down".[550]Many Syrian soldiers subsequently deserted to join the FSA.[551]By December 2011, the estimated number of soldiers who had defected to the FSA was ranging from 1,000 to over 25,000.[552]The FSA functions more as an umbrella organization than a traditional military chain of command, and was first "headquartered" in Turkey, but moved its command headquarters to northern Syria in September 2012.

FSA soldiers plan during theBattle of Aleppo(October 2012).In March 2012, two reporters ofThe New York Timeswitnessed an FSA attack with aroadside bomband AK-47 rifles on a column of armored Syrian tanks inSaraqibinIdlib Governorate, and learned that FSA had a stock of able, trained soldiers and ex-officers, organized to some extent, but were without the weapons to put up a realistic fight.[553]In April 2013, theUSannounced it would transfer $123 million in nonlethal aid to Syrian rebels through defected generalSalim Idriss, leader of the FSA.[554]In May 2013,Salim Idriss, the FSA leader, acknowledged that "the rebels" were badly fragmented and lacked the military skill needed to topple the government of President Bashar al-Assad. Idriss said he was working on a countrywide command structure, but that a lack of material support was hurting that effort. "Now it is very important for them to be unified. But unifying them in a manner to work like a regular army is still difficult", Idriss said. He acknowledged common operations with Islamist groupAhrar ash-Shambut denied any cooperation with Islamist groupal-Nusra Front.[554]Abu Yusaf, a commander of theIslamic State(IS), said in August 2014 that many of the FSA members who had been trained by United States and Turkish and Arab military officers were now actually joining IS.[555]On the contrary to the ISIS commander's claims, by September 2014 the Free Syrian Army was joining an alliance and a common front with Kurdish militias including the YPG to fight ISIS.[556][557]Syrian National Council[edit]Main article:Syrian National CouncilFormed on 23 August 2011, the National Council is a coalition of anti-government groups, based in Turkey. The National Council seeks the end of Bashar al-Assad's rule and the establishment of a modern, civil, democratic state. SNC has links with theFree Syrian Army. In November 2012, the council agreed to unify with several other opposition groups to form theSyrian National Coalition. The SNC has 22 out of 60 seats of the Syrian National Coalition.[558]Islamic Front[edit]Main article:Islamic Front (Syria)TheIslamic Front(Arabic: ,al-Jabhat al-Islmiyyah) is a merger of seven rebel groups involved in theSyrian civil war[16]that was announced on 22 November 2013.[559]The group has between 40,000[560]and 60,000 fighters. An anonymous spokesman for the group has stated that it will not have ties with theSyrian National Coalition,[561]though a member of the political bureau of the group, Ahmad Musa, has stated that he hopes for recognition from theSyrian National Councilin cooperation for what he suggested "the Syrian people want. They want a revolution and not politics and foreign agendas."[562]The group is widely seen as backed and armed bySaudi Arabia.[563][564][565]Salafist factions[edit]Further information:Foreign rebel fighters in the Syrian Civil WarIn September 2013, US Secretary of StateJohn Kerrystated that extremist groups make up 1525% of rebel forces.[566]According toCharles Lister, about 12% of rebels are part of groups linked toal-Qaeda, 18% belong toAhrar ash-Sham, and 9% belong toSuqour al-Sham Brigade.[567][568]These numbers contrast with a report byJane's Information Group, a defence outlet, claiming almost half of all rebels being affiliated to Islamist groups.[569]Foreign fightershave joined the conflict in opposition to Assad. While most of them are jihadists, some individuals, such asMahdi al-Harati, have joined to support the Syrian opposition.[570]TheICSRestimates that 2,0005,500 foreign fighters have gone to Syria since the beginning of the protests, about 711 percent of whom came from Europe. It is also estimated that the number of foreign fighters does not exceed 10 percent of the opposition armed forces.[571]Another estimate puts the number of foreign jihadis at 15,000 by early 2014[572]), TheEuropean Commissionexpressed concerns that some of the fighters might use their skills obtained in Syria to commit acts of terrorism back in Europe in the future.[573]

Islamic campaign in support of Syrian oppositionIn October 2012, various Iraqi religious groups join the conflict in Syria on both sides. Radical Sunnis from Iraq, have traveled to Syria to fight against PresidentBashar al-Assadand the Syrian government.[574]Also, Shiites from Iraq, inBabil ProvinceandDiyala Province, have traveled toDamascusfromTehran, or from the Shiite Islamic holy city ofNajaf, Iraq to protectSayyida Zeinab, an important mosque and shrine ofShia Islamin Damascus.[574]In September 2013, leaders of 13 powerful rebel brigades rejected Syrian National Coalition and called Sharia law "the sole source of legislation". In a statement they declared that "the coalition and the putative government headed by Ahmad Tomeh does not represent or recognize us". Among the signatory rebel groups wereAl-Nusra Front,Ahrar ash-ShamandAl-Tawheed.[575]In November 2013, seven Islamist groups combined to form theIslamic Front.Al-Nusra Front[edit]Main article:Al-Nusra FrontThe al-Nusra Front, being the biggestjihadistgroup in Syria, is often considered to be the most aggressive and violent part of the opposition.[576]Being responsible for over 50suicide bombings, including several deadly explosions in Damascus in2011and2012, it is recognized as a terrorist organization by Syrian government and was designated as such by United States in December 2012.[74]In April 2013, the leader of theIslamic state of Iraqreleased an audio statement announcing that al-Nusra Front is its branch in Syria.[577]The leader of al-Nusra, Abu Mohammad al-Golani, said that the group will not merge with the Islamic State of Iraq, but still maintain allegiance toAyman al-Zawahiri, the leader ofal-Qaeda.[578]The relationship between the Al-Nusra Front and the indigenous Syrian opposition is tense, even though al-Nusra Front has fought alongside the FSA in several battles and some FSA fighters defected to the al-Nusra Front.[579]The Mujahideen's strict religious views and willingness to imposesharia lawdisturbed many Syrians.[580]Some rebel commanders have accused foreign jihadists of "stealing the revolution", robbing Syrian facto