Table 4.18: Jewellery (not beads) and possible accessories ... · Darling Quarter, Darling Harbour Table 4.18: Jewellery (not beads) and possible accessories from Steam Mill Street

223

Casey & Lowe Miscellaneous, Organics & Non-Structural Metals Report Darling Quarter, Darling Harbour

Table 4.18: Jewellery (not beads) and possible accessories from Steam Mill Street houses in Area 8. Note: * probable Leontine chain pendant.

Phase House Room Context Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type From To #MIC

6 7 1 8735 furn/jew chain aes

1

jew ring glass

1

2 8700 cloth/jew inlay MoP

1

jew ring aes

2

9 2 8610 currency/game/jew token/counter/pendant aes Spade guinea 1876 1895 1

furn/jew chain aes

1

cloth/jew button/ring glass

1

inlay glass

1860

2

glass/au

1860

1

ring aes

1

jew badge aes/fe

1

brooch/clip aes

1

brooch/pendant aes/ag

1

gem (fake) glass Diamond

1

Emerald

1

Sapphire

1

pendant* aes

1

ring aes

1

aes/au

1

jew/access brooch/clip aes

1

chain aes

1

inlay/seal glass

1

link aes

1

fe

1

cloth/jew button/brooch aes

1

11 2 8529 cloth/jew inlay glass

2

jew bracelet/necklace aes

1

brooch aes

2

brooch/stud glass/au

1

disc vulcanite

1851

1

earring aes

1

gem (fake) glass Emerald

1

Ruby

2

inlay glass

2

1860

1

necklace aes

1850 1920 1

pendant* aes Three pence Lauer 1887 1901 1

bone Cat tooth

1

ring aes

1

stud aes/glass/bone 3-piece mounted

1950 1

jew/access chain aes

1

pendant* glass/aes/au Intaglio 1850 1920 1

13 2 8630 furn/jew chain aes

2

cloth/jew button/setting aes

7

inlay glass

5

jet

1860

1

ring aes

1

jew clasp aes

1

earring aes

2

earring au

1

gem (fake) glass Amber

1

Ruby

1

Sapphire

1

pendant* aes

1

carnelian

1

unid aes

1


1850 1950 1

link aes

1

3 8585 cloth/jew button/brooch bone

1

jew gem (fake) glass/aes Ruby

1

15 1 8861 cloth/jew inlay glass

2

jew/access link aes

1

2 8810 cloth/jew inlay glass

1

224


Phase House Room Context Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type From To #MIC

6 19 1 8850 jew brooch aes

1

gem (fake) glass Amber

1

glass/aes Emerald

2

inlay glass

1860

1

locket agate/carnelian/aes/au

1

ring aes

1

au

1861 1861 1


1

loop aes

1

7 9 2 8572 jew inlay glass

1860

1

13 4 8527 jew brooch aes/au 1

8/9

9008 time-keeping/jew watch/pendant* steel

1880

1

TOTAL 95

4.4.2 Beads The most numerous type of ‘jewellery’ at the site was beads. Most of these, 1888, were recovered during sieving of the underfloor deposits in the houses of Area 8 (excluding 8CT and unstratified context 8501). The various bead types were made of several materials although glass was predominant (Table 4.19 to Table 4.22). Beads are usually regarded as jewellery mostly worn by women strung onto necklaces, bracelets and earrings. However, in the Victorian period, when the houses were occupied, the smaller sized beads were commonly used to decorate dresses and other apparel, accessories such as bags, and a range of household furnishings including pillows and lamp shades.235 An example of this endeavour was an item found in House 19 Room 1 made of clear glass seed beads sewn onto black material (8850/#17206,Figure 3.55). Some of the larger beads were also suitable as drops and pulls for lamps, curtains or blinds; long narrow types were used for fringing. Although beads have a multiplicity of possible uses, to simplify the cataloguing process of these extremely numerous items, almost all were provisionally given the specific function of ‘jewellery’.236 However, analysis of the miscellaneous artefacts from the site has allowed a more detailed evaluation of the function of different types of beads in combination with artefacts associated with sewing and clothing. Results of this investigation are also presented within the themes of clothing and consumerism (Section 4.3) and household sewing (Section 4.8). The locations of beads within the houses are spatially plotted on tables below (Table 4.24, Table 4.25, Table 4.26). The different fabric, manufacture, shape and size of beads have been catalogued according to long-standing nomenclature conventions.237 The typology adopted follows that of the bead type series established at Casey & Lowe during analysis of previous projects. The glass and porcelain types of this expanding series have been equated with those recognised by researchers in Canada and USA (Table 4.20 to Table 4.22).238 The less numerous varieties were made of organic materials, stone, metal and frit which was a type of low-fired glass (Table 4.19). The elegant polished coral239, carnelian and copper alloy (aes) beads, and those of bone, may have been worn on necklaces or rosaries. Jet beads were often larger, carefully polished and used as necklace spacers or pendant beads. As jet was only mined in one location in England (Whitby), they were relatively expensive. At the site they were only found in

235

Clabburn: 1980; Wright 1995. 236

As listed in the tables of this report and the accompanying Artefact Catalogue. 237

Crowell, 1997: 161, 171; Francis 1994; Karklins 1985; Kidd & Kidd 1970; Ross 1990, 1997; Rumrill 1991; Spector 1976; Sprague 1985. 238

Proposed by Kidd & Kidd 1970; expanded by Karklins 1985 and others. Equivalent types listed on the tables. 239

Coral bead trade in Francis 2002: 3-6.

225


Houses 7 and 11.240 Black was very fashionable for jewellery from 1861 due to Queen Victoria favouring the colour during her long mourning for Prince Albert. Less costly versions were made in black glass. The turned and polished bone beads could also have been pulls and were found in almost all the houses. Disc-shaped coarse shell beads and those of frit with a glossy light pink glaze are more unusual.241 The shell beads may have come from a Pacific island or a more northern region along with some of the glass beads. The frit types were all found in House 13 and probably fell from a single necklace. Table 4.19: Bead types other than glass from Area 8 houses. Note: Other uses *jew/furnishing.

Fabric Type

Other Use

Phase House Context From To #MIC Method Chromas Shape Decoration Size

aes Cast Hollow

Spher

6 9 8610

1

carnelian Cut

red Spher

6 13 8630

1

Facetted

6 13 8630

1

coral Cut

pink Barrel

6 9 8610

2

19 8850

1

Seed

6 19 8850

1

jet Cut

black Pendant V Silvered

6 11 8529 1860 1930 1

Rect Tabular

6 7 8735 1860 1930 1

?

6 11 8529 1860 1930 1

bone Turned

Barrel

* 6 7 8700

2

7 9 8739

1

Cylind Banded

* 6 13 8630

1

Oblate

* 6 19 8850

1

Spher

* 6 9 8610

2

shell Turned

Disc

6 9 8610

1

11 8529

1

frit Wound

l pink glz Ellipsoid Glazed

6 13 8630

1

Oblate Glazed

6 13 8630

1

Spher Glazed

6 13 8630

1

TOTAL 22

The glass beads from the houses were made using different techniques, some of which have been practiced since the Roman era. The earliest were wound around a wire and often had an irregular shape (Wound, Table 4.20). Many of these are thought to have been made in Venice, Italy and were widely traded across the world especially to indigenous people in Africa, and North America. These larger beads are likely to have been threaded on necklaces but could also have been part of rosaries or perhaps lamp decoration. The bright light blue, dark green and amber wound beads were the most common. Only one wound bead from House 19 had been decorated by trailing in an alternate colour. Two pressed wound types were found in Houses 11 and 15. Drawn glass beads are those which were cut from long narrow hollow rods (Drawn, Table 4.20, Table 4.21). These rods began as hot blown glass with was then stretched and rolled to be extremely narrow. Each bead was then cut when the rod had cooled leaving irregular ends. Most of these bugles were left in this state. Some beads, such as seeds and barrels, were reheated and tumbled (h/t) to get a rounded shiny appearance. The monochrome 205 seed and 1314 bugle beads were the most common types in the assemblage from the Area 8 houses. These and small barrel beads were also the types most likely to have been used in embroidery.

240

Whitby jet http://www.whitbymuseum.org.uk/collections/jett.htm 241

Glazed frit beads possibly are the “dyed or coloured glass” beads with a heated powdered metal coating described in 1818, see Francis 1997: 12.

http://www.whitbymuseum.org.uk/collections/jett.htm

226


All these beads could be made of a single glass colour or in combination with one or several others. The vast majority of all types of beads from the site were monochrome but there were a significant number of bichrome h/t beads in all houses except House 7. They were particularly numerous in Houses 11 and 13 (Table 4.20, Table 4.26). The colour combinations at the site were translucent red on opaque white; opaque (brownish) red on translucent green; and translucent white on opaque creamy white.242 There has been considerable research done into the history of bichrome and wound beads in North America and why selection of certain colours can be important for individuals and social groups.243 Many early versions of these bichrome beads were made in Venice from the 1500s to c.1850. Those with red glass continue to be classified by some researchers as ‘Cornaline d’Aleppo’ or ‘Hudson’s Bay Company’ beads.244 The white-centred bichrome beads may prove useful mid 19th- century chronological markers for Australian historical sites. These types were not present at Mohawk settlements in USA dating from c.1580-1785.245 Several varieties are reputed to have been first made in 1830 and became increasingly common in western North America from the 1840s.246 They were the predominant variety at Fort Vancouver, Canada (1829-1860) followed by brownish red on green.247 At a military redoubt in southwestern Alaska (1841-1917) they were the only variety present. The Hudson’s Bay Company, who traded to lands bordering the North Atlantic and Pacific oceans, sold many bichrome bead varieties. Cargo from this company is recorded in 19th-century newspapers as arriving in Sydney. Such goods were probably sold in shops in central Sydney, but may also have been picked up by sailors and other maritime workers in a number of ports. Other drawn beads were facetted either by hand or with the aid of a mould and then polished. Many probably came from Venice. The good quality highly polished examples are thought to have been made in Bohemia, the present day Czech Republic, from c.1820. These are generally translucent cobalt blue and have also been traditionally called ‘Russian Blues’ particularly in Alaska where they were traded by the Hudson’s Bay Company.248 Although they were not particularly common these beads were found in Houses 9, 11, 13 and 19 (Table 4.22). Of the three facetted bichrome varieties one was from House 7. Another thick good quality unfacetted drawn bead made of several different glass canes also came from House 13. All the moulded bead types were found only in Houses 9, 11, 13 and 19 (Table 4.22). Many would have been suitable for necklaces. Of these the mould-pressed varieties with irregular facets made on a mandrel (requiring the second hole to be punched-through) can be more definitely attributed to Bohemia. They are dated from c.1800-c.1860, or perhaps as late as 1878.249 Finally the only example of a thin blown glass bead was the clear concave bicone from House 19 (Table 4.22).

242

Original Kidd & Kidd 1970 Category IVa5=redwood on clear apple green, IVa9=scarlet on opaque white; no white on white but IVa13=oyster white on grey. Continued and expanded by Karklins 1985 within Type IVa Non-Tubular Polychrome (Multi-Layered Beads). 243

Crowell 1997. 244

Carribean area in Deagan 1987: 168; Canada in Ross 1990. 245

Rumrill 1991. These site had numerous disc shell beads. 246

Crowell 1997: 161, 171. 247

Ross 1990. 248

Crowell 1997: 171; Francis 1994. 249

Kidd & Kidd 1970: Type MPIIa-sppgf. Ross 1990: 32, 52-54; Francis 2000.

227


Table 4.20: Wound and h/t drawn glass bead types from Area 8 houses. Note: Other uses *jew/furnishing; ‡ jew/ornament.

Fabric Type Kidd/ Other

Use Phase House Context From To #MIC

Method Chromas Shape Decoration Size Karklins

glass Wound

Monochrome Annular

WId 6 11 8529

3

13 8630

1

19 8850

1

Barrel

WIc barrel 6 9 8610

1

11 8529

4

13 8630

2

Ellipsoid

WIc 6 11 8529

4

13 8630

3

Oblate

WI oblate 6 7 8700

5

9 8610

6

11 8529

11

13 8585

3

8630

15

19 8850

7

7 7 8602

1

Spher

WIb * 6 9 8610 1

6 11 8529 6 13 8630 1

15 8861

1

19 8850

7

8 7 8591

1

Unid

- ‡ 6 13 8630 1

Bichrome Spher Trail WIIId 6 19 8850 1

Press Monochrome Ovoid

WIIb* 6 11 8529

1

15 8821

1

glass Drawn h/t Monochrome Annular

IIa 6 11 8529

1

Barrel

IIa 6 7 8700

2

9 8610

3

11 8529

5

13 8585

9

8630

13

15 8861

1

19 8850

8

Oblate

IIa 6 7 8700

1

11 8529

2

Seed

IIa 6 7 8700

2

8735

1

9 8610

58

11 8529

14

8615

1

13 8585

5

8614

7

8630

35

15 8810

2

8861

8

19 8850

72

(glass/fabric) Drawn h/t Monochrome Seed

IIa * 6 19 8850

1

glass Drawn h/t Bichrome Barrel IVa 6 11 8529 5

13 8585 17 8614 2 8630 80

19 8850 1

Seed IVa 6 9 8610 2 8634 1

11 8529 27 8615 1

13 8585 3 8630 11

15 8810 1 19 8850 5

7 17 8860 1

TOTAL 496

228


Table 4.21: Cut drawn glass bead types from Area 8 houses. Note: Other uses ‡ jew/ornament. Note: *variant.




glass Drawn Cut Monochrome Bugle cylind

Ia 6 7 8700

2

9 8610

6

8634

2

11 8529

14

13 8630

1

15 8810

1

8861

1

19 8850

4

‡ 6 11 8529

1

Long Ia 6 9 8610

1

13 8585

1

8630

3

19 8850

1

‡ 6 11 8529

5

13 8585

3

8630

10

19 8850

9

Bugle hexag

Ic 6 7 8700

13

8735

3

9 8610

64

8634

4

11 8529 84

8615

2

13 8585

82

8608

1

8614

5

8630

707

15 8810

2

8821

2

8861

34

19 8850

231

7 13 8527

1

17 8860

2

Short 6 7 8735

1

Long ‡ 6 11 8529

5

15 8861

3

19 8850

2

Bugle oval

Ia* 6 9 8610

1

Bugle Facetted polished

6 9 8610

5

8634

1

11 8529

2

13 8630

10

19 8850

3

7 9 8737

2

Bichrome Bugle Facetted polished

IIIf 6 7 8735

1

6 9+11 8694

2

Polychrome Bugle cylind

Long Ibb 6 13 8630

1

TOTAL 1341

The main concentrations of beads were found in Houses 13, 19, 11 and 9 (Table 4.23 to Table 4.26). Most were in the rear Room 2 or the single Phase 6 ground floor Room 1 in House 19. Interestingly all four rooms in House 13 had beads. The high number of small beads in the underfloor deposits of Rooms 2 and 3 indicates that a lot of beadwork, probably embroidery, was being done in these spaces. There may have been better light in Room 3, as it was beside the yard. This work could have been for the family or run on a small commercial basis. Other sewing and some clothing items from House 13 support either interpretation (Section 4.3, Section 4.8).

229


Table 4.22: Moulded and blown glass bead types from Area 8 houses. Note: Other uses ‡ jew/ornament. Note *=glass inlaid in aes spacer.




glass Moulded

Monochrome Oblate

MPIa oblate 7 9 8737

1

Spher

MPIa spher 6 11 8529

2

Barrel Facetted

MPIIa barrel 6 9 8625

1

Conical Facetted MPII*conical 6 13 8630 1860 1

Hemispher Facetted MPII*hemispher 6 19 8850 1850 1

Lenticular Facetted MPIIa lenticular 6 11 8529 1860 1

Spacer Rect concave* MPIf 6 13 8630 1

Pendant hemispher MPI* ‡ 6 13 8630 1840 1900 1

Pendant ovoid MPI* ‡ 6 19 8850 1

Pendant hexag Facetted MPII* 6 11 8529 1860 1

Mandrel Czech

Monochrome Bicone MPI bicone 6 19 8850 1800 1860 1

Bicone Facetted

MPII bicone 6 9 8610 1800 1860 1

Oblate Facetted

MPII oblate 6 13 8585 1800 1860 4

8630 1800 1860 3

Spher Facetted

MPII spher 6 9 8610 1800 1860 1

11 8529 1800 1860 4

13 8630 1800 1860 1

19 8850 1800 1860 2

Blown

Monochrome Bicone concave

BI* 6 19 8850

1

TOTAL 29

4.4.3 Beads Spatial Analysis The spatial location of the beads in each house varied from room to room. Most beadwork and general sewing would probably have been done while sitting near a window or doorway during the day. However, some beadwork may have been done beside a bright fire or lamp at night. The location where beads are concentrated in most houses bears this idea out. The distribution in House 7 mirrored House 9 in both rooms 1 and 2 which confirms that the houses had a twinned layout. The beads were mostly located some distance from the fireplaces in Room 2. However, in House 7 very little beadwork or sewing appears to have been done at all. It is possible that the sewer was extremely careful or that the floor was partially covered. In House 11 the beads are concentrated in a wide diagonal grouping across the southwestern half of Room 2 with only four in Room 1. As has been discussed previously (Section 3.3.3) the beads may be more numerous in that zone because workers had dug up the underfloor deposits in Rooms 1 and 2 to install a service pipe and then possibly scraped more of the deposits back into the trench to fill it and tidy up the area. Beads in House 13 were concentrated around the centre of Room 2 and in the adjacent Room 3 beside the north wall and northwest corner. In House 15 there were tight groups of beads in the extreme northern corners in the west and east (north of the fireplace) of Room 1. Disturbance of Room 2 left a haphazard scatter of only nine beads. Lastly Room 1 of House 19 was where every activity on the ground-floor occurred during Phase 6. As with many other categories of artefacts in the room the beads clustered along the south wall near the back door and were also in the northwest corner. More beads were found beside the fireplace in this room than in any other house. Table 4.23: Beads from gridded underfloor deposits in Houses 13 and 17 not on spatial location plans.

House Room Phase Context Sq Alpha Sq No From To #MIC

13 1 6 8608 G 3

1

4 7 8527 D 4 1 1

17 2 7 8860 A 9

2

C 7

1

TOTAL 5

230

Table 4.24: Spatial location of beads Houses 7 & 9. House 7 Room 1 (above) Room 2.

8735 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL %

A 1 1 2 28.6

B 1 1 2 28.6

C 2 2 28.6

D 1 1 14.3

E 0 0.0

F 0 0.0

G 0 0.0

TOTAL 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 4 7 100

% 14.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.3 57.1 100

8700 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL %

A 1

3 4 16.0

B

0 0.0

C

0 0.0

D

1 2 3 12.0

E

2

3 1 2 8 32.0

F 2

1

1

1 4 9 36.0

G

1

1 4.0

TOTAL 3 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 4 3 11 25 100

% 12.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 12.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.0 12.0 44.0 100

House 9 Room 1 (above) Room 2.

8634 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TOTAL %

A 2 4

6 42.9

B

1

7

8 57.1

C

0 0.0

D

0 0.0

E

0 0.0

F

0 0.0

G

0 0.0

TOTAL 2 5 0 0 0 0 7 0 14 100

% 14.3 35.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 100

8610 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL %

A

1

3 1

5 3.2

B

1

1 0.6

C 1

1 0.6

D 1

1

2 1.3

E 10 9 3 2

24 15.6

F 22 19 6 4

1 52 33.8

G 8 8 26 23 4

69 44.8

TOTAL 42 38 36 32 5 0 0 1 0 154 100

% 27.3 24.7 23.4 20.8 3.2 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 100

Table 4.25: Spatial location of beads Houses 11 and 19.

231


8615 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A

0 0.0

B

0 0.0

C

0 0.0

D

0 0.0

E

0 0.0

F

0 0.0

G

3

3 75.0

H

1

1 25.0

TOTAL 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 100

% 0.0 75.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100

8529 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A 4 9 7 6 3 2 2

33 17.0

B

3 10 14 3

30 15.5

C 1 3 7 7 6 4

1 29 14.9

D

1 8 4 14 5 6 4 42 21.6

E

2

13 5 13 10 43 22.2

F

7 5 3 2

17 8.8

TOTAL 5 16 34 38 44 19 23 15 0 0 194 100

% 2.6 8.2 17.5 19.6 22.7 9.8 11.9 7.7 0.0 0.0 100

House 19 Room 1.

8850 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A 20 37 31 3 2 4 2

99 28.4

B

4

1 1

6 1.7

C

1 3 1

5 1.4

D 4

1 2

7 2.0

E 20 1

1 1 5 4 63 18.1 4 27

F 4 2

1 36 5 9 35 1 7 14

168 48.3

TOTAL 48 44 31 4 39 66 47 24 18 27 348 100

% 13.8 12.6 8.9 1.1 11.2 19.0 13.5 6.9 5.2 7.8 100

232

Table 4.26: Spatial location of beads, Houses 13 and 15. House 13 Room 2 (above) Room 3 (8585 combined with 8614).

8630 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL %

A

6 11 16 12 11

56 6.3

B

4 32 26 29 25 21 8 145 16.2

C

16 63 28

28 10 13 158 17.7

D

29 49 50 38 25 26 13 230 25.7

E 5 16 44 39 66 38 12 19 239 26.7

F 1 5 13 1 1 15 14 7

66 7.4

TOTAL 6 70 207 165 164 142 87 53 0 894 100

% 0.7 7.8 23.2 18.5 18.3 15.9 9.7 5.9 0.0 100

8585 8614

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 TOTAL %

A 24 1

9 5 5 1 45 32.6

Total B

3 12 1 11 11 10

48 34.8

C 1 5 3 1 12 6

28 20.3

D 8

7 2

17 12.3

E

0 0.0

F

0 0.0

TOTAL 36 18 11 23 28 21 1 138 100

% 26.1 13.0 8.0 16.7 20.3 15.2 0.7 100


8861 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A 12 13

16 41 91.1

B

4

4 8.9

C

0 0.0

D

0 0.0

E

0 0.0

F

0 0.0

G

0 0.0

TOTAL 12 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 45 100

% 26.7 37.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 35.6 100

8810 *8821

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A

1*

1 2 22.2

B

2* 1

3 33.3

C

0 0.0

D

1*

1 11.1

E

3

3 33.3

TOTAL 0 4 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 1 9 100

% 0.0 44.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 33.3 11.1 0.0 0.0 11.1 100

*=1 only in 8821

233


4.5 Grooming There were relatively few artefacts associated with grooming from the site as a whole (Table 4.27). Of these, 26 were found within all houses of Steam Mill Street in Area 8 with the exception of the disturbed Houses 15 and 17. The predominant items were combs of various sizes, followed by ‘nit’ combs and haircombs. Almost all were made of vulcanite, a form of black hard rubber (invented in 1844) used to mould combs from 1851.250 As it has good insulating properties vulcanite was also made into smoking pipe mouthpieces and a range of other objects.251 All grooming items could have been purchased at a number of city stores but the ivory combs may have come from a specialist maker or seller.

‘Nit’ combs have a row of narrow teeth either side of a flat central spine. They are found on many Victorian and Edwardian sites and are still used today.252 Of most interest from Darling Quarter were four very similar nit combs made of sawn, carved and polished ivory (Figure 4.5). They were found below the floor in rooms where the main activities were carried out in Houses 7, 11, 13 and 19. Of the two moulded vulcanite nit combs, one from Room 2 in House 11 (Figure 3.27) was made by the Scottish Vulcanite Company (1860-1910).253

Haircombs are still used by women to tidy and ornament their hairstyles, in effect a type of accessory. Sometimes the fragments were too small to be able to distinguish between the combs, although haircombs tend to be thinner and curved in profile. Among the small group from Areas 6 and Houses 9 and 13 in Area 8 (Figure 3.40, 8630/#15410) were taller ‘mantilla’ style haircombs with a variety of modestly decorated spines, some with wavy edges or piercing.254 Someone, presumably a girl or woman in House 11 also took care to style or curl their hair as shown by the thrifty reuse of a smoking pipe stem as a hair curler (8529/#98686, Figure 3.30).255 Male shaving is evident only with the single positively identified razor from House 11 with ivory scales inlaid with a small aes plate on one side.256 Razors are more curved and generally slimmer than penknives. However, when they are badly damaged or corroded it can be difficult to distinguish between the two. In House 11, for instance, four penknives were found in Room 2, with at least one possibly being a razor. It is perhaps not unusual to have so few razors at the houses. Firstly as a sizeable item of personal grooming they would not have been easily lost. Secondly many men during Victorian and Edwardian times wore beards. Thirdly men living in the houses may have regularly gone to a local barber.

250

Couzens & Yarsley 1968; Katz 1986. ‘I. R. Comb Co., and Charles Goodyear: Hair comb (2000.561)’, inHeilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2000–. 251

Bradley 2000. 252

For example Sacramento USA: Hellman & Yang 1997. 253

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/2000.561 (October 2006). Similar comb in Victoria: http://museumvictoria.com.au/collections/items/1260868/comb-plastic-scottish-vulcanite-co-edinburgh-circa-1880; Scottish Vuclanite Company history: http://www.nbrinklies.com/thebusiness1946-1972.html 254

Similar combs and haircombs advertised in catalogues: Cuffley 1984, 1997; May 1998; Parr, Hicks & Stareck (eds.) 1976; Sears, Roebuck & Co. 1906. 255

Alternative uses for pipes: Sudbury 1978; Walker 1976. 256

Similar razors and penknives advertised in catalogues: Cuffley 1984, 1997; May 1998; Parr, Hicks & Stareck (eds.) 1976; Sears, Roebuck & Co. 1906.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/2000.561

http://museumvictoria.com.au/collections/items/1260868/comb-plastic-scottish-vulcanite-co-edinburgh-circa-1880

http://www.nbrinklies.com/thebusiness1946-1972.html

234


Table 4.27: Items associated with grooming found at the site. Shape Fabric Type Manuf Country Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

comb ivory Nit

8 6 7 2 8700

1

11 2 8529

1

13 2 8630

1

19 1 8850

1

vulcanite -

7 7

7950 1851 1950 1

8004 1851 1950 1

8 6 7 2 8700 1851 1950 1

9 1 8634 1851 1950 1

2 8610 1851 1950 1

11 2 8529 1851 1950 1

13 2 8630 1851 1950 1

3 8585 1851 1950 1

19 1 8850 1851 1950 1

7 11 Yard 8663 1851 1950 1

13 4 8527 1851 1950 1

19 2 8874 1851 1950 1

All

8501 1851 1950 1

Nit

UK 8 7 9 Yard 8535 1851 1950 1

Scottish Vulc Co Scot 8 6 11 2 8529 1860 1910 1

vulcanite/aes -

8 7 7 Yard 8736 1851 1950 1

comb/hair comb vulcanite -

8 7 7+9 Yard 8724 1851 1950 1

6 11 2 8529 1851 1950 1

6 13 2 8630 1851 1950 1

6 15 2 8810 1851 1950 1

curler kaolin -

Aus/Syd 8 6 11 2 8529 1860

1

hair clip vulcanite -

8 6 11 2 8529 1851

1

hair comb vulcanite -

6 9

8209 1851 1950 1

8 6 9 1 8634 1851 1950 1

13 2 8630 1851 1950 1

razor ivory/fe/aes -

8 7 11 1+2 8587 1840

1

TOTAL 30

Figure 4.5: Ivory nit combs from Area 8 houses. Left-right, top row: Fragments from House 13 Room 2 8630/#15818, 8529/#98781. Middle: Near whole comb from House 7 Room 2 8700/#80856. Bottom: Shorter comb from House 19 Room 1 8850/#16680. 1cm scale divisions, photograph Gallery2.

235


4.6 Health and Hygiene Few artefacts associated with health and hygiene were found at Darling Quarter. Of these three were from the houses on Steam Mill Street in Area 8 (Table 4.28). Almost all were bone toothbrushes which became more widely accepted by the general populous from the mid 19th century. They were made with the aid of a template to evenly drill holes for bristles that were secured with copper wires either through grooves in the back of the head or via trepanned channels from the top of the head. Many of these were made in the UK with two examples from the site being marked by the manufacturer or a trademark/model name. They all appear adult-sized, but could have been used by anyone. Of the marked toothbrushes one from Area 6 was sold by Hamburger and Sons (1849-1855) who advertised that they were a: ‘Repository of English, French and German goods; fashionable jewellery and superior fancy articles.’257 Another from Area 8, House 19 may have been made locally or in England. It was sold by the Sydney chemist and druggist HE Hood who operated on South Head Road, Paddington from c.1850-1868.258 Oddly there was only one miscellaneous item associated with health from the site, a glass spectacles lens from Area 7.259 Perhaps the residents of the houses in Area 8 did not wear glasses or were very careful not to drop them. Table 4.28: Items associated with health and hygiene found at the site.

Shape Fabric Type Manuf Retailer/Pharmacist

Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC Country Name City Country Date

spectacle lens

glass

7 7

7927

1

toothbrush bone Extrafine Eng Hamburger Sydney Australia 1849-1855 6 9

8434 1849 1855 1

Wire trepan

Hood Aus/Syd Hood, H Sydney Australia 1850-1868 8 6 19 1 8873 1850 1868 1

Wire-grv

8 All

8501 1850 1950 1

Wire-grv

Warranted UK

8 7 9 Yard 8737 1850 1950 1

TOTAL 5

Artefacts directly associated with the feeding and looking after the welfare of babies are included here as this activity was extremely important to the families who resided in Steam Mill Street. These comprise five polished bone nipple guards that were attached to feeding bottles or teething rings (Table 4.29). They were found in Houses 9, 11, 17 and 19. Interestingly none came from House 13 occupied by the Moroney family with nine children.260 It is possible that by the time the family had moved in the children were already too old for bottle feeding. Bone was commonly used as a near sterile material for goods relating to personal hygiene and health until stainless steel became more cheaply available in the 20th century. Similar attachments were advertised in printed catalogues of the day.261

257

Advertisements in the The Sydney Morning Herald from 26 October 1849 to 10 March 1855. 258

Advertisements in the The Sydney Morning Herald from 3 February 1860 p. 6 to death 1868. Also benevolent actions: http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/13160994?searchTerm=boddington%20school&searchLimits=l-decade=186 259

Davidson & McGregor 1989. 260

Hincks Volume 1 Section 3.7 in this report. 261

Parr, Hicks & Stareck (eds.) 1976; Sears, Roebuck & Co. 1906.

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/13160994?searchTerm=boddington%20school&searchLimits=l-decade=186

236


Table 4.29: Evidence for babies at the site: bone feeding bottles or teething rings. Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Fabric Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

food baby feeding bottle bone 8 6 9 2 8610

1

11 2 8529

2

7 19 1 8834

1

8 17 1+2 8802

1

TOTAL 5

4.7 Tobacco Smoking Due to the popularity of smoking in the 18th to 20th centuries, evidence of that recreational activity is found on almost all archaeological sites. So it was not unusual that all areas at Darling Quarter contained fragments of tobacco pipes (Figure 4.6). Pipes were the main method of smoking tobacco until cigarettes became more widely adopted from c.1900. There was no evidence for any other smoked substance. Almost all pipes were moulded from white ball clay (kaolin) with a few being red or terracotta. Only some of the mouthpieces had been lead glazed, perhaps the glazed ends of other pipes wore off during use or their broken ends were discarded away from the houses. Many pipes are known to have been dipped in beer or other liquids to keep from burning the lips. As clay pipes were easily broken, displayed constantly changing styles, decoration and sometimes marks, they are an important resource for archaeological research and stratigraphic dating. Once broken, the small fired clay fragments do not decay in the soil and withstand many types of post-depositional movement and pressure. They are best recovered from deposits by wet sieving as was done for the underfloor and cesspit deposits at the houses of Area 8.

Figure 4.6: Select tobacco pipe types from Areas 6, 7 & 9. Left-right, top row: ‘TD’ in stars made in USA 9202/#80310; keeled bowl 8233/#80403; effigial Emile Bernard 9202/#80309; ship 8087/#80561; terracotta effigial General Gordon (?) 7994/#80521. Bottom row: claw 8097/#80566; Charles Crop, London spur mark 'J/L' 9206/#80320; Irish Cork dudeen style 9450/#80336. 10cm scale, Gallery2.

Individual pipemakers or countries as a whole preferred to mould and finish their pipes differently often making it is possible to identify where they were made from by morphology alone (Table 4.30). A number of larger firms advertised their numerous models in catalogues.262 Some of these made pipes to order for Sydney tobacconists or tobacco companies who had their business names on the stems or bowls as an advertisement. The McKinley Tarriff Act of 1890 ensured that most pipes coming to Australia made after that time were marked with the country of origin.263 As expected the clay models from the different areas, including the houses in Area 8, were predominantly cutties with more robust commercial or navvy/dudeen styles being increasingly

262

Duco 2004. 263

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McKinley_Tariff; http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/McKinley_Tariff.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McKinley_Tariff

http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/McKinley_Tariff.html

237


favoured from c.1860. Such short forms enabled a worker to carry on with manual labour while smoking.264 Table 4.30: Pipe types and their identified countries, manufacturers and tobacconists from the site.

Fabric Type Country Manuf Tobacconist From To #MIC

amber Composite

1860

1

Composite bent

1860

1

Composite half bent

1860

2

Composite straight

1860

5

amber/bone Composite straight

1860

1

bone Composite

1860

3

Composite bent

1860

1

Composite straight

1860

2

kaolin Advance Australia Scot White, T

1880 1882 1

Armorial

1850 1930 1

Armorial Burns cutty UK

1840 1930 1

Armorial Coat of Arms Aus/Syd

1820 1840 1

Armorial crown Scot McLean, P

1837 1900 1

Armorial Manx cutty Scot McDougall, D

1846 1967 1

Armorial shield Scot Davidson, T

1862 1911 1

Armorial thistle

1850 1930 1

Bent

1

1840

2

Bent Squatters Own UK

Bartlett, J. 1858 1880 1

Briar Eng H. N. & Co.

1880 1930 2

UK

Bartlett, J. 1858 1871 1

UK/Europe

1860 1930 3

Briar bent

1840 1960 1

British UK/Europe

1850

1

Burns cutty Eng

Friedlander 1850 1888 2

Scot

1850 1930 1

Davidson, T

1862 1911 4

McDougall, D

1846 1967 10

Murray, W

1830 1861 1

UK

1850 1930 2

Bush 1850 1966 1

Burns cutty pipe

1

Canada Higgins

1871

1

Scot McDougall, D

1846 1967 2

White, T

1880 1882 2

UK/Europe

1

Carved & beaded Scot Davidson, T

1862 1911 1

Carved cutty

1840 1960 1

1850 1930 1

1850 1960 1

Scot McDougall, D

1846 1967 3

UK/Europe 1850 1930 1

Carved swag UK/Europe

1850 1930 2

Churchwarden? Aus/Syd

1830 1880 1

Claw

1850 1930 1

Commercial Conqueror UK/Europe

1860 1930 3

Commercial Levy Bros UK

Levy Bros 1852 1912 1

Commercial sunflower smoke UK

1860 1930 1

Crop's Own Cutty Eng Crop, C

1856 1924 1

Cutty Scot Davidson, T

1862 1911 1

Scot McDougall, D

1846 1967 1

Scot Murray, W

1830 1861 1

UK

Saywell, T 1865 1905 1

Effigial UK/Europe

1840

1

Effigial Bernard Fra

1890 1950 1

264

Atkinson 1972; Ayto 1994; Bradley 2000; Davey (ed) 1987; Duco 2004; Gojak 1995; Gojak & Stuart 1999; Jack 1986; Oswald 1975; Pfeiffer 1986; Reckner & Dallal 2000; Scott & Scott 1981; Walker 1983; Wilson 1999; Wilson & Kelly 1987.

238


Fabric Type Country Manuf Tobacconist From To #MIC

Facetted floral Europe

1860 1930 1

Floral

2

Floral grapevine leaf UK/Europe

1830 1930 1

Flower vine UK/Europe

1860 1930 2

Fluted

3

1840 1930 2

1850 1930 3

Europe

1830 1880 1

Scot Murray, W

1830 1861 1

Fluted band Aus/Syd

1820 1840 1

Fluted leaf

1820 1880 1

1830 1900 1

Fluted?

1

Fouled anchor UK

1850 1930 1

Fouled anchor?

1

Geometric diamond & heart Scot McLean, P

1837 1900 1

Grapevine

1850 1930 1

Grapevine leaf UK

1840 1900 1

Irish Holl

1860 1930 1

UK/Europe

1860 1930 4

Irish Cork

1860 1930 1

Scot McDougall, D

1846 1967 1

UK/Europe

1860 1930 22

Irish Cork harp UK/Europe

1860 1930 2

Irish Cork rouletted Holl

1860 1930 3

UK/Europe

1860 1930 3

Irish harp rouletted UK/Europe

1860 1930 1

Irish rouletted UK/Europe

1860 1930 11

Keeled

1850 1930 2

Lachlander Eng

1850 1930 1

Eng Crop, C

1856 1924 3

UK

1850 1930 1

UK

Penfold, E 1856 1874 1

Milo

1867 1930 1

Regatta Cutty Scot Murray, W

1830 1861 1

Roughhead palm keeled UK

1860 1960 1

Ship

1850 1930 1

UK/Europe

1850 1930 1

Ship/anchor Holl Sparnaaij, FS

1865 1930 1

UK

Dixson, H 1839 1904 1

Ship/anchor & sextant Scot McDougall, D

1846 1967 1

Skiff Scot McDougall, D

1846 1967 1

Squatters Budgeree Scot White, T

1823 1876 1

UK

1840 1880 13

Sydney(?) cutty Scot

1850 1960 1

TD UK

1775 1820 1

USA

1845 1865 1

Thorn UK/Europe

1850 1930 1

TW Scot White, T

1823 1882 2

Zoomorphic Eng Crop, C

1856 1924 1

Zoomorphic horse rescue Eng Crop, C Meyers, J 1856 1908 2

Zoomorphic kangaroo Eng Crop, C

1856 1924 1

porc Composite European Ger

1860

1

terracotta Effigial Aus/Syd

1820 1880 1

Grapevine UK

1850 1930 2

Thistle/ship

1830 1900 1

vulcanite Composite straight

1865 1950 3

vulcanite/bone Composite straight

1865 1950 1

TOTAL 212

239


Component pipes with separate mouthpieces of bone, amber or vulcanite were only a small part of the assemblage. These models were more popular towards the end of the 19th century when bent (curved) European pipes and those made of wood (briar) became fashionable for smoking at home and among friends in pubs. They essentially replaced the delicate long-stemmed clay pipes, such as ‘Churchwardens’, of which there was one possible example in Room 2 of House 9 (8610/#81444).265 Component pipes had larger bores and were able to be pulled apart and kept clean. Their separately-made mouthpieces also meant the mouth was less singed and allowed the smoker to instantly change the style and appearance of the pipe. Amber mouthpieces were probably the most expensive, although vulcanite (hard rubber) was a fairly new man-made material adapted for pipes in c.1865. Silver bands and other decorative elements were also fashionable and advertised in printed catalogues and tobacconists’ displays. Being fragile the clay pipes were often broken shortly after purchase. Several had signs of longer use, such as tobacco staining and burning (torrefication) and broken stem modification. Many mouthpieces and stems had visible mouthwear and teethwear. At least one pipe was reused for a different purpose, for instance in House 11 where both ends of a broken stem had been ground to make a hair curler (9529/#98686). Pipes from the houses are discussed briefly below. Every house in Steam Mill Street had residents who smoked tobacco pipes. They were found in all rooms and the backyard (Table 4.31). The main location was in the rear Room 2 of the houses with two or three ground floor rooms, and in Room 1 of the mainly single-roomed House 19. The spatial locations of the broken pipes are tabled below (Table 4.33 to Table 4.36). The most popular pipemaker at Steam Mill Street was the large firm of Duncan McDougall, followed by Thomas White of Edinburgh, Charles Crop and Thomas Davidson of Glasgow (Table 2.6,). Unlike other houses the bulk of the evidence for smoking at Houses 7 and 9 was in the yard and demolition deposits. The heaviest smokers appear to have lived in House 13. They favoured pipes made by Duncan McDougall of Glasgow and those sold by the Sydney tobacconist Thomas Saywell (Table 2.8). The frequent smokers in House 9 tended to prefer different pipes, those made by Charles Crop of London and sold by the Sydney tobacconist Hugh Dixson. Local early makers such as William Cluer and Joseph Elliot were only found in Room 1 of House 13 and Room 2 of House 11 respectively. A single pipe from the yard of House 7 was attributed to the Dutch maker FS Sparnaaij. The pipes from House 13 showed the greatest variety of pipemakers, tobacconists and styles or types (Table 4.32). Many models were short cutties with highly patterned bowls or more modern commercial and composite forms. Of the colonial types ‘Squatters Budgeree’ was the most favoured as were pipes with an Irish Cork or harp theme. None of the Armorial British pipes were found at House 13. The smokers in House 9 also smoked many types of short cutties but preferred armorial British designs. Most of the evidence came from the yard, including an early ‘TD’ model and later styles such as ‘Thorn’ and two zoomorphic types with a horse rescue and a kangaroo. It is possible that most of the smoking was done outside but it could also have been where some of the household rubbish was dumped. Far less smoking appears to have occurred in House 7 but those found in the rooms and yard had a boat or ship theme. The tenants of Houses 11 and 19 liked similar themes to those in House 13 but smoked less. Those in House 19 were also fond of floral designs, including that of the Scottish thistle, several of the

265

Very similar to pipes found in the Woolpack Inn at 710-722 George Street, see Casey & Lowe 2011.

240


colonials and some commercial and composite models. House 15 had the only example of a pipe (8821/#16328, Figure 3.52) where the bowl was moulded into the shape of a bearded man’s head (‘Effigial’). Probably made in Britain or Europe, it was more carefully rendered than those made in Sydney from the 1820s-30s.266 A larger and more recent ‘effigial’ pipe (Figure 2.10) was found in 20th-century fill in Area 9 (9202/#80309). It had a bowl in the form of a bust of the French painter Emile Bernard (1868-1941). Although the maker is unidentified, it is typical of those made in France depicting artists, writers and other celebrities. From the late 18th century pipemakers in Europe, Britain, Australia and North America sometimes chose to respond to current events by moulding the bowl into the bust or head of a famous or infamous person. Other perennial subjects were kings and queens or stock folklore characters. The later models were much better rendered, were sturdier and showed people from a range of cultural spheres and those who were of more transient popular interest. As with illustrations in the printed media these pipes enabled the public to more fully participate in contemporary events and culture.267

266

Examples in Gojak & Stuart 1999; Stocks 2008; Wilson 1999; Wilson & Kelly 1987. 267

Ayto 1994; Bradley 2000; Duco 2004.

241


Table 4.31: Pipe makers and tobacconists found in the houses on Steam Mill Street. Manufacturer House 7 7+9 House 9 9+11 House 11 House 13 House 15 House 17 House 19 All Total %

Room Yard/-

All Room Yard/-

All Room Yard/- Room Room Yard/- Room Yard/- Room Yard/

1 2

1 2 1+2 1 2 1+2 1 2 3 4 1 2 1+2 1 2 1+2 1 2

Barth, D

1

1 1

3 2.8

Cluer, W

1

1 0.9 Crop, C

1

7

2

2

1

13 12.3

Davidson, T

2

3

5

1

11 10.4 Elliott, J

2

2 1.9

GCP

1

1 0.9

H. N. & Co.

4

4 3.8 Higgins

1

1 0.9

Kino, CJ

1

1 0.9

McDougall, D

1 1

2 8

3

16 3 1

1

2

2 40 37.7 McLean, P

2

2

4 3.8

MG

1

1 0.9

Miller, D

1

1

2 1.9 MPP

1

1 0.9

Murray, W 1

1 1

3 2.8

Sparnaaij, FS

1

1 0.9

White, T

1

1 1

4 2

1 1 4

15 14.2 White, W

1

1

2 1.9

TOTAL 1 2 5 1 0 5 27 1 0 12 2 1 28 7 2 0 1 0 0 1 1 7 0 2 106 100

% 0.9 1.9 4.7 0.9 0.0 4.7 25.5 0.9 0.0 11.3 1.9 0.9 26.4 6.6 1.9 0.0 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.9 6.6 0.0 1.9 100

Tobacconist House 7 House 9 9+11 House 11 House 13 House 15 15+17 House 17 House 19 All TOTAL %

Room Yard/- Room Yard/-

Room Yard/- Room Room Yard/-

Room Yard/- Room Yard/

1 2

1 2 1+2

1 2 1+2 1 2 3 4 1 2 1+2

1 2 1+2 1 2

Bartlett, J.

1

1 4.5

Dixson, H

1

1 1 1

3

1

1 1 1

2

13 59.1

Friedlander

1

1 4.5

Penfold, E

1

1 4.5

Saywell, T

1

1

1

3

6 27.3

TOTAL 0 2 0 0 1 3 1 0 1 3 0 4 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 22 100

% 0.0 9.1 0.0 0.0 4.5 13.6 4.5 0.0 4.5 13.6 0.0 18.2 4.5 0.0 0.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 0.0 9.1 0.0 4.5 0.0 0.0 100

242


Table 4.32: Pipe types from Area 8 Steam Mill Street houses.

Type Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

Advance Australia 6 19 1 8873 1880 1882 1

Armorial 6 9 2 8610 1850 1930 1

Armorial Burns cutty 7 9 Yard 8737 1840 1930 1

Armorial crown 7 9 Yard 8737 1837 1900 1

Armorial Manx cutty 7 9 Yard 8737 1846 1967 1

Armorial shield 7 9 Yard 8737 1862 1911 1

Armorial thistle 6 19 1 8850 1850 1930 1

Bent 6 7 2 8700 1840

2

9 2 8610

1

Bent Squatters Own 6 19 1 8850 1858 1880 1

Briar 7 7 Yard 8736 1860 1930 1

7+9 Yard 8724 1860 1930 1

9 Yard 8737 1880 1930 2

British 6 13 2 8630 1850

1

Burns cutty 6 9 Yard 8684 1846 1967 1

11 2 8529 1862 1911 3

13 2 8630 1846 1967 7

2 8630 1850 1888 1

19 1 8850 1860 1930 1

7 7 Yard 8736 1862 1911 1

9 Yard 8737 1846 1967 1

Burns cutty pipe 6 13 2 8630 1871

1

1880 1882 1

3 8585 1846 1967 2

8614

1

19 1 8850

1

7 17 2 8860 1880 1882 1

Carved & beaded 7 9 Yard 8737 1862 1911 1

Carved cutty 6 9 Yard 8625 1850 1960 1

11 2 8529 1846 1967 1

13 2 8630 1850 1930 2

7 7+9 Yard 8724 1840 1960 1

9 Yard 8737 1846 1967 2

Carved swag 6 13 3 8585 1850 1930 1

Churchwarden? 6 9 2 8610 1830 1880 1

Commercial Conqueror 6 11 2 8529 1860 1930 2

Commercial Levy Bros 6 13 2 8630 1852 1912 1

Commercial sunflower smoke 6 19 1 8850 1860 1930 1

Composite 6 13 2 8630 1860

4

Composite bent

7 2 8700 1860

2

Composite European

19 1 8850 1860

1

Composite half bent

13 2 8630 1860

2

Composite straight 6 11 2 8529 1860

3

13 3 8585 1860

1

9 2 8610 1860

2

7 11 1+2 8587 1865 1950 1

13 1 8579 1865 1950 1

2 8633 1860

1

17 2 8860 1865 1950 1

Cutty 6 13 2 8630 1830 1861 1

7 9 Yard 8737 1865 1905 1

Effigial 6 15 2 8821 1840

1

Facetted floral 6 19 1 8850 1860 1930 1

Floral 6 13 2 8630

1

15 2 8821

1

Floral grapevine leaf 6 9 Yard 8683 1830 1930 1

Flower vine 6 19 1 8850 1860 1930 2

Fluted 6 11 2 8529 1840 1930 1

13 2 8630 1830 1880 1

1850 1930 2

3 8585 1850

1

7 13 4 8527 1840 1930 1

7 Yard 8736

1

Fluted band 6 11 2 8529 1820 1840 1

243


Fouled anchor? 6 13 2 8630

1

Fouled anchor 6 13 3 8614 1850 1930 1

Geometric diamond & heart 7 9 Yard 8737 1837 1900 1

Grapevine 6 13 2 8630 1850 1930 2

7 13 4 8557

1

Grapevine leaf 6 11 Yard 8626 1840 1900 1

Irish 6 13 2 8630 1860 1930 3

3 8585 1860 1930 2

Irish Cork 6 9 2 8610 1860 1930 7

11 2 8529 1860 1930 6

13 2 8630 1860 1930 5

3 8585 1860 1930 1

9 2 8610 1846 1967 1

7 13 2 8633 1860 1930 1

Irish Cork harp 6 7 1 8696 1860 1930 1

Irish Cork rouletted 6 9 2 8610 1860 1930 1

11 2 8529 1860 1930 1

7 9 2 8629 1860 1930 1

Yard 8737 1860 1930 2

Irish harp rouletted 6 9 2 8610 1860 1930 1

Irish rouletted 6 11 2 8529 1860 1930 3

13 2 8630 1860 1930 1

19 1 8850 1860 1930 1

2 / E Yard 8841 1860 1930 1

9 2 8610 1860 1930 3

7 11 1+2 8587 1860 1930 1

19 2 8874 1860 1930 1

Keeled 6 7 2 8700 1850 1930 1

Lachlander 6 9 2 8610 1850 1930 1

11 2 8529 1856 1924 1

13 2 8630 1856 1924 1

7 7 2 8601 1856 1924 1

9 Yard 8737 1850 1930 1

1856 1874 1

Regatta Cutty 6 7 1 8696 1830 1861 1

Roughhead palm keeled 6 13 2 8630 1860 1960 1

Ship 6 13 2 8630 1850 1930 1

7 17 2 8860 1850 1930 1

Ship/anchor 6 7 2 8700 1839 1904 1

7 7 Yard 8736 1865 1930 1

Skiff 7 13 3 8563 1846 1967 1

Squatters Budgeree 6 13 2 8630 1840 1880 7

3 8585 1840 1880 2

19 1 8850 1823 1876 1

7 13 2 8633 1840 1880 1

3 8563 1840 1880 1

Sydney(?) cutty 6 11 Yard 8520 1850 1960 1

TD 7 9 Yard 8737 1775 1820 1

Thorn 6 9 2 8610 1850 1930 1

TW 7 7 Yard 8736 1823 1882 1

Zoomorphic horse rescue 7 9 Yard 8737 1856 1908 2

Zoomorphic kangaroo 7 9 Yard 8737 1856 1924 1

TOTAL 170

244


4.7.1 Pipes Spatial Analysis Spatial analysis of possible smoking behaviour in the rooms and yards of the houses on Steam Mill Street remains fairly inconclusive (Tables 4.34, 4.35, 4.36). However, as mentioned above it appears that as with most other activities smoking occurred mainly in the rear rooms. Very little smoking occurred in any front room. Many of the pipe fragments were found fairly close to doorways but in House 11 they clustered in the centre of the room. In House 19 most were found close to the north and south walls but this may have been partly due to later disturbance. The best evidence was in three rooms of House 13. Broken pipes were mainly found around the centre of Room 2; across the centre of Room 3; and sparsely scattered in Room 4. In House 9 the pipes were mainly gathered in the southwest corner of Room 2, but a number of others were found in the yard. Table 4.33: Smoking pipes from gridded underfloor deposits in Houses 13 and 15 not shown on spatial

location plans. House Room Phase Context Sq Alpha Sq No From To #MIC

13 1 6 8608 G 5 1802 1846 1

15 1 6 8861 G 10 1850

1

TOTAL 2

245

Table 4.34: Underfloor spatial location of smoking pipes Houses 7 & 9. House 7 Room 1 (above) Room 2.

8735 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL %

A 0 0.0

B 0 0.0

C 0 0.0

D 1 1 100

E 0 0.0

F 0 0.0

G 0 0.0

TOTAL 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 100

% 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100

8700 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL %

A 1 2 3 15.8

B 0 0.0

C 1 1 5.3

D 1 3 4 21.1

E 1 1 1 2 2 7 36.8

F 1 0 1 2 10.5

G 1 1 2 10.5

TOTAL 1 2 2 1 0 1 0 0 3 3 6 19 100

% 5.3 10.5 10.5 5.3 0.0 5.3 0.0 0.0 15.8 15.8 31.6 100


8634 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TOTA

L %

A 2 1

3 60.0

B

0 0.0

C

0 0.0

D

0 0.0

E 2

2 40.0

F

0 0.0

G

0 0.0

TOTAL 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 100

% 80.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100

8610 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL

%

A 1 1 2 2.6

B 1 1 1.3

C 2 2 2.6

D 5 1 6 7.7

E 8 2 3 2 15 19.2

F 10 9 4 5 3 31 39.7

G 6 2 4 8 1 21 26.9

TOTAL

32 14 11 13 4 0 0 4 0 78 100

% 41.0 17.9 14.1 16.7 5.1 0.0 0.0 5.1 0.0 100

246

Table 4.35: Spatial location of smoking pipes Houses 11, 17 and 19. House 11 Room 1 (above) Room 2.

8615 8616

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A

0 0.0

B

0 0.0

C

0 0.0

D

0 0.0

E

0 0.0

F

2

2 40.0

G

2

2 40.0

H

1

1 20.0

TOTAL

0 2 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 5 100

% 0.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 40.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100

8529 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A

1 2 1

1

5 7.5

B

2 1 1 4 4

12 17.9

C

1 1 1 2 1 1 7 10.4

D

1 3 2 3 7 3 2 21 31.3

E

4 5 7 3

19 28.4

F

2 1

3 4.5

TOTAL 0 4 7 9 15 22 7 3 0 0 67 100

% 0.0 6.0 10.4 13.4 22.4 32.8 10.4 4.5 0 0 100

House 17 Room 2 (above) House 19 Room 1.

8860 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 TOTAL %

A 1 1 2 20.0

B 0 0.0

C 2 2 20.0

D 1 1 10.0

E 4 1 5 50.0

F 0 0.0

TOTAL 4 4 0 1 1 0 0 10 100

% 40.0 40.0 0.0 10.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 100

8850 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A 2 3 3 1 1 3 13 35.1

B 1 1 2 5.4

C 2

2 5.4

D 1 1 2 5.4

E 1 2 1 7 18.9 1 2

F 5 2 2 2 11 29.7

TOTAL 2 4 3 3 7 3 9 1 3 2 37 100

% 5.4 10.8 8.1 8.1 18.9 8.1 24.3 2.7 8.1 5.4 100

247

Table 4.36: Spatial location of smoking pipes Houses 13 and 15. House 13 Room 2 (above) Room 3 (8585 combined with 8614).

8630 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL %

A

2 2 7 2 3

16 10.4

B

1 3 10 5 2 1

22 14.3

C

4 10 6

3 4 3 30 19.5

D

8 7 4 3 3 7 3 35 22.7

E 1 2 2 6 16 2 8 3 40 26.0

F

1 2

3 2 3

11 7.1

TOTAL 1 16 26 31 33 15 23 9 0 154 100

% 0.6 10.4 16.9 20.1 21.4 9.7 14.9 5.8 0 100

8585 8614

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 TOTAL %

A 3 1 2 1 1 8 18.6

B 1 3 2 1 1 8 18.6

C 3 8 1 7 2 21 48.8

D 5 1 6 14.0

E 0 0.0

F 0 0.0

TOTAL 12 11 3 3 9 4 1 43 100

% 27.9 25.6 7.0 7.0 20.9 9.3 2.3 100


8527 1 2 3 4 5 TOTAL %

A 0 0.0

B 1 1 14.3

C 0 0.0

D 2 1 3 42.9

E 1 1 14.3

F 1 1 14.3

G 1 1 14.3

TOTAL 3 2 1 1 0 7 100

% 42.9 28.6 14.3 14.3 0 100

8810 *8821

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL

%

A 1* 1 11.1

B 3* 1* 4 44.4

C 1* 1 11.1

D 1 1 11.1

E 1 1 2 22.2

TOTAL

0 2 1 0 4 1 0 1 0 0 9 100

% 0.0 22.2 11.1 0.0 44.4 11.1 0.0 11.1 0.0 0 100

248


4.8 Household Sewing, Embroidery, Crocheting, Lacemaking and Knitting Some 2010 artefacts associated with household sewing and lacemaking were found in all houses in Area 8, with the exception of House 17 which had poorly preserved deposits (Table 4.37). Crocheting was done in House 13 and House 17; knitting in House 7. As the Casey & Lowe catalogue system separates the general and special functions of artefacts that really are part of the general theme of sewing and needlework, these have to be recombined during analysis. For example, almost all beads were provisionally classified according to their primary function of personal jewellery even though in Victorian and later times different varieties were often used for other purposes. Many of the small varieties would be sewn onto (embroidered) garments, accessories and furnishings; and some of the larger beads and those of bone to ornament household objects or act as lamp or blind pulls. Therefore to get a complete overview of the needlework done in the houses on Steam Mill Street, whether for making, mending or embroidering dresses and other items, it is necessary to combine all of the information from the sewing equipment, clothing fasteners including buttons (Clothing Section 4.3), small beads and a range of possible accessories (Jewellery with beads and accessories Section 4.4). Almost all sewing items were small and dull in colour, easily lost below the floor or swept out with the dust into the yard. The overwhelming majority were pins which were catalogued in a systematic way to best ensure a minimum count. The next most frequent shapes were 27 thimbles (Table 4.38). The greatest number and range of items were found in Rooms 2 and 3 of House 13, followed by House 19 then House 9. It is possible that House 13, and perhaps House 19, was the location of a small cottage industry doing embroidery, needlework or dressmaking. This could have been for a larger employer or for individual female and male clients. The business may have started after Mr Moroney died in 1861. Alternatively if the household remained relatively wealthy then the whole family with nine children would have needed fashionable clothing for regular wear and social outings.268 This was particularly crucial for women and as there were at least two daughters this could be why there were more clothing and jewellery items found at the residence compared to other houses in the street. Beaded dresses and accessories were a common component of women’s fashion in the late Victorian period. There was also a large variety of buttons suitable for male garments. The need to hire a maid of 15 years of age in 1878 may have been to help in the business or to serve a lady who was becoming frail or elderly. Mrs Moroney died in 1883.269 The main evidence for this hive of activity in House 13 was the numerous small glass beads in the same adjoining rooms, the types that were commonly used to embroider dresses, accessories and household furnishings (Table 4.26). A fragment of woven fabric was recovered from House 19 with sewn-on clear glass seed beads (8850/#17206). Other significant artefacts in this respect were the two pairs of broken scissors, seven thimbles, a bodkin for threading ribbon and a sewing bobbin all found broken in Room 2 of House 13. Crocheting and lacemaking were also done in the room. Interestingly for most of the houses items of normal sewing equipment other than pins were barely evident. Almost all the pins had an early form of machine-made upset head with only a few of the wire-wound head varieties being represented.270 Polished bone crocheting hooks and lacemaking bobbins were more common but were always broken. The scarcity of some sewing equipment may be due to a combination of factors. Firstly only a few needles, bodkins and scissors would be needed in each sewing kit, especially if you are not a needleworker, dressmaker or tailor. Secondly

268

Fletcher 1984; Cuffley 1984, 1997. 269

Hinck Section 3.7 in this report. 270

Tylecote1972.

249


these items were relatively expensive and would be carefully kept. Needles, for example, were traditionally placed in special carrying tubes or cases so they would not be lost.271 Thirdly thimbles tend to roll away when they are dropped and may have not have been easily retrieved before they fell through the floor. Table 4.37: Household sewing, crocheting, lacemaking and knitting items, excluding beads and clothing

fasteners from underfloor deposits in all houses and yards. Note: *=toilet fill; ‡ demolition fill; ₹ sealing fill.

Spec Funct Shape Phase House Room Context #MIC

crocheting crochet hook 6 13 2 8630 1

7 17 Yard* 8770 2

knitting needle 8 7 Yard‡ 8591 1

lacemaking bobbin 6 7 2 8700 2

9 2 8610 1

11 2 8529 3

13 2 8630 1

15 2₹ 8798 1

19 1 8850 1

lacemaking/crochet bobbin/needle 6 7 2 8700 1

sewing bobbin 6 13 2 8630 1

bodkin 6 13 2 8630 1

pin 6 7 1 8735 12

2 8700 89

9 1 8634 35

2 8610 359

11 1 8615 11

1 8617 4

2 8529 339

13 1 8608 2

2 8630 628

3 8585 82

3 8614 6

15 1 8861 6

2 8810 1

19 1 8850 388

7 13 3 8525 1

17 2 8860 3

pin/needle 6 9 2 8610 2

11 2 8529 1

15 2 8810 1

scissors 6 13 2 8630 2

thimble 6 7 2 8700 2

9 2 8610 2

11 1 8615 1

2 8529 3

13 2 8630 7

15 2 8821 1

19 1 8850 8

unid 6 19 1 8850 1

sewing/clothing pin 6 11 2 8529 1

TOTAL 2014

271

Beaudry 2006; Groves 1966.

250


It should be noted that turned and polished bone was used in component bobbins, chess pieces or smoking pipes. At times it was difficult to attribute such components to a specific type of object. One unidentified sewing item from House 19 (Figure 3.53, 8850/#16473 on Table 4.37) was probably the end or top of a sewing tape measure or thread holder/reel. It was a turned and polished bone disc with a central threaded hole and three narrower holes for pinning to the rest of the object.272 Needlework is made easier and safer with the aid of a thimble. All the examples from the site were pressed in a machine, a method commonly used in England from c.1850 (Table 4.38).273 Most were made of brass, with one from the yard of House 9 having remnants of gilding. They display a variety of surface dimpled and etched band designs. Most had folded rims which prevented the needle from slipping. A slightly later thimble from House 11 Room 2 was made of a combination of metals perhaps to make it more robust. Only one thimble from House 7 Room 2 was made of iron or steel, with the badly corroded metal obscuring any surface detail. Table 4.38: Types of sewing thimbles found in Area 8.

Type Fabric Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

Dimp dome dimp band knurl rim brass 8 6 19 1 8850 1850

1

Dimp dome etched band leaf rim slogan brass/au 8 7 9 Yard 8737 1850

1

Dimp dome etched band rim brass 8 6 9 Yard 8625 1850

1

13 2 8630 1850

2

19 1 8850 1850

1

Dimp dome etched band rim Josefina brass 8 6 11 2 8529 1850

1

Dimp dome etched band rim slogan brass 8 6 13 2 8630 1850

1

15 2 8821 1850

1

19 1 8850 1850

3

Dimp dome etched band scallop rim brass 8 6 13 2 8630 1850

1

Dimp dome etched band scallop rim slogan brass 8 6 13 2 8630 1850

2

19 1 8850 1850

1

Dimp dome etched band slogan rim brass 8 6 19 1 8850 1850

1

Dimp dome plain rim brass 8 6 19 1 8850 1850

1

Dimp dome rim aes/fe/steel 8 6 11 2 8529 1870

1

brass 8 6 9 2 8610 1850

1

Dimp linear rim brass 6 9

8301 1850

1

Dimp ring brass 8 6 7 2 8700 1850

1

Unid brass 8 6 9 2 8610 1850

1

11 1 8615 1850

1

2 8529 1850

1

13 2 8630 1850

1

fe/steel 8 6 7 2 8700 1870

1

TOTAL 27

272

Comparable to those in Groves 1966. 273

Johnson 1982.

251


There was a sentimental slogan on ten thimbles with five found in House 19 and three from House 13 (Table 4.39).274 In Victorian times they were often given as gifts to or by a departing loved one and their loss below the floors may have been significant to the owner.275 Thimbles having the same slogans in different houses at Steam Mill Street may show a personal connection, gifting or just that the women shared a liking for such things. Curiously there were no thimbles with slogans in House 11, where one of the daughters of the Moroneys at House 13 lived with her husband by 1882.276 Table 4.39: Thimble slogans by house and phase.

Slogan Phase 6 Phase 7

House 13 House 15 House 19 House 9 Total

FAIRWELL

1

1

FORGET ME NOT 1 1

2

FRIENDSHIP

2

2

INDUSTRY 1

1

LIVE AND LET LIVE

1 1

THO ABSENT 1

1

2

UNID

1

1

TOTAL 3 1 5 1 10

4.8.1 Sewing Spatial Analysis Analysis of the spatial locations of the sewing, crocheting and lacemaking items in Area 8 reveals that most of this work was done in the rear rooms of the houses during Phase 6 (Table 4.37). Those within Houses 7, 9, 11, 13 and 19 are plotted on Table 4.41 to Table 4.43. Damage to the underfloor deposits in many front rooms and Houses 15 and 17 in general must also be taken into account (Table 4.40). In general as much light as possible would be best for sewing and advantage would have been taken of windows and doorways during the day, and fireplaces or lamps at night. Most of the items in Room 2 of House 11 were in the western part but this may be influenced by the service trench activities. In Room 2 of House 9 there was a high concentration in the southwest corner near a probable doorway. As discussed above the occupants of Houses 13 and 19 were particularly industrious sewers with the first having two rooms utilised for such purposes. There is no documentary or archaeological evidence for a professional tailor who tended to have different (ring-style) thimbles and a broader range of equipment.277 The scatter in Room2 of House 13 had no apparent pattern but the items appear to continue into the northern side of Room 3. Unfortunately the deposit in Room 3 was badly disturbed. The evidence tends to indicate that one or more of the tenants were doing paid needlework, perhaps dressmaking or alterations, at home. In Room 1 of House 19 the sewing items were mostly beside the southern door (?) and wall with several around the fireplace. Lacemaking was also done in all houses but perhaps more so in House 11. For the houses with two rooms on the ground floor only the rear room appears to have been used. The only evidence for crocheting was in House 13 and perhaps 7. It should be noted that broken cylindrical bone handles were distinguished from those used for knitting on the basis of size and presence of a hook.

274

See images in each house in Section 3. 275

Examples of wide range of thimble slogans: http://thimbleselect.bizland.com/slogan.htm 276

Hincks Volume 1, Section 3.7 of this report. 277

Johnson 1982.

http://thimbleselect.bizland.com/slogan.htm

252


Table 4.40: Sewing and related items from gridded underfloor deposits in Houses 13, 15 and 17 not shown on spatial location plans.

House Room Phase Context Sq Alpha Sq No Shape From To #MIC

13 1 6 8608 F 3 pin 1809

1

G 8 pin 1809

1

3 7 8525 B 2 pin

1

15 1 6 8861 A 2 pin 1809

3

A 3 pin 1809

2

G 10 pin 1809

1

2 6 8810 A 10 pin/needle

1

D 6 thimble 1850

1

8821 D 8 pin 1809

1

17 2 7 8860 B 11 pin 1809

1

D 7 pin 1809

2

TOTAL 14

Table 4.41: Underfloor spatial location of sewing and related items from House 19 Room 1.

8850 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A 3 14 14 2 5 3 3

44 11.1

B 1 5

3 3 3 15 3.8

C

5 3

8 2.0

D 1

1 3

5 1.3

E 23 3

2

3 7 46 11.6 7 1

F 1 1

3 109 10 3 39 2 0 3

279 70.3

TOTAL 29 23 14 5 116 109 54 36 10 1 397 100

% 7.3 5.8 3.5 1.3 29.2 27.5 13.6 9.1 2.5 0.3 100

KEY SPATIAL GRIDS significant disturbance

window very high artefact concentration

door? high artefact concentration

fireplace medium artefact concentration

253

Table 4.42: Underfloor spatial location of sewing and related items Houses 7 & 9. House 7 Room 1 (above) Room 2.

8735 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL %

A 1 1 8.3

B 1 2 1 4 33.3

C 1 2 3 25.0

D 1 1 8.3

E 0 0.0

F 1 1 8.3

G 1 1 2 16.7

TOTAL 0 0 0 0 3 3 1 0 0 3 2 12 100

% 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 25.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 25.0 16.7 100

8700 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL %

A 3 1 1 5 10 11.0

B 1 1 2 4 4.4

C 2 1 3 3.3

D 2 1 3 15 21 23.1

E 1 2 2 3 4 2 2 16 17.6

F 2 1 6 2 3 1 4 8 27 29.7

G 4 1 2 1 2 10 11.0

TOTAL 5 10 11 5 8 4 0 0 3 12 33 91 100

% 5.5 11.0 12.1 5.5 8.8 4.4 0.0 0.0 3.3 13.2 36.3 100


8634 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TOTAL %

A 10 19 29 82.9

B 2 2 5.7

C 1 1 2.9

D 0 0.0

E 1 1 2.9

F 2 2 5.7

G 0 0.0

TOTAL 13 19 0 0 0 0 0 3 35 100

% 37.1 54.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.6 100

8610 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL

%

A 3 3 1 7 1.9

B 1 2 3 0.8

C 13 2

15 4.1

D 20 1 1

22 6.1

E 28 14 2 1

45 12.4

F 28 43 19 4 3 1 9 107 29.5

G 26 47 45 30 13 2 1 164 45.2

TOTAL

118 109 66 37 18 0 3 12 0 363 100

% 32.5 30.0 18.2 10.2 5.0 0.0 0.8 3.3 0.0 100

254

Table 4.43: Spatial location of sewing and related items Houses 11 and 13. House 11 Room 1 (above) Room 2.

8615 8617

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A

0 0.0

B

0 0.0

C 1

1 6.3

D 3

3 18.8

E

0 0.0

F

0 0.0

G

4 2

6 37.5

H

3 3

6 37.5

TOTAL

4 7 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 100

% 25.0 43.8 31.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100

8529 *8583

*

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTA

L %

A 12 25 20 21 8 10 96 27.7

B 1 7 19 19 5 6 1 58 16.8

C 3 21 12 14 13 5 9 3 80 23.1

D 6 6 5 13 9 2 4 5 50 14.5

E 1* 2* 2 9 13 5 3 3 38 11.0

F 1 11 10 2 24 6.9

TOTAL

23 61 59 87 58 30 17 11 0 0 346 100

% 6.6 17.6 17.1 25.1 16.8 8.7 4.9 3.2 0.0 0.0 100


8630 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL %

A

1 9 11 8 9 5

43 6.7

B

3 25 39 23 20 18 11 139 21.8

C

11 35 13

13 17 9 98 15.3

D

22 41 25 9 18 26 6 147 23.0

E 1 27 24 25 32 15 12 9 145 22.7

F 1 1 0 18

6 15 8 9

67 10.5

TOTAL 2 74 152 119 87 83 87 35 0 639 100

% 0.3 11.6 23.8 18.6 13.6 13.0 13.6 5.5 0.0 100

8585 8614*

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 TOTAL %

A 5 1* 2* 7 2 2 19 21.6

B 2 9** 7 3 21 23.9

C 20 2 20 42 47.7

D 1* 1 3 5 5.7

E 1* 1 1.1

F 0 0.0

TOTAL 6 21 5 22 9 23 2 88 100

% 6.8 23.9 5.7 25.0 10.2 26.1 2.3 100

255


4.9 Clerical and Education There were 535 artefacts associated with clerical tasks from Darling Quarter, of which 508 were found in the houses on Steam Mill Street in Area 8 (Table 4.44). The majority of the items were worn stubs or broken slate pencils, followed by lead (graphite) pencils. For the children who lived in the houses at Steam Mill Street attendance at school may have been more regular once compulsory education was introduced in the 1870s.278 However, according to historical records only 66 per cent of the juvenile population went to school by 1900. Although this was in part due to children working to help support their families, it resulted in many remaining illiterate. Slate pencils were used by children to write lessons on slate boards in the classroom at school and Sunday school. Many schools guarded their slate pencils and boards, some of which were attached together by string and held in cupboards when not in use.279 To preserve the boards many were held in wooden frames. Towards the end of the 19th century these writing implements were increasingly being seen as unsanitary but they were not generally replaced with more expensive lead pencils and paper until the 1930s, and even as late as 1960 for some schools. Until that time lead pencils were more for use in the home, particularly by adults. Slate pencils and boards were also used by public houses and some businesses as a convenient way to keep notation or a tally. Almost all the recovered slate pencils were small worn-down stubs or broken fragments which may be why they were allowed to be taken from school. They were typed according to their method of manufacture, with or without the use of a machine, and shaped in cross-section. Some pencils had small iron cylindrical tubes at the butt end to enable a better grip. Close inspection of the slate pencils revealed that they had been reshaped at the point and butt. Sometimes this was to provide a usable point but many appear to have been ground or whittled in an idiosyncratic way and at times with no real functional purpose. This behaviour and the occasional marks left on the boards enable us to see these children as individuals in their own right. For comparison the types of clerical items found in Rooms 2 of Houses 9, 13 and Room 1 of House 19 are shown below, including ground and whittled slate pencils as well as board fragments with etched lines (Figure 4.7, Figure 4.8, Figure 4.9). Lead pencils were mainly recovered from the houses in the form of graphite ‘leads’ with only one from Room 2 House 9 retaining its wooden casing holder (8739/#69622, Figure 4.7). There was a small range of narrow square and rectangular-sectioned leads as well as thicker rectangular stubs commonly used by tradesmen and butchers. Narrow circular-section leads were used in leadholders and propelling pencils from c.1822 for which several fragments were recovered in every house except Nos 15 and 17.280 A single mechanical pencil or holder survived well enough to retain its markings. Found in Room 2 of House 13 (8633/#15891, Figure 3.34) the pencil was an early model made by F and S Mordan & Co., London from 1823-1830. Mordan & Co. was the first company to ever patent and commercially manufacture mechanical pencils. A fairly expensive item, it was machine-engraved with a silvered wavy pattern and likely to have been used by a man (Figure 3.34).281 The pivoting rule may have been used in draughting or measuring by a variety of tradesmen or women including dress makers or tailors (Figure 3.41). Ink pens were less evident at the site and mostly survived as broken nibs. However, a complete polished bone handled-pen with a broken nib was found in Room 2 of House 9 (8610/#81176, Figure 4.7). Unfortunately its markings were not fully legible.

278

Chan 2012: 18-19 with references. 279

Davies 2005; Early Office Museum 2000-2012. 280

Crosby 2007; Lead holder history: www.leadholder.com/main-history.html#leadholder_origins; Petroski 1989. 281

Mordan & Co. history and mark information: http://mordanandmore.blogspot.com.au/2011/01/sampson-mordan-and-co.html; also http://www.wheathills.com/pages/silversmith-hallmarks_2.aspx; Crosby 2007.

http://www.leadholder.com/main-history.html#leadholder_origins

http://mordanandmore.blogspot.com.au/2011/01/sampson-mordan-and-co.html

http://mordanandmore.blogspot.com.au/2011/01/sampson-mordan-and-co.html

http://www.wheathills.com/pages/silversmith-hallmarks_2.aspx

256


Table 4.44: Clerical items from the site. Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Type Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

cleric writing ink pen

8 6 9 2 8610 1822

8

11 2 8529 1822

4

19 1 8850 1822

2

7 17 2 8860 1822

1

9 6

9206 1822

1

7

9201 1822

1

lead pencil Lead-cylind 8 6 9 2 8610 1822

6

11 2 8529 1822

19

Lead-rect 8 6 7 1 8735

1

9 2 8610

5

11 1 8615

1

2 8529

9

13 2 8630

4

19 1 8850

6

7 9 Yard 8739

1

Lead-sq 8 6 9 2 8610

2

11 2 8529

5

13 2 8630

1

3 8585

1

8614

1

19 1 8850

4

7 13 4 8527

1

lead pencil & holder Lead-cylind 8 6 9 1 8634 1822

1

mechanical pencil

8 6 7 2 8700 1822

1

11 2 8529 1822

3

19 1 8850 1823

1

Clutch 8 7 13 2 8633 1823 1830 1

Clutch/Ratchet

6 9 2 8610 1822

1

pen/pencil

8 6 11 2 8529 1822

1

13 2 8630 1822

1

slate board

8 6 9 2 8610

1960 5

11 2 8529

1960 1

13 2 8630

1960 1

15 2 8810

1960 2

19 1 8850

1960 2

7 19 2 8874

1960 1

slate pencil Cut-hexag 8 6 9 1 8634

1960 1

2 8610

1960 1

11 1 8617

1960 1

2 8529

1960 1

8583

1960 1

13 2 8630

1960 12

3 8585

1960 2

15 1 8861

1960 1

2 8810

1960 1

19 1 8850

1960 1

Cut-rect 8 6 13 2 8630

1960 6

3 8614

1960 1

Cut-sq 8 6 9 2 8610

1960 1

11 2 8529

1960 1

13 2 8630

1960 3

Mach-cylind 6 9

8301

1960 4

7 7

7927

1960 3

7928

1960 1

7950

1960 2

7987

1960 5

8004

1960 1

8037

1960 1

8043

1960 1

8303

1960 1

8

8279

1960 1

8 6 7 1 8696

1960 1

257


Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Type Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

8735

1960 5

2 8700

1960 16

9 1 8634

1960 3

2 8610

1960 59

Yard 8625

1960 1

11 1 8615

1960 6

2 8529

1960 93

Yard 8626

1960 2

13 2 8630

1960 83

3 8585

1960 14

8614

1960 1

15 1 8861

1960 2

2 8810

1960 6

8821

1960 1

19 1 8850

1960 34

8873

1960 1

7 7 Yard 8736

1960 1

9

8629

1960 2

Yard 8737

1960 2

8739

1960 1

13 2 8633

1960 1

3 8563

1960 5

4 8527

1960 2

17 2 8860

1960 2

8875

1960 1

19 2 8874

1960 2

8 7 1 8598

1960 1

1+2 8605

1960 1

Yard 8591

1960 1

7-19 Yard 8517

1960 1

All

8501

1960 3

9 6

9249

1960 1

7

9230

1960 1

slate pencil & holder Mach-cylind 8 6 7 2 8700

1960 1

9 2 8610

1960 1

11 2 8529

1960 1

13 2 8630

1960 1

15 2 8810

1960 1

slate pencil holder

8 6 7 2 8700

1960 1

11 1 8615

1960 1

2 8529

1960 1

13 2 8630

1960 2

3 8585

1960 2

19 1 8850

1960 4

cleric/rec writing/painting cap

8 6 19 1 8850

1

ferrule

8 6 9 2 8610

1

13 2 8630

1

TOTAL 535

258


Figure 4.7: Select clerical artefacts from House 9 Room 2 context 8610 and one from Cesspit fill 8739. Top: lead pencil in wood holder 8739/#69622. Left-right, 2nd top row: lead pencils #81381 (2), #81614, #81380, #81672; nose from mechanical pencil #81640. 3rd top row: bone-handled inkpen #81176. 4th top row: pen nib #81395: slate pencil in holder #81440: carved slate pencil butt #81393. Bottom row: slateboards #81747, #81671; slate pencils, top-bottom: #81629, #81506, #81569. 10cm scale, Gallery2.

Figure 4.8: Select clerical and possible painting artefacts from House 13 Room 2 context 8630. Left-right, top row: aes ferrule #99548; lead pencils #99686, 99565; iron slate pencil holder #99807. Bottom row: to the left, top-bottom: slate pencils #99625, 99898, 99469, 15715, 99484; in centre, nose from mechanical pencil/pen #15126; to the right, slateboard #15691. 10cm scale, Gallery2

Figure 4.9: Select clerical artefacts from House 19 Room 1 context 8850. Slateboards on left, top-bottom: ruled #16801, worn #16507. Left-right, top row: lead pencils, rect section #16981, square #16982, rect #16547. 2nd top row: lead pencil rect section #17082. 3rd top row: inkpen nib #17176; mechanical pencil #16651. 4th top row: slate pencil with grooved point #16802; iron slate pencil holder #17083. 5th top row: slate pencil #16673. Bottom row: slate pencil stubs #16506, #16474. 10cm scale, Gallery2

259


Slate pencils and board fragments were found inside all the rooms and in some of the yards of all the houses at Steam Mill Street. Most probably used to practise writing and sums, but probably more often as toys for drawing and playing games. Such informal play was most evident in the roughly square slateboard fragment from Room 2 of House 9 that was scratched with the frame of a noughts and crosses game (8610/#81207, Figure 4.10). Toys and games are discussed in Section 4.10.

Figure 4.10: Noughts and crosses game on slate board fragment, House 9 Room 2 8610/#81207. 1cm scale divisions, scan by Sandra Kuiters.

4.9.1 Clerical Artefacts Spatial Analysis Analysis of the spatial locations of the clerical artefacts in the rooms of the houses on Steam Mill Street (Table 4.45 to Table 4.48) show that this activity mainly occurred in the rear rooms (Room 2) of buildings with two ground floor rooms; and in Room 1 of House 19 which had only one room in the main period of occupation (Phase 6). The exception is House 13 where Room 3 also has 22 items. The patterning is not regular and as discussed in Section 3 the underfloor accumulations in several rooms were affected by disturbances such as service trenching. In general, the artefacts in Houses 11 and 13 appear to cluster in the centre of the room; whereas those in Houses 9 and 19 were closer to the back door. There is also a distinct lack of clerical items, especially slate and lead pencils, in House 7. This may be due to a lack of children in the household and/or adult writing skills of some of the tenants. Houses 15 and 17 also had few clerical objects but that can be explained by the limited amount of undisturbed underfloor deposits. Table 4.45: Clerical items from gridded underfloor deposits in Houses 13 and 17 not shown on spatial

location plans. House Room Phase Context Sq Alpha Sq No Shape From To #MIC

13 4 7 8527 D 1 slate pencil

1960 2

E 1 lead pencil

1

17 2 8860 D 8 slate pencil

1960 1

9

1960 1

10 nib 1822

1

TOTAL 6

260

Table 4.46: Underfloor spatial location of clerical items Houses 7 & 9. House 7 Room 1 (above) Room 2.

8735 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL %

A 1 1 2 33.3

B 1 1 1 3 50.0

C 0 0.0

D 0 0.0

E 0 0.0

F 0 0.0

G 1 1 16.7

TOTAL 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 6 100

% 0.0 16.7 16.7 0.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 33.3 0.0 100

8700 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL %

A 1 1 5.6

B 0 0.0

C 2 2 11.1

D 1 1 5.6

E 1 2 1 1 5 27.8

F 1 1 3 1 6 33.3

G 1 2 3 16.7

TOTAL 0 1 3 0 2 2 0 0 2 5 3 18 100

% 0.0 5.6 16.7 0.0 11.1 11.1 0.0 0.0 11.1 27.8 16.7 100


8634 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TOTAL %

A 4 4 80.0

B 1 1 20.0

C 0 0.0

D 0 0.0

E 0 0.0

F 0 0.0

G 0 0.0

TOTAL 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 100

% 80.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 100

8610 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL

%

A 1 1 1 3 3.4

B 0 0.0

C 0 0.0

D 2 2 2.2

E 8 6 1 1 16 18.0

F 13 12 3 5 1 34 38.2

G 4 8 9 8 5 34 38.2

TOTAL

26 28 13 15 6 0 0 1 0 89 100

% 29.2 31.5 14.6 16.9 6.7 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 100

261

Table 4.47: Spatial location of clerical items Houses 11 and 13. House 11 Room 1 (above) Room 2.

8615 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A 0 0.0

B 0 0.0

C

0 0.0

D

0 0.0

E 0 0.0

F 0 0.0

G 4 2 6 75.0

H 2

2 25.0

TOTAL

0 6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 100

% 0.0 75.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100

8529 *8583

*

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTA

L %

A 2 2 2 7 2 3 18 12.9

B 2 5 4 7 3 1 22 15.7

C 3 2 6 6 10 2 3 1 33 23.6

D 1 1 2 3 9 8 7 2 33 23.6

E 1* 12 6 7 6 32 22.9

F 1 1 2 1.4

TOTAL

8 11 14 35 31 20 18 3 0 0 140 100

% 5.7 7.9 10.0 25.0 22.1 14.3 12.9 2.1 0.0 0.0 100


8630 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL %

A

1 2 2 2

7 6.1

B

1 2 5 3 1 1 13 11.4

C

3 10 3

3

19 16.7

D

3 9 6 2 3 4 1 28 24.6

E

2 7 9 7 8 2 2 37 32.5

F

1 1 4 1 1 2

10 8.8

TOTAL 0 9 28 25 17 20 11 4 0 114 100

% 0.0 7.9 24.6 21.9 14.9 17.5 9.6 3.5 0.0 100

8585 8614*

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 TOTAL %

A 1 3* 2* 6 27.3

B 2 1 3 13.6

C 1* 1 7 9 40.9

D 1 2 1 4 18.2

E 0 0.0

F 0 0.0

TOTAL 3 1 2 3 5 8 0 22 100

% 13.6 4.5 9.1 13.6 22.7 36.4 0.0 100

Table 4.48: Spatial location of clerical items Houses 15 and 19.

262


8861 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL

%

A 1 1

2 66.7

B

1

1 33.3

C 0 0.0

D 0 0.0

E 0 0.0

F 0 0.0

G

0 0.0

TOTAL

1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 100

% 66.7 33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 100

8810 *8821

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL

%

A 1 1* 1 3 18.8

B 1 1 2 12.5

C 1 1 2 12.5

D 1 1 2 4 25.0

E 1 1 2 1 5 31.3

TOTAL

5 3 0 0 0 4 2 1 1 1 16 100

% 31.3 18.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 12.5 6.3 6.3 0.0 100

House 19 Room 1.

8850 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A 1 6 4

1 1

13 24.1

B 1 2

1 1 1

6 11.1

C

0 0.0

D

0 0.0

E 3 2

3

1 1 10 18.5

F 1

11 8 1

4

25 46.3

TOTAL 6 10 4 0 16 10 3 5 0 0 54 100

% 11.1 18.5 7.4 0.0 29.6 18.5 5.6 9.3 0.0 0.0 100

263


4.10 Toys and Games A range of toys and games were recovered from many areas of the Darling Quarter. These included games played by adults as well as children (Table 4.49). By far the most common shape was marbles, totalling 539 (Table 4.50). While 22 marbles and other toys were found associated with occupation of Area 7 (Section 2.4, Table 2.16) discussion here will focus primarily on the types and spatial location of those found in the Steam Mill Street houses in Area 8. Table 4.49: Items relating to toys and Games (not marbles) from the site by area and activity.

Area Activity Shape Fabric Type Country From To #MIC

6 Teaset tea cup porc

Ger 1850 1950 1

7 Game ball rubber

-

1

domino bone 4/5 - 1788

1

4/6 - 1788

1

(chess piece?) finial bone

-

1

Doll doll porc Bathing doll Ger 1860

1

Teaset saucer porc

Ger 1850 1950 1

8 houses

Game ball rubber

-

1

counter bone

-

1

counter/button MoP

- 1850 1930 1

counter/label fe

-

1

counter/pebble stone

-

1

dice bone

-

1

- 1788

1

quartz

-

1

domino aes/bone 5/blank -

1

aes/bone/wood 4/5 -

1

bone 3/4 - 1788

1

chess piece bone

-

3

Toy knob (reused) svfew

- 1840

1

wheel fe

-

1

Toy? whistle & chain aes

Eng 1800 1930 1

Doll doll bisque

Europe/UK/Japan 1869

1

Ger 1865 1890 1

Pudding/Bathing doll Ger 1860

1

porc

Ger 1850

1

Ger 1860

1

(Praying pregnant?) Ger 1860 1900 2

Glazed China head Ger 1840 1880 2

Pudding doll? Ger 1860

1

doll’s eyes glass

Europe 1850

2

Jumeau? Fra 1873 1958 1

figurine/doll porc

Ger 1840 1880 1

Punch Ger 1860 1930 1

Scottish Ger 1840 1880 1

Teaset coffee pot porc

Ger 1850 1950 1

ewer porc

Ger 1850 1950 1

jug porc

Ger 1850 1950 1

lid porc

Ger 1850 1950 3

ointment/toothpaste jar few

Ger 1850 1950 1

saucer bc

Ger 1850 1950 3

porc

Ger 1850 1950 3

tea cup bc

Ger 1850 1950 4

porc

Ger 1850 1950 4

teapot bc

Ger 1850 1950 1

porc

Ger 1850 1950 2

8 unstrat

Teaset dish porc

Ger 1850 1950 1 lid porc

Ger 1850 1950 1

9 Game counter few

- 1830

1

TOTAL 67

264


Table 4.50: Types of marbles from the site by area. Note: Area 8 includes 8 unstratified contexts and 8CT. Area Shape Fabric Type Country From To #MIC

6 marble carnelian Blood aggie Ger 1775 1930 1

clay Clay h made stw glazed UK/Aus/USA/Eur 1750 1830 1

glass Glass alley h made swirl Ger 1846 1914 1

limestone Stonie Ger 1800 1914 4

7 marble clay Clay h made stw UK/Aus/USA/Eur 1750 1830 1

Clay h made varieg Aus/UK/Europe 1785 1830 1

glass Glass alley h made clearie blue Ger 1846 1914 1

Glass alley h made swirl Ger 1846 1914 3

Glass alley h made swirl Joseph Ger 1846 1914 1

Glass alley h made swirl onionskin Ger 1846 1914 1

Pop alley UK/Aus 1873 1935 1


Ger 1800 1914 7

Stonie paint Ger 1820 1914 1

porc China alley Ger 1770 1914 1

8 counter/marble limestone Stonie Ger 1700 1914 5

Ger 1800 1914 7

marble carnelian Striped Aggie Ger 1775 1930 2

clay Clay h made col white UK/Aus/USA/Eur 1550 1830 1

Clay h made stw glazed UK/Aus/USA/Eur 1750 1830 3

glass Glass alley h made clearie blue Ger 1846 1914 2

Glass alley h made clearie green Ger 1846 1914 1

Glass alley h made mica blue Ger 1846 1914 1

Glass alley h made s-g (single gather) Ger 1850 1928 7

Glass alley h made swirl Ger 1846 1914 24

Glass alley h made swirl Joseph Ger 1846 1914 6

Glass alley h made swirl Joseph mica Ger 1846 1914 1

Glass alley h made swirl onionskin Ger 1846 1914 2

Pop alley UK/Aus 1873 1935 26


Ger 1800 1914 164

Stonie paint Ger 1820 1914 105

Stonie paint? Ger 1820 1914 19

marble Blood Alley Ger 1680 1880 2

China alley Ger 1770 1914 10

China alley band flower early Ger/USA 1840 1870 1

China alley band pinwheel early Ger/USA 1840 1870 1

China alley bulls eye mid Ger/USA 1870 1900 1

China alley coil leaves mid-late Ger/USA 1870 1914 3

China alley helix Ger/USA 1840 1914 2

China alley helix leaves late Ger/USA 1890 1914 2

China alley lines Ger/USA 1840 1914 4

China alley lines pinwheel exotic Ger/USA 1840 1870 1

stw Bennington American majolica USA 1870 1914 1

Bennington blue Ger 1870 1914 2

Bennington brown Ger 1870 1914 5

Bennington fancy Ger 1870 1914 3

TOTAL 539

265


The 551 artefacts associated with games and toys at the houses on Steam Mill Street were mainly retrieved during sieving of the underfloor room deposits (Table 4.52). Most of these 496 were marbles (Table 4.53). The other 55 items comprised dominos, dice, chess pieces and a counter made of bone; a quartz dice; a range of porcelain dolls and toy teaset pieces; and various informal counters. In addition there was a rubber ball from House 11 and an iron wheel from a toy in House 9. Objects that were possibly reused as informal toys were found in House 19. They were a ground ceramic knob broken from a vessel lid, a porcelain ornamental pipe; and a policeman’s or boatswain’s whistle. Descriptions and photographs of many items associated with toys and games can be found in Section 3 with other artefacts from the houses. 4.10.1 Games The more adult game of chess was represented at the site by carved and polished 2-piece bone chess pieces (Figure 4.11). The highest number of intact and broken chess pieces was found in Area 8 with a possible chess piece finial in Area 7 (8279/#80356, Figure 4.22, Table 4.49). Due to their similarity, individual components of chess pieces can at times be difficult to distinguish from parts of composite pipes, sewing equipment and small items of furniture. In Area 8 there was a complete 2-piece bone chess piece from House 9 Room 2 (8610/#81461, Figure 3.16 and front cover of this report) which appeared to be of the same or similar set to those from Rooms 2 and 3 in House 13 (8630/#15437, 8585/#16111, Figure 4.11).

Figure 4.11: Bone chess pieces from Area 8. Left-right: House 13 Room 3, upper segment 8585/#16111; Room 2 underside of base 8630/#15437; House 9 Room 2, whole piece 8610/#81461. 1cm scale divisions, Gallery2.

The game of dominos could be played by the whole family. The five pieces found at the site were of two types. The earliest and more irregular were the small hand-sawn dominos with deeply-drilled numbers found in Area 7 (7927/#80475, 7987/#80506, Figure 2.4) and in Room 2 of House 9 in Area 8 (8610/#81630, Figure 3.16). These dominos could have been locally carved and the set were a convenient size for constricted spaces. Also in Area 8 were two more regular dominos from the same set made with the aid of better machinery. The bone had shallower-drilled dots and was pinned to a wooden base. Probably imported later in the 19th century they were found in Room 2 of House 11 (8529/#69724, #98991, Figure 3.29). The three dice from the site were all found in Area 8. They may have been used in a number of games or for gambling (Section 4.2.1). The two bone examples were from House 11 Room 2 (8529/#98801, Figure 3.29) and Room 3 of House 13 (8614/#16204, Figure 3.49). The latter dice had a finely incised flower in the centre of one side. The more unusual small white quartz dice was from House 7 Room 2 (8700/#80970, Figure 3.6).

266


Carving and turning bone, ivory and other materials (scrimshaw) into objects of utility, fun or beauty is a traditional skill typically associated with sailors. It was done at sea and on shore for enjoyment and pastime but more often for reasons of economy. This activity was also common for more desperate reasons among prisoners of war, convicts and slaves in many seaports (often in hulk prisons or forts), particularly from the late 18th to the mid 19th century. Examples of similar chess sets,282 dominos, buttons and numerous other types of scrimshaw form part of many museum collections and continue to be found on shipwrecks and archaeological sites associated prisoners of war, convicts and slaves.283 Until the mid 20th century cutlery regularly had handles made from sawn and carved bone, antler or ivory, and furniture was often inlaid or had components made of the same materials (Figure 4.22). The mother of pearl (MoP) inlay found in House 7 (8700/#80985, Figure 3.4, Figure 4.3) was probably from furniture. 4.10.2 Teasets and Dolls Dolls and toy teasets (Figure 4.12) are traditionally associated with girl’s play and training for her future role in the family and society.284 At the site almost all were found in the Steam Mill Street houses in Area 8 (Table 4.49, Table 4.51). The occurrence of similar dolls, toy teasets and ornamental figurines in both Houses 13 and 19 indicates a possible close connection between some of the female occupants. It is also likely that the children regularly played together in and around the houses and nearby streets. Of the ten dolls in the houses most were lost or discarded at House 19. Almost all were made of porcelain (or unglazed bisque) in Germany in the mid to late 19th century. There was a limited variety of models and many were similar to each other, particularly the solid glazed porcelain bathing dolls or Frozen Charlottes. House 11 contained fragments of dolls that were of better quality than their neighbours. There were two ‘glazed China heads’ from soft-bodied dolls with porcelain limbs made from c.1840 (Figure 3.18). In addition two glass eyes (Figure 3.29) from larger dolls had been made in Europe, with one (8529/#98880) possibly by the quality French company Jumeau (1873-1958). These particular dolls among other quality items found in House 11 suggest the presence of a middle-class family, perhaps recently arrived from Britain, towards the end of the 19th century. Many of the ‘dolls’ would have been carefully handled. A few items classified as dolls may have really been figurines and on display in the home as ornaments. These were mainly found in Houses 19 (Figure 3.59) and 13 and include a possible nativity group with the Madonna (8850/#16678) and a baby (Jesus?) in a basket (8850/#16576); as well as a figure of ‘Punch’ (8850/#16992) and a Scottish girl (8630/#99761). The two praying dolls, similar to Frozen Charlottes or small bathing dolls, from Houses 13 Room 3 (8585/#16059, Figure 4.19) and Room 1 of House 19 (8850/#17168, Figure 3.59), may have been religious votives as they wore a cloth hat. However, their large stomaches also suggests that they may be depicting pregnant women. These dolls and religious artefacts from the houses are presented in Section 4.12.

282

Comparable bone, ivory and wooden chess sets with links: http://www.chess-museum.com/wooden-spanish-chessmen.html; James Matthews shipwreck 1841: Henderson 1976; exhibition including similar bone chess pieces viewed by Mary Casey in 2013 http://www.museum.wa.gov.au/maritime-archaeology-db/wrecks/james-matthews 283

Frank 2012; Bianchi, Bianco & Mahoney 2006; Klippel & Schroedl 1999; Stocks 2008, 2009a (with references). 284

Chan 2012; Coleman & Coleman n.d.; Fawdrey & Fawdrey 1979; Goodfellow 1993; Hillier 1968; Lechler 1989; Lima 2012.

http://www.chess-museum.com/wooden-spanish-chessmen.html

http://www.chess-museum.com/wooden-spanish-chessmen.html

http://www.museum.wa.gov.au/maritime-archaeology-db/wrecks/james-matthews

267


Table 4.51: Games and toys, not marbles, from Area 8 houses by room and context. Note: *items also included in other thematic tables.

Spec Funct Shape Fabric Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

game ball rubber 6 11 2 8529

1

chess piece bone 6 9 2 8610

1

13 2 8630

1

3 8585

1

dice bone 6 11 2 8529 1788

1

13 3 8614

1

quartz 6 7 2 8700

1

domino aes/bone 6 11 2 8529

1

aes/bone/wood 6 11 2 8529

1

bone 6 9 2 8610 1788

1

cloth/game button/counter MoP 6 9 2 8610 1850 1930 1

game counter bone 6 15 1 8861

1

game/collect counter/pebble stone 6 13 2 8630

1*

game/cont counter/label fe 7 9 1 8570

1

toy knob svfew 6 19 1 8850 1840

1

doll bisque 6 7 1 8696 1869

1

2 8700 1865 1890 1

9 2 8610 1860

1

porc 6 11 Yard 8626 1840 1880 1

(praying pregnant?)

13 3 8585 1860 1900 1*

19 1 8850 1850

1

1860

1

(praying pregnant?)

1860 1900 1*

7 7 Yard 8736 1860

1

8 11+13 2 8505 1840 1880 1

doll’s eyes glass 6 11 2 8529 1850

1

1873 1958 1

13 2 8630 1850

1

coffee pot porc 7 9 Yard 8737 1850

1

toy dish porc All

8501 1850

1

ewer porc 6 19 1 8850 1850

1

jug porc 6 13 1 8608 1850

1

lid porc 6 11 2 8529 1850

1

19 1 8850 1850

1

9 11+13 Yard 8568 1850

1

ointment/toothpaste jar few 6 11 2 8529 1850

1

saucer bc 6 15 1 8861 1850

1

6 19 1 8850 1850

1

7 11 1+2 8587 1850

1

porc 6 7 1 8735 1850

1

11 2 8529 1850

2

tea cup bc 6 11 2 8529 1850

2

1 8850 1850

1

7 11 1+2 8587 1850

1

porc 6 11 2 8529 1850

1

15 2 8810 1850

1

19 1 8850 1850

2

teapot bc 6 7 2 8700 1850

1

porc 9 11+13 Yard 8568 1850

2

wheel fe 6 9 2 8610

1

smoking/orna pipe porc 6 19 1 8850 1860

1*

toy/tool whistle & chain aes 6 19 1 8850 1800 1930 1*

TOTAL 57

268


There 24 toy teaset pieces found in the houses in Area 8, with up to 13 from various locations at House 11 (Figure 3.29) and five from House 19. In comparison, there were very few from other houses in the street. The teaset shapes were mainly those used to serve tea and coffee, but there was also a ewer and a base from an ointment or toothpaste jar (Figure 4.12). All these small toys were made in Germany, either on the wheel or moulded. They were white glazed but a few from House 19 had hand-painted floral designs (Figure 3.59). Figure 4.12: Girl's play items from Area 8. Left-right, top row: bisque leg with hp boot from soft-bodied doll

8700/#80778; glazed ‘Pudding doll’ 8736/#80710; glazed & hp 'China head' from a soft-bodied doll 8505/#99432. Bottom row: porcelain and bone china toy teaset pieces, hp lid 8501/#80587, dish 8501/#80588, saucer 8735/#80659 and teapot 8700/#8084. 10cm scale, Gallery2.

Figure 4.13: Selection of marbles from Area 8. Left-right, top row: 'Glass alleys h-made swirl’ 8700/#80914,

#80939; carnelian 'Striped aggie' 8700/#80917; brown glazed stw 'Bennington' 8735/#80657. Bottom row: porcelain 'China alley coil leaves’ 8501/#80590, limestone 'Stonie' showing unground facet 8501/#80594, large green glazed American majolica stw 'Bennington' 8501/#80591; enormous 'Glass alley h-made swirl' 8610/#81173. 10cm scale, Gallery2.

269


4.10.3 Marbles Marbles are historically associated with boy’s play, but of course anyone could have joined in.285 All that was needed was a small area on which a marble could roll but also places for the target to stay still. Particular games, setups and rules were probably flexible and subject to whim as well as skill. The most common marbles were inexpensive, which meant that it was of little consequence if they became lost or irretrievable. Harder stones of sure symmetry and deadliness were more expensive and very desirable. Small steel ball bearings that were commonly used as shooters in the 20th century (and earlier?) were not found at the site. In the houses at Steam Mill Street, as in other areas of Darling Quarter, limestone marbles (‘Stonies’) comprised the overwhelming majority (Table 4.52, Figure 4.13).286 Hard limestone marbles were made in Germany from at least 1700 and commonly used as cannon shot. As European munition technology changed from c.1800 a range of limestone varieties were ground specifically for the export toy market, including softer yellow-banded stone mined in the Sonnenberg-Coburg region. Impermanent dyed or painted surface decoration was known from c.1820 and common from c.1850. Importation of German toys including limestone, glass, porcelain, and glazed stoneware (‘Bennington’) marbles, porcelain toy teasets and dolls largely ceased at the start of World War I in 1914.287 At the site the harder limestone marbles often show battering scars, while the softer ones were susceptible to weathering. Hand and machine rolled clay marbles were comparatively rare at the houses even though they were the cheapest to make. One clay marble found in House 13 was a ‘Colonial white’ a variety made from at least 1550 but not after c.1830. It appears to have been kept in someone’s collection for a long time. The three other clay types from Houses 11, 13 and 15 were highly fired to stoneware, their surface unevenly coated in glaze or vitrification caused by reaction to the gases in the kiln. The latter could have been made locally, as similar marbles have been found on other sites, and notably in the kiln waster debris of the potter Thomas Ball (c.1801-1823).288 The children in every house also frequently played with the slightly more expensive handmade glass (‘Glass alley’) and porcelain (‘China alley’) marbles. The glass marbles were made in Germany from 1846 and included a few very large examples that played a specific role in the marble game. It is not known how such large items could fall through the floor. The most common glass varieties were those with coloured inner and banded outer swirls (‘Josephs’ and ‘onionskin’) in a clear body. Other types included clear blue and green-coloured marbles, and those made of a single gather (‘s−g’) of glass.289 Only one marble had the rarer variety with embedded mica fragments. The moulded glass stoppers or marbles (‘Pop alley’) from Codd patent (marble) bottles were retrieved by children by breaking the bottles. This must have occurred in the last decades of occupation of the houses as the bottles were only made from 1873-c.1935.

285

Chan 2012; Hillier 1968; Opie & Opie 1997. 286

Where possible the marble types are given traditional colloquial names or those commonly used in the academic literature. See Baumann 2004; Block 2012; Carskadden & Gartley 1990; Gartley & Carskadden 1998; Opie & Opie 1997; Randall 1971. 287

Marbles history and technology: Gartley & Carskadden 1998. 288

Casey & Lowe 2011. 289

Single gather or ‘End of day’ marbles made when the glassmaker gathered up all the remaining different coloured glass onto the pontil and mixed them together.

270


Table 4.52: Marbles by type from Area 8 Steam Mill Street houses. Note: +1=counter/marble’ +1?=uncertain paint.

Fabric Type Country Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

clay Clay h made col white UK/Aus/USA/Eur 6 13 2 8630 1550 1830 1

Clay h made stw glazed UK/Aus/USA/Eur 6 13 2 8630 1750 1830 1

7 11 1+2 8587 1750 1830 1

8 15 1+2+Yard 8754 1750 1830 1

stw Bennington blue Ger 6 11 2 8529 1870 1914 1

9 15+17

8765 1870 1914 1

Bennington brown Ger 6 7 1 8735 1870 1914 1

2 8700 1870 1914 2

11 2 8529 1870 1914 1

13 3 8585 1870 1914 1

Bennington fancy Ger 6 19 1 8850 1870 1914 3

porc China alley Ger 6 11 2 8529 1770 1914 2

13 2 8630 1770 1914 1

19 1 8850 1770 1914 6

7 19 2 8815 1770 1914 1

China alley band flower early Ger/USA 6 13 2 8630 1840 1870 1

China alley band pinwheel early Ger/USA 7 11 1+2 8587 1840 1870 1

China alley coil leaves mid-late Ger/USA 6 9 2 8610 1870 1914 1

19 1 8850 1870 1914 1

China alley helix Ger/USA 6 19 1 8850 1840 1914 2

China alley helix leaves late Ger/USA 6 13 2 8630 1890 1914 1

3 8585 1890 1914 1

China alley lines Ger/USA 6 13 2 8630 1840 1914 1

3 8585 1840 1914 1

8614 1840 1914 1

7 9 Yard 8737 1840 1914 1

China alley lines pinwheel exotic Ger/USA 6 13 2 8630 1840 1870 1

limestone Stonie Ger 6 7 1 8696 1800 1914 1

8735 1700 1914 1

1800 1914 3

2 8700 1700 1914 15

1800 1914 16+3

9 1 8634 1700 1914 1

2 8610 1700 1914 24+3

1800 1914 40

11 1 8615 1800 1914 1

8616 1700 1914 1

8617 1800 1914 1

2 8529 1700 1914 14+2

1800 1914 35+3

Yard 8520 1800 1914 1

8626 1800 1914 1

13 2 8630 1700 1914 13

1800 1914 20

3 8585 1800 1914 2

8614 1700 1914 1

15 1 8861 1800 1914 3

2 8810 1800 1914 1

19 1 8850 1700 1914 20

1800 1914 16+1

7 7 Yard 8736 1800 1914 4

9 2 8629 1700 1914 1

9 Yard 8512 1800 1914 1

8641 1800 1914 1

8730 1800 1914 1

8737 1800 1914 3

11 1+2 8587 1700 1914 1

1800 1914 2

2 8513 1800 1914 1

limestone Stonie Ger 7 13 2 8633 1700 1914 1

271


Fabric Type Country Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

3 8563 1800 1914 1

17 2 8818 1800 1914 1

19 2 8874 1800 1914 1

8 7 Yard 8591 1800 1914 1

7-19 Yard 8517 1800 1914 1

9 11+13 Yard 8568 1700 1914 1

Stonie paint Ger 6 7 2 8700 1820 1914 1

9 2 8610 1820 1914 2

11 2 8529 1820 1914 1

13 2 8630 1820 1914 23+1?

3 8585 1820 1914 7

8614 1820 1914 5

15 1 8861 1820 1914 3

2 8810 1820 1914 1

19 1 8850 1820 1914 55+18?

7 13 1 8579 1820 1914 1

2 8633 1820 1914 1

17 2 8860 1820 1914 2

Yard 8770 1820 1914 2

19 2 8815 1820 1914 1

marble Blood Alley Ger 6 13 2 8630 1680 1880 2

carnelian Striped Aggie Ger 6 7 2 8700 1775 1930 1

13 1 8608 1775 1930 1

glass Glass alley h made clearie blue Ger 6 11 2 8529 1846 1914 1

19 1 8850 1846 1914 1

Glass alley h made clearie green Ger 6 19 1 8850 1846 1914 1

Glass alley h made mica blue Ger 7 13 2 8633 1846 1914 1

Glass alley h made s-g Ger 6 9 2 8610 1850 1928 1

13 2 8630 1850 1928 1

3 8585 1850 1928 1

19 1 8850 1850 1928 3

7 7 Yard 8736 1850 1928 1

Glass alley h made swirl Ger 6 7 2 8700 1846 1914 3

9 2 8610 1846 1914 5

11 2 8529 1846 1914 1

13 2 8630 1846 1914 3

19 1 8850 1846 1914 6

7 7 Yard 8736 1846 1914 1

7+9 Yard 8724 1846 1914 1

9 Yard 8737 1846 1914 2

Glass alley h made swirl Joseph Ger 6 9 2 8610 1846 1914 1

13 3 8585 1846 1914 1

15 2 8810 1846 1914 1

19 1 8850 1846 1914 3

Glass alley h made swirl Joseph mica Ger 6 13 2 8630 1846 1914 1

Glass alley h made swirl onionskin Ger 6 11 2 8529 1846 1914 1

19 1 8850 1846 1914 1

Pop alley UK/Aus 6 7 2 8700 1873 1935 2

9 2 8610 1873 1935 6

11 2 8529 1873 1935 6

13 2 8630 1873 1935 2

3 8585 1873 1935 2

8614 1873 1935 1

19 1 8850 1873 1935 1

Yard 8816 1873 1935 1

8 7 Yard 8606 1873 1935 2

8 15 Yard 8787 1873 1935 1

TOTAL 496

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The ‘China alley’ marbles were less popular and most were found in Houses 13 and 19. Made in Germany from c.1770, most were hand-rolled and could also be large in size. Approximately half had hand-painted designs which can be dated to different decades in the mid to late 19th century. Stoneware marbles with glossy but mottled glazes are called ‘Benningtons’. They were imported from Germany in bulk from c.1870. The children in the houses preferred the colour brown over blue (which may have been less available). A child in House 7 lost three browns and in House 19 three rarer ‘fancy’ types went missing. The most expensive and rarer marbles found in the houses were made in Germany of polished stone. Used as special accurate shooters, their loss is likely to have been a sad blow for a child. More effort would have been made to retrieve these marbles than the other kinds. They comprised two white marbles with red veins (‘Blood alley’) and a carnelian (’Striped aggie’) from House 13, and another (’Striped aggie’) from House 7. The 496 marbles from the houses on Steam Mill Street were almost all recovered from within the rooms with extremely few from yard contexts (Table 4.52). Less marbles and other toys were found in Houses 7 and 9. This could be due to fewer children or floor coverings; relative poverty; or that the children played less or chose to play elsewhere. More marbles were lost in the yards of these houses than their neighbours. The relatively few marbles in Houses 15 and 17 is probably a consequence of greater disturbance. When at home, the children played mostly indoors, particularly in the rear room where most household activities appear to have occurred. The front room of most houses was rarely played in (except House 19 which was the one and only room in Phase 6). Playing with marbles and toy teasets was allowed more often in Houses 7 and 15 (albeit with the little actual evidence in any rooms), and to a lesser extent House 11. The uneven floor caused many marbles to roll uncontrollably towards a gap and be lost forever. There may have been several reasons why there were few marbles and other toys in the yards. Firstly the children may not have often played there because the yards were being used for business purposes, were muddy or unsanitary. If they wanted to play outside, they could have gone onto the street which had a harder surface better for rolling. Secondly if the children dropped toys or games in the yard, they were more easily able to pick them up again, which was not normally possible indoors. Thirdly the children preferred to play inside. Lastly parents perhaps wanted to closely supervise their children, particularly girls. 4.10.4 Marbles Spatial Analysis Analysis of the spatial locations of the marbles in the underfloor deposits of each room of the houses (Table 4.53 and Table 4.54 to Table 4.56) shows that they were scattered across the same parts of the rooms as many other artefacts, and in near identical concentrated groupings. Almost all were found in the rear rooms of the two-roomed houses and in the busy single-room of House 19, which had more marbles (137) than any of its neighbours. As with other items from Room 1 in House 19, the marbles were concentrated in the northwest corner and near the south wall, especially beside the rear door. There were also groupings near the southwest corner and beside the southern end of the fireplace. In Room 2 of House 7, the marbles were clustered in the southeast and southwest corners. There were more marbles in Room 2 of House 9 where they were concentrated in the southwest corner near the door and on the southwest side of the eastern fireplace. The rear room in House 11 had marbles scattered in a diagonal direction in the western side of the room. This location is identical to other artefacts from the room which indicates they were scraped together during service trench backfilling. The larger House 13 had 73 marbles in Room 2 and 24 in Room 3. In Room 2 they were scattered around the centre of the room with most

273


towards the southwest. In Room 3 the marbles were most concentrated in the extreme northwest corner. Relatively few marbles were recovered from the more damaged Houses 15 and 17. Table 4.53: Marbles from gridded underfloor deposits in Houses 13, 15 and 17 not shown on spatial

location plans. House Room Phase Context Sq Alpha Sq No From To #MIC

13 1 6 8608 B 3 1775 1930 1

15 1 6 8861 A 1 1800 1914 1

A 2 1800 1914 1

B 2 1820 1914 2

B 3 1820 1914 1

G 10 1800 1914 1

2 6 8810 B 7 1800 1914 1

1846 1914 1

E 2 1820 1914 1

17 2 7 8860 D E 1820 1914 1

E 6 1820 1914 1

TOTAL 12

Table 4.54: Underfloor spatial location of marbles in House 19 Room 1. Note: One extra counter/marble in

Square A6.

8850 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A 1 16 18 1 4 4 44 32.1

B 1 2 5

8 5.8

C 6 2 8 5.8

D 2 1 5 8 5.8

E 4 9 3 19 3 45 32.8 6 1

F 1 1 4 4 5

6 3 24 17.5

TOTAL 8 28 18 2 8 18 34 11 9 1 137 100

% 5.8 20.4 13.1 1.5 5.8 13.1 24.8 8.0 6.6 0.7 100

274

Table 4.55: Underfloor spatial location of marbles in Houses 7 & 9. House 7 Room 1 (above) Room 2.

8735 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL %

A 1 3 4 50.0

B 0 0.0

C 0 0.0

D 0 0.0

E 0 0.0

F 0 0.0

G 1 1 12.5

TOTAL 0 1 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 5 62.5

% 0.0 12.5 37.5 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 62.5

8700 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL %

A 1 1 2.4

B 1 1 2.4

C 1 1 2 4.8

D 2 2 3 7 16.7

E 3 2 1 6** 1 13 31.0

F 1 4 3* 1 1 1 4 15 35.7

G 1 2 3 7.1

TOTAL 1 4 7 4 2 1 0 0 9 6 8 42 100

% 2.4 9.5 16.7 9.5 4.8 2.4 0.0 0.0 21.4 14.3 19.0 100

Note * indicates one counter/marble in square. House 9 Room 1 (above) Room 2.

8634 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TOTAL %

A

1

1 100

B

0 0.0

C

0 0.0

D

0 0.0

E

0 0.0

F

0 0.0

G 0 0.0

TOTAL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 100

% 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100

8610 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL

%

A

0 0.0

B

1

1 1.2

C 2

2 2.4

D 2

2 2.4

E 2 2 4 1

9 10.8

F 4 2 2 4

8 9 29 34.9

G 7* 5* 14* 12 2

40 48.2

TOTAL

17 10 20 17 2 0 8 9 0 83 100

% 20.5 12.0 24.1 20.5 2.4 0.0 9.6 10.8 0.0 100

275

Table 4.56: Underfloor spatial location of marbles in Houses 11 and 13. House 11 Room 1 (above) Room 2 (none from 8583).

8615 -8617

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A 0 0.0

B 0 0.0

C

0 0.0

D 1 1 33.3

E 0 0.0

F 1 1 33.3

G 1

1 33.3

H

0 0.0

TOTAL

1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 100

% 33.3 33.3 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 100

8529 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL %

A 2 1 1 3 2 1 2 12 17.6

B 1 3 1 5 7.4

C 1 2 2 1 6 8.8

D 1* 5* 7** 3 2 18 26.5

E 4 7* 6 5 22 32.4

F 4 1 5 7.4

TOTAL

3 2 10 10 22 12 9 0 0 0 68 100

% 4.4 2.9 14.7 14.7 32.4 17.6 13.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 100

Note: * indicates one counter/marble in square. House 13 Room 2 (above) Room 3.

8630 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL %

A 1 2 1 1 5 6.8

B 2 2 1 4 1 1 11 15.1

C 3 5 2 2 1 13 17.8

D 4 6 4 2 1 4 21 28.8

E 1 1 4 5 4 1 2 18 24.7

F 1 1 1 2 5 6.8

TOTAL 1 5 16 17 10 10 11 3 0 73 100

% 1.4 6.8 21.9 23.3 13.7 13.7 15.1 4.1 0.0 100

8585 8614*

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 TOTAL %

A 8 1* 2 1 12 50.0

B 1 1 1* 2 5 20.8

C 3* 1 4 16.7

D 2* 2 8.3

E 1* 1 4.2

F 0 0.0

TOTAL 14 4 0 1 4 1 0 24 100

% 58.3 16.7 0.0 4.2 16.7 4.2 0.0 100

276


4.11 Music, Art and Collecting A small range of artefacts associated with playing music, artistic pursuits and collecting were found at Darling Quarter. 4.11.1 Musical Instruments There were 15 fragments of possibly nine hand-held musical instruments from the site (Table 4.57). These comprised frames from three Jews harps (mouth harps) and different-sized reeds attached to rectangular plates from at least two and possibly six harmonicas. Table 4.57: Musical instruments from the site.

Area Phase House Context Shape Fabric Country From To #MIC #Frags

6 6

8289 Jews harp fe Eng 1840 1951 1 1

9

8201 Jews harp aes Eng 1840 1951 1 1

7 8

7947 Jews harp aes Eng 1840 1951 1 1

8 6 9 8610 harmonica aes/zn/fe

1 3

13 8585 harmonica aes

1820

2 3

aes/fe

1820

1 2

8614 harmonica aes

1820

1 2

8630 harmonica aes/fe

1820

1 2

TOTAL 9 15

The Jews harps were only found in Areas 6 and 7. All the instruments were made in England and were cast in copper alloy or made from iron from 1840-1951. The separate tongues are missing. In Area 6 the ridged example with diamond-shaped section (8201/#80379, Figure 4.14) was one of the most common types and similar to the one of iron (8289/#80297). The more ornate model from Area 7 (7947/#80298) may have been a little more expensive.290 Figure 4.14: Assorted items from Areas 6, 6/7 & 7. Left-right, top: brass scissors 7943/#880485. Middle row:

glass spectacles or microscope lens 7927/#80476; Jews harp 8201/#80379. Bottom: slate pencil 8303/#80361. 1cm scale divisions, Gallery2.

290

The Black country in England centre for production: http://rowleyvillage.webs.com/rowleyandthejewsharp.htm

http://rowleyvillage.webs.com/rowleyandthejewsharp.htm

277


Harmonicas were only found in Area 8 on Steam Mill Street in Houses 9 and 13 (Figure 4.15). The different sizes of the reeds in House 13 may indicate different harmonicas or a single diatonic instrument. Harmonicas or mouth organs were first developed in Europe in c.1820 and by the late 19th century were mass produced and sold around the world.291 These items show that music was played in the houses, perhaps by children. They may also have accompanied evenings of song and dance. Figure 4.15: Harmonica reeds and plates from Houses 9 and 13 Rooms 2 + 3. Left-right, top row: House 9

8610/#81513, #81483; House 13 8614/#16181; #16171. Bottom row: House 13 8630/#99908; 8585/#16106, #16091; 8630/#15085, #15604. 10cm scale, Gallery 2.

4.11.2 Artistic Pursuits There were 11 crayons and one narrow paintbrush ferrule from the site, all found in the houses on Steam Mill Street (Table 4.58). The crayons were shades of grey or white with the majority accumulated below the floors in Rooms 1 and 2 of House 11. Others were from Houses 9, 13, 15 and 19. House 7 is again conspicuous by the absence of these children’s drawing equipment. House 17 was perhaps too disturbed to retain any evidence of this activity. The paintbrush ferrule was from a House 15 demolition deposit.

291

Harmonica history and construction: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonica

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonica

278


Table 4.58: Items relating to artistic and collecting pursuits from the site. Note: *stone pebble from 8630 has also been included in toys and games.

Area Phase House Room Context Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type Country Colour From To #MIC

6 6

8367 collect shell shell -

1

9

8201 collect pebble quartz -

white

1

8 6 9 2 8610 draw crayon crayon Crayon-cylind

grey

1

white

1

11 1 8615 collect medallion aes

Commemorative Royal

Eng

1888 1888 1

draw crayon crayon Crayon-cylind

grey

1

Crayon-oct

grey

1

2 8529 draw crayon crayon Crayon-cylind

grey

5

l grey

1

13 2 8630 game/collect counter/pebble stone -

dk brn

1*

15 2 8810 draw crayon crayon Crayon-cylind

dk grey

1

19 1 8850 collect sea urchin

calcium carbonate

-

ppl

1

8 15 1+2+Yard 8756 painting ferrule aes -

1

TOTAL 17

4.11.3 Collecting Some evidence for collected objects was found in Areas 6 and 8 of the site (Table 4.58). This behaviour in the broadest sense includes items that have been picked up due to curiosity or momentary fancy, as well as those of more intense interest. This may have been done by children or adults. Inherent in the notion of collecting is the desire to keep the object safe and secure which means that they are more unlikely than other artefacts to be lost or discarded. However, interest may wane, the item may be accidentally damaged and the passion may not be shared by other members of the family especially when the collector is no longer around. Several items show that the collector had an interest in the natural world. Those in Area 6 were a well-rounded white quartz pebble (8201/#80388); and a large weathered Red triton shell (Charonia rubicunda, 8367/#80732) with a large hole found with two marbles stored inside the interior canal or body whorl (Figure 4.16).292 The residents at Houses 11, 13 and 19 Steam Mill Street in Area 8 collected three objects. The sea urchin (8850/#17080) and the rounded pebble (8630/#99776) may have been picked from the nearby rocky shore. The latter could have been used as a game counter. In contrast was a more conventional collectable from House 11, a tiny medallion (8615/#99390) commemorating the silver wedding anniversary of Prince Edward and Princess Alexandra in 1888 (Figure 3.32). Being tiny it was easily lost below the floor in Room 1.

Figure 4.16: Large Red triton shell with limestone and glazed stoneware marbles found inside the hole from Area 6, 8367/#80730-#80732. 10cm scale, Gallery2.

292

Marbles discovered inside shell by Melissa Carter, see Carter 2012, Volume 3, Section 8.5: 10.

279


4.12 Religion and Friendly Societies A small range of items of religious or ritual significance were found in the Houses of Steam Mill Street (Table 4.59). They fall into three broad categories which are discussed below. 4.12.1 Catholic Faith When the houses on Steam Mill Street were built, the Roman Catholic faith was becoming more accepted by the Establishment in Britain, and therefore also in Australia. Although Catholic rituals were an important part of life for many people in Australia, especially those who came from Ireland, many practices remained relatively hidden from outside view. Greater visibility of the Catholic faith and lessening of social prohibitions occurred over the course of the 19th century. Residents in Sydney at this time witnessed the expansion of St Mary’s Cathedral, Sydney and then its grand-scale refoundation in 1868, after the previous building burnt down in 1865. Table 4.59: Items with religious and ritual association from the site.

Gen Funct

Spec Funct Shape Fabric Area Phase House Room Context Type Country From To #MIC

food/pers tblw/religious knife fe/steel/bone 8 6 11 1 8615

1850

1

friendly society

ritual staff bone 8 7 19 2 8874 Oddfellows

Heart in Hand 1836 1900 1

pers religious medal aes 8 6 9 2 8610 Miraculous Mary

1832

1

11 2 8529 Miraculous Mary?

1832

1

St Benedict Italy

1880 1

19 1 8873 St Benedict Italy

1880 1

8 11+13 2 8505 Catholic Abstinence League

1850

1

figurine porc 8 6 19 1 8850

Ger 1860

1

rec toy toy porc 8 6 13 3 8585 Praying

(pregnant?) Ger 1860 1900 1

19 1 8850 Praying kneeling

(pregnant?) Ger 1860 1900 1

TOTAL 9

Some of the residents were Roman Catholic as was evident in the series of religious medals of ‘Miraculous’ Mary (Houses 9 and 11) and St Benedict (Houses 11 and 19).293 In addition House 19 had broken German porcelain figurines (Figure 3.59), one depicting the Madonna (8850/#16678) and a baby in a basket who probably represents the baby Jesus (8850/#16576). The latter may have been part of a Catholic nativity group placed in a small shrine. The occurrence of possible religious votive dolls (see below), toy teasets and ornamental figurines in both Houses 13 and 19 indicates a particular close connection between some of the female occupants. Although no Catholic medals or statues were found in House 13 there may have been a friendship between religious women and/or their daughters who could have played together. From the historical documents we also know that several of the families who owned or resided in houses on Steam Mill Street had surnames, such as Moroney (House 13 and 11) and perhaps McNamara (House 15), that suggest an Irish or possibly Scottish Catholic background. The strength of their Catholic faith was tested by one resident of House 11 or 13 who took the oath to abstain from liquor. The Catholic Total Abstinence League was founded in 1832 and seems to have particularly targeted Irish drinkers. The Lord Mayor of Sydney mentioned the Abstinence medal in 1842.294 The copper alloy medal (8505/#99433, Figure 4.17) from a Phase 8 demolition deposit associated with Houses 11 and 13 was in the shape of a Maltese cross. The obverse depicts Mary holding baby Jesus in a lenticular centre with: ’THE CATHOLIC TOTAL ABSTINENCE LEAGUE’; at

293

Religious medal information at http://www.catholicsaintmedals.com/about-religious-medals.aspx; also http://www.stchristopherpendants.co.uk/miraculous-medal-history 294

Australasian Chronicle; July 16, 1842. Similar medals found in museums in Britain and Ireland, ie. Limerick City Museum ID: 1986.0028.

http://www.catholicsaintmedals.com/about-religious-medals.aspx

http://www.stchristopherpendants.co.uk/miraculous-medal-history

280


top: ‘IN HOC SIGNO/+/VINCES’; to left: ‘I / P[ROMIS]E / [WITH] THE / [GRACE OF / GOD]’; to right: ‘TO / [A]BSTA[IN] / FROM ALL / INTOXICATING / DRINKS’; bottom: ‘AND TO / DISCOUNT[ENANCE] / [ ] THE[IR] / USE AS FAR AS POSSIBLE’. The reverse shows St Patrick in the centre with: ‘PRAY FOR US ST PATRICK APOSTLE OF IRELAND’; at top: ‘ABSTINENCE / PERSEVERANCE’; to left: a laurel spray growing through harp; to right: 2 tall round towers; bottom: a greyhound.

Figure 4.17: House 11+13: Catholic Total Abstinence League medal 8505/#99433. Left-right: obverse-reverse. 1cm scale divisions, Gallery2.

4.12.2 Folk Magic and Superstition At the same time, some of the house owners or builders clearly held onto traditional folk magic superstitions. In House 11 a bone-handled knife (8615/#99414, Figure 4.18) was found between two courses of stone below the floor in Room 1 (Section 3.3.3). Oriented east/west the knife was probably intended to ward off evil from the house. Such charms have been commonly found in British and Australian houses for many centuries.295 Figure 4.18: Bone-handled knife found between two courses of stone, oriented E/W found in House 11

Room 1, 8615/#99414. 10cm scale, Gallery2.

295

Evans 2010.

281


Some of the toys that were traditionally played with by girls may also have an underlying religious or ritual purpose. The most interesting were two similar intact small glazed porcelain dolls (Frozen Charlotte or bathing doll type) found in Houses 13 (8585/#16059, Figure 4.19) and 19 (8850/#17168) that could be easily carried in a pocket or purse. They depict girls wearing caps who were praying, one standing (Figure 3.59 and the cover of this report) and the other kneeling (Figure 3.48, Figure 4.19 below). Both dolls were made in Germany from c.1860-1890.296 Slightly odd are the bulging bellies that suggest pregnancy. Although these dolls may be just plumply rendered it is possible that they were used by their owner as fertility votives. In general such dolls were part of teaching young girls about Christian (Catholic?) belief and their future dutiful role in society. Other small non-praying porcelain dolls and ornamental figurines found in the houses were part of this behavioural training. The largest variety was found in House 19 (Figure 3.59). They included a ‘Punch’ doll (8850/#16992) from a Punch and Judy set and religious figurines of a baby (Jesus?) in a basket and Madonna (discussed above). More common in the other houses were porcelain dolls of lesser quality, which were meant to be bathed by girls as if they were babies.

Figure 4.19: Praying porcelain doll kneeling from House 13 Room 3, 8585/#16059, side view. 1cm scale divisions.

296

Coleman & Coleman n.d.; Fawdrey & Fawdrey 1979; Goodfellow 1993; Hillier 1968; Lima 2012.

282


4.12.3 Oddfellows A hand-carved narrow bone staff with the Oddfellows ‘Heart in Hand’ symbol was found in a Phase7 occupation deposit in Room 2 of House 19 (Section 3.3.6, 8874/#17233, Figure 4.20). A significant artefact, it is also shown on the front cover of this report. It probably belonged to one of the adult males of the house. Despite the limited information available about such objects it appears that it was used in Oddfellows ritual ceremonies. In Australia the Independent Order of Oddfellows (IOOF) was established in NSW in 1836 and Melbourne in 1846. It was originally a mutual benefit society that provided aid to members in times of sickness and unemployment; these benefits were obtained through joining fees and ongoing subscriptions.297 The skill required to carve this staff and other bone objects such as the chess pieces found in the houses of Steam Mill Street was learned by many sailors to pass the time when on board ship, at ports and to supplement their income. Bone and other materials were also carved by prisoners of war, convicts and slaves for similar or more desperate reasons.298

Figure 4.20: Oddfellows ‘Heart in Hand’ carved bone staff from House 19 Room 2, 8874/#17233. Front side and back views. 10cm scale, photographs by Gallery2.

297

http://museumvictoria.com.au/collections/themes/2783/independent-order-of-oddfellows 298

Frank 2012; Stocks 2008, 2009a. Also at numerous online museum online around the world.

http://museumvictoria.com.au/collections/themes/2783/independent-order-of-oddfellows

283


4.13 Weapons, Munitions and Flint There was limited evidence at the site for both flintlock and percussion weapons and munitions (Table 4.60, Figure 4.21). The first comprised flint associated with the armaments of England and France. The only English black gunflint from the site was discovered in a Phase 3 tidal accumulation deposit in Area 6, possibly thrown from the shore or dropped from someone’s pocket while rowing in a boat. It had already ceased to be part of a weapon. In contrast 17 brown-black English and lighter brown French flint nodules, flakes and fragments were found in several contexts and locations at the site. Percussion firearms were represented by a percussion cap, bullet and six cartridge casings from rifles and smaller hand-guns such as a pistol. They were found associated with the 1840s-1901 occupation of Houses 9, 11 and 13 in Area 8.299 Table 4.60: Gunflints, strike-a-lights and flint or stone manufacture and use from the site. Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type Country Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC #Frags

arms gun bullet pb -

8 6 9 2 8610 1860

1 1

cartridge brass

.22 rimfire

8 6 11 2 8529 1860

3 0

brass/pb

.22 centrefire

8 6 9 2 8610 1860

1 1

pistol

percussion cap

brass -

8 6 13 3 8585 1815

1 0

rifle cartridge brass -

8 6 9 2 8610 1860

1 2

.303

centrefire? 8 6 13 2 8630 1866

1 2

arms/work flintknapping core chert -

8 All

8501

1 0

flintknapping

/tool core/

strike-a-light

flint - Fra 7 7

8293

1 0

Eng 7 8

8211

1 0

frag/

strike-a-light flint - Fra 8 6 7 1 8735

1 1

flake/

strike-a-light

flint - Fra 8 6 19 1 8850

1 0

Eng 8 7 17 1 8847

1 0

rifle/tool

gunflint/ strike-a-light

flint Blade Eng 6 3

8483 1780 1880 1 0

work tool anvil/core stone siliceous -

7 8

8214

1 0

strike-a-light flint - Eng 8 6 13 3 8585

1 0

Fra 8 6 13 2 8630

1 1

work/unid tool/unid strike-a-light /nodule

flint - Eng 8 6 13 2 8630

1 1

Fra 5 7

9153

1 0

8 6 11 1 8615

1 0

13 2 8630

3 3

3 8585

1 1

8614

2 0

7 17 2 8860

1 0

TOTAL 28 13

4.13.1 English Gunflint The blade rifle gunflint (8483/#80464, Figure 2.1) was made in Brandon, England where most of the black flint was mined. It was later heavily scarred when reused as a strike-a-light before being deposited in the tidal zone in Area 6 (Section 2.3.2). This type of gunflint was made from c.1780-1880 and was state-of-the-art during the Napoleonic Wars when Australia was first colonised by the British.300 Such gunflints were used during battles of the American Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, and on the Indian subcontinent. Flintlocks were superseded by the introduction of percussion weapons in the mid 1840s to 1860s, becoming totally obsolete by c.1880.301 Worn-out or broken gunflints were commonly reused to create a spark when lighting fires. They were usually carried with a (striking) steel in a tinderbox. 299

The flint and other siliceous stone artefacts were examined by Jillian Comber, the consultant forAboriginal Archaeology for the Darling Quarter project. They are not related to the Aboriginal occupation of the site. 300

Ballen 2012, Durst 2009; Hamilton & Emery 1988; Lotbiniere 1984; Oakley 1975; Skertchly 1879; Witthoft 1966. 301

Du Quesne Bird 1978; Fowler, North & Stronge 2007; Fowler & Sweeney 2007.

284


Figure 4.21: Select range of flint, chert and siliceous stone artefacts from Areas 5, 6, 7 and 8, obverse and reverse. (Left-right), Top Row: Dark brown-black strike-a-light Area 8 House 13 8630/#99659 and core/strike-a-light Area 7 8211/#80399; English black gunflint/strike-a-light Area 6 8483/#80464; brown strike-a-light/nodules Area 8 House 13 8614/#16203, Area 5 9153/#80302, Area 8 House 13 8630/#99877 and Area 8 House 17 8860/#16413; fragment/strike-a-light House 7 8735/#80664. Middle Row: strike-a-light Area 8 House 13 8585/#16083, core/strike-a-light Area 7 8293/#80357. Bottom Row: strike-a-light Area 8 House 13 8630/#15476; chert core Area 8 8501/#80610; anvil/core Area 7 8214/#80398. 10cm scale, Gallery2.

285


4.13.2 English and French Ballast Flint Nodules, Fragments and Strike-a-Lights The light to dark brown and black flint nodules, flakes, pebble cores and fragment found in Phase 6 to 8 fills in Areas 5, 7 and 8 are thought to have been brought to Australia as one or more ship’s ballast. The ballast is likely to have been dumped on the waterfront, perhaps in Darling Harbour, and (in part) moved with other bulk materials during large-scale reclamation and consolidation operations. As a group the flint was of varied quality, with the darker browns more typical of that mined in England and the paler browns more common to France. These two countries manufactured most of the gunflints during the 18th and 19th century, but there were other source countries. Research into gunflint making and flint sources is ongoing.302 Flint does not naturally occur in the Sydney region. As a group these artefacts were of varied size and included unworked and water-worn tiny nodules and a fragment, as well as knapped flakes, and possible cores. Many of the items were damaged and irregularly scarred or crushed probably as they were being dug up and incorporated into new fills which were levelled and rolled. Flint and chert-bearing gravels have been known to have been gathered for ballast on British ships. Another source for the larger flake-scarred items could be debris and debitage from gunflint mining and shaping regions. Dumped ship’s ballast is known to have been utilised for gunflint making by indigenous and European residents in many countries, especially when other sources of flint were absent or difficult to obtain. This could also apply to residents or workers at Darling Harbour seeking to make gunflints or strike-a-lights for their cooking and heating. During cataloguing it was difficult to identify specific function with certainty on the basis of shape and surface scarring. The step-scarring that occurs during use as a strike-a-light is often similar to that caused by accidental blows with a hard object or during severe crushing. The shape of strike-a-lights is of no importance except that the object should be fairly robust. The two small flint cores from Area 7 and the flakes from Area 8 were mostly likely shaped by deliberate knapping. However, along with other less worked flint pieces they could also have been reused to create sparks. 4.13.3 Siliceous Stone Anvil/Core and Chert Core Two other scarred stone artefacts are harder to interpret in terms of historical site activities. The source for both stones is unknown. The large tabular siliceous stone (8214/#80398, Figure 4.21) from a Phase 8 context in Area 7 may have been utilised as an anvil or core in a small workshop. A broad chisel was probably used to chop off one end of the flat water-worn block to make a more regular square piece. Then one side was continually pounded creating deep step-scarring. Other hammering was done on the opposite side and two corners, with scarring and rubbing also evident on the main face. The dark grey chert cobble was scarred and heavily pitted. Typical of a core or hammerstone it was found unstratified during machining in Area 8 (8501/#80610, Figure 4.21). 4.13.4 Percussion Weapons Percussion weapons were developed from the 1840s and in common use from the 1860s. Pistols and small guns of .22 calibre had a limited accurate firing range and were typically carried for personal protection in towns, cities and when travelling. Rifles were used by the military and for hunting. The cartridge casing from House 13 was probably a .303, which was the calibre preferred by the British Army and the Australian Armed Forces for much of the 20th century.

302

French flint in Australian sites see: Stocks 2010; Allen, J 2008; Delaney 1989. Most recent gunflint review in Ballin 2012. Ballast flint in Jones, W.M. 1976; Hamilton & Emery 1988: 53-57.

286


4.14 Household Utensils, Metalware and Equipment There were 80 miscellaneous and related artefacts associated with the cooking, preparation, serving and consumption of food at Darling Quarter (for images see each house in Section 3). The other three items listed below (Table 4.61) were fragments of blue pigment (bluing) found in Area 8 Houses 7, 9 and 19 on Steam Mill Street that were used to whiten fabric in the laundry. The most common category was cutlery, tableware and teaware made from the late 18th to the early 20th century.303 The majority were probably made in the UK but only a small proportion had legible marks. Most of the utensils would have been relatively inexpensive but showed signs of long use before being broken and discarded. Figure 4.22: Top panel: Bone cutlery handles from Area 7. Top: ‘FOR A GOOD GIRL’ 8004/#80525. Middle:

rectangular bevelled 8004/#80526. Bottom: rectangular hexagonal 8090/#80563. 10cm scale, Gallery2. Bottom panel: Items from Area 7 made from bone or antler. Left-right, top row: cut block/veneer 8262/#80424; bone chess piece or finial 8279/#80356. Middle: knife with scored bone handle scales 9206/#80313. Bottom: penknife with antler scales 8214/#80397. 10cm scale, Gallery2.

303

Banister 1970; Dunning 2000; Moore 1995.

287


Often it was not possible to distinguish between forks and knives. They were all hafted in bone except for two with ivory from Area 5 and in House 19 in Area 8, and one with wood from the yard of House 7 (Figure 4.22). Diagnostic handle styles enabled some artefacts to be assigned a broad date range. Early forms were rare. Knives with scored patterns on the bone scales were only found in Area 6 (8261/#80422) and the yard of House 9 in Area 8 (8737/#69649,Figure 3.64). Handles with a hexagonal profile were found in Area 7 (8090/#80563) and in Room 2 of House 7 (8700/#80740, Figure 3.5). One bone-handled knife with a broken blade was found mortared between two stone courses in House 11 (Section 4.12.2). All the spoons and four forks were cast or pressed. Most were made of copper alloy for which evidence for silver plating or electroplating has been largely lost. There was a pewter spoon from Area 7. Traditionally well-made knives were often seen as important personal possessions as well as essential items of equipment. They were kept for as long as the blade could be sharpened. In Victorian times when the houses on Steam Mill Street were occupied, middle and upper class households typically possessed as good a set of cutlery as they could afford. It was seen as reflecting their status; a good set of cutlery showed that you were part of the modern ordered world. These sets became increasingly complex, as cutlery was redesigned to accompany the expanding variety and number of dishes, such as fish knives and different sized and shaped spoons for soup, condiments, pudding and tea. Household servants, guests and family members of the family would use different dishes and cutlery depending on their wealth and social standing. In addition, when entertaining it was expected that tea would be poured by the lady of the house who would want to use the best china and teaspoons. Despite the limited number of utensils found in the houses some observations can be made. The basic cutlery set appears to comprise a number of bone-handled knives and some forks, supplemented by electroplated (?) forks, desert and table and teaspoons with plain Fiddle or Old English patterns. Some of the knives, forks and spoons were old fashioned, perhaps passed on in the family. Several houses had a limited number of plain spoons to serve table condiments, a mustard spoon in Houses 9, 13 and 17 and a salt spoon in Houses 9 and 11. Residents from House 9 lost more knives and forks than any other household and had the only marked Britannia plated fork. The oldest knives were from Houses 7 and 9. The occupants of every house, with the possible exception of House 17, appear to have enjoyed drinking tea. However, newer and more expensive cutlery forms were mostly used by the residents of House 13 and to a lesser extent those in Houses 19 and 11. These were mostly for drinking tea, perhaps when entertaining visitors. House 13 had more elaborate variants of Old English pattern teaspoons. Two with floral or ridge designs were found in Room 2. Those from Rooms 3 and 4 had the King (8614/#16219) and Old English thread and palmette patterns (8527/#16249), which were single-stamped indicating they were made in Scotland. A small range of tinware preparation and serving bowls and a pail were recovered from Area 9. The only tap for a keg or barrel was found in Area 7. Objects used during cooking included a hook and trivet from Areas 7 and 9. Houses 7 and 9 contained cooking and or heating items such as pot hooks, a handle and stove part.

288


Table 4.61: Household utensils, metalware, cooking and laundry items from the site. Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type Country Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

cond mustard spoon aes Fiddle UK 8 8 17 1+2 8802 1840

1

aes/ag Fiddle Eng 8 6 9 2 8610 1840

1

Eng 8 6 13 2 8630 1840

1

salt spoon aes -

8 6 9 2 8610

1

11 2 8529

1

serve tap aes -

7 7

7953

1

prep/serve bowl fe/sn -

9 6

9249

1

9

9203

1

pail fe/sn -

9 6

9249

1

tblw fork aes Fiddle

8 All

8501 1800

1

aes/ag Fiddle Scot 8 8 15 1+2+Yard 8754 1840

1

Britannia plate Fiddle Eng 8 7 9

8629 1860 1886 1

fe -

8 6 9 2 8610 1760 1850 1

fork/knife aes/bone Rect Tapered

8 8 17 1+2 8802

1

aes/fe/bone Rect scale

8 6 19 1 8850 1800

1

aes/ivory Rect rat-tail

8 9 19

8838 1850

1

bone Hexag Rect Taper scale

8 6 7 2 8700 1800

1

Rect Oval

8 6 11 2 8529

1

Rect rat-tail

8 6 13 3 8614 1850

1

7 13 1 8515 1850

1

Rect Taper rat-tail

7 7

8004 1800

1

Rect Taper rat-tail

8 6 19 1 8850 1850

1

7 9 Yard 8737 1850

1

Rect Taper scale

8 7 Yard 8591 1800

1

bone/pb Rect Taper rat-tail wgt

7 7

8004 1800

1

fe/bone Hexag Taper scale cap

7 6/7

8090 1800

1

Rect Taper rat-tail

7 6

8267 1800

1

8 6 7 2 8700 1800

1

9 10

9401 1800

1

fe/steel Wedge solid

8 6 9 2 8610 1860

1

fe/steel/wood Rect Taper scale

8 6 9 2 8610 1800

1

ivory Rect Taper rat-tail

5 6

9171 1850

1

wood Rect Taper rat-tail

8 7 7 Yard 8736 1800

1

knife fe -

7 7

8263

1

fe/bone Wedge scale scored

6 9

8261 1788 1850 1

fe/steel -

8 6 9 2 8610 1760 1850 1

11 2 8529

1

fe/steel/bone Rect Taper scale scored UK 8 7 9 Yard 8737 1780 1880 1

fe/steel/ivory Rect rat-tail

8 6 19 1 8850 1850

1

steel -

8 6 9 2 8610

1

spoon aes Old English

8 6 11 1 8615 1840

1

aes/ag Fiddle

8 7 13 3 8563 1840

1

fe -

7 9

7901

1

fe/steel Old English?

8 6 11 2 8529

1

pewter -

7 7

8004

1

spoon table aes/ag Fiddle

8 7 11 Yard 8664 1840

1

spoon, dessert aes/ag Fiddle

7 7

8037 1840

1

8 7 7 Yard 8736 1840

1

tblw/serve spoon fe -

8 6 13 2 8630

1

tea teaspoon aes Fiddle

8 7 19 2 8874 1840

1

Eng 8 6 19 1 8850 1840

1

UK 8 6 15 2 8821 1840

1

King Scot 8 6 13 3 8614 1840

1

Old English thread

& palmette Scot 8 7 13 4 8527 1840

1

aes/ag -

8 6 13 3 8585 1840

1

Fiddle

8 6 7 2 8700 1840

4

9 2 8610 1840

2

11 2 8529 184

2

7 7 Yard 8736 1840

1

9 Yard 8737 1840

1

289


Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type Country Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

All

8501 1840

1

UK 8 7 19 2 8874 1840

1

Old English floral Eng 8 6 13 2 8630 1891

1

Old English ridged

8 6 13 2 8630 1840

1

tea/cond teaspoon/

mustard spoon aes Fiddle UK 8 7 17 1 8856 1840

1

tblw/religious knife fe/steel/bone -

8 6 11 1 8615 1850

1*

cooking handle fe

8 7 7 Yard 8736

1

hook fe S

7 7

8235

1

8 6 7 2 8700

1

9 2 8610

4

trivet fe -

9 6

9206 1788

1

laundry blue dye -

8 6 7 2 8700

1

9 2 8610

1

19 1 8850

1

cooking/heating stove fe

Eng 8 7 9 2 8572 1860 1930 1

TOTAL 83

4.15 Household Furniture, Fittings and Ornaments in the Houses The houses contained 235 artefacts (Table 4.62) that could be viewed as part of the household furniture, fitting and ornaments (for images see each house in Section 3). Beads and figurines have been discussed elsewhere (Section 4.4.2 and Sections 4.10.2 and 4.12.1) but are added here for completeness. Some of the door and furniture plates typical of Victorian hardware had fallen in Houses 7, 9 and 19.304 None were ornate. Those from other houses may have been in better repair. House 7 had far fewer examples of household hardware, although the windows had shutters (sash dog) and one door had a latch and key. Ship’s fastenings and fittings (mainly copper alloy tacks and nails) were found in almost every house, particularly Houses 7 and 9. They may have been reused to repair furniture, or been incorporated into a new piece by carpenters and cabinetmakers (Section 4.19, Table 4.69). These fastenings, as well as copper alloy hasps, hinges and escutcheons (Figure 3.13), may have belonged to furniture, chests or other objects that had been on board ship, perhaps owned by immigrants or sailors. Several of these hardware items were found in House 9. The appearance of small boxes or cabinets may be enhanced by the repetitive MoP inlays (House 11) and bone knob (House 7). These boxes could have contained items such as tea, sewing kits, toiletry articles or jewellery. Some room furnishings and furniture are represented by metal curtain rings and upholstery tacks.305 Curtains were certainly hung in Houses 9, 11, 13 and 19. Every ground floor room in House 13 had upholstered furniture as did House 9. All the other houses appear to have had at least one piece. The other tacks found in all the houses could have been from furniture or secured floor coverings. A number of glass beads may have been embroidered onto cushions boxes or a variety of other soft furnishings.306 Others may have served as blind or lamp pulls or decorative fringing. The residents of every house had broken several of their ornaments. Again there were less in House 7 with a glass ring, broken picture fame and chains that may have hung mirrors or been attached to plugs.307 There were a small number of possible clock parts from Houses 9, 11 and 13

304

Arnold 1999; Everleigh 1983; Fearn 1977; Feild 1984; Light 2000; Meadows 2000; Owen 1977; Sambrook 1983; ; Starbuck 2010. 305

Wright 1995. 306

Clabburn, 1980. 307

Cuffley 1984, 1997; May 1998; Parr, Hicks & Stareck (eds.) 1976; Sears, Roebuck & Co. 1906.

290


(Figure 3.20).308 As appropriate for houses of this period, there were small porcelain figurines in Houses 9, 13 and 19. House 19 also has one or two religious figurines (Section 4.12.1). Table 4.62: Household fittings, furnishings and other ornaments from Area 8. Note: Possible reused ship

fastenings on Table 4.69. *Items also included in other thematic tables. Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

h'hold fitting catch aes - 8 15 1+2+Yard 8756

1

escutcheon aes WD 6 7 2 8700 1835

1

19 1 8850 1835

1

hook aes - 6 9 2 8610

1

11 2 8529

1

aes/fe Drop curtain 6 9 2 8610

1

fe - 6 7 2 8700 1850

1

sash dog fe S 6 7 2 8700

1

furn bracket pb

6 7 2 8700

1

curtain ring aes - 6 9 2 8610

1

11 2 8529

1

13 2 8630

2

19 1 8850

2

escutcheon aes - 6 9 2 8610

1

13 1 8608

1

2 8630

1

19 1 8850

1

aes/fe - 7 9 Yard 8739

1

fe - 6 9 2 8610

1

hasp aes - 6 9 2 8610 1850

1

hinge aes - 6 9 2 8610

1

Butt 6 19 1 8850

1

aes/fe Butt 6 9 2 8610

1

13 2 8630

1

7 9 2 8629

2

inlay MoP - 6 11 2 8529

4

key fe - 6 9 2 8610

1

knob aes - 6 19 1 8850

1

aes/fe - 6 7 2 8700

1

aes/few - 6 7 Yard 8592 1850

1

bone - 6 7 2 8700

1

latch plate aes - 7 9

8629

1

plate aes - 6 19 1 8850

1

rose plate aes - 6 9 2 8610

1

spring aes - 6 11 2 8529

1

tack aes HF 6 7 2 8700 1788

2

9 1 8634 1788

1

2 8610 1788

9

11 2 8529 1788

3

13 1 8608 1788

1

3 8585 1788

1

15 2 8810 1788

1

19 1 8850 1788

3

7 9 Yard 8737 1788

1

13 4 8527 1788

1

Upholstery 6 7 2 8700

1

9 1 8634

1

2 8610

1

11 2 8529

1

13 2 8630

3

3 8585

2

8614

3

15 2 8821

1

7 13 3 8525

1

7 17 2 8860

1

WD 6 11 2 8529 1835

1

13 2 8630 1835

2

19 1 8850 1835

1

308

Leibe 1999.

291


Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

aes/fe Upholstery 6 11 2 8529

1

fe HF 6 11 2 8529 1788 1890 1

13 2 8630 1788 1890 1

15 2 8810 1788

2

toggle porc

6 9 2 8610 1850

1

unid aes - 6 13 3 8585

1

furn/fitting eyescrew aes - 6 9 2 8610 1860

1

11 2 8529

1

7 15 2 8798 1850

1

nail/tack fe WD 6 11 2 8529 1853

3

nut aes - 6 11 2 8529

1

screw aes Slot 6 9 2 8610 1850

1

11 2 8529 1850

2

7 9 2 8629 1850

1

sprig aes HF 6 7 2 8700 1788

2

tack fe HF 6 11 1 8615 1788 1890 2

WD 6 11 2 8529 1853

2

washer aes - 6 9 2 8610 1850

1

orna chain aes - 6 9 2 8610

2

11 2 8529

1

frame aes - 6 7 1 8696

0

7 1 8735

1

9 2 8610

3

aes/fe - 6 11 2 8529

1

ring glass - 7 13 2 8633

1

orna/time-keeping frame/clock aes - 6 11 2 8529

2

aes/fe - 6 9 2 8610

1

security key fe - 6 7 2 8700

2

9 2 8610

1

8 11+13 2 8505

1

time-keeping clock aes - 6 11 2 8529

2

aes

8 11+13 2 8505

1

aes/steel - 6 11 2 8529

1

h'hold/pers furn/cloth tack aes WD 6 9 2 8610 1835

8

11 2 8529 1835

14

13 2 8630 1835

1

15 2 8810 1835

2

19 1 8850 1835

21

fe WD 6 11 1 8615

1

furn/jew chain aes - 6 7 1 8735

1

9 2 8610

1

13 2 8630

2

time-keeping clock/watch aes - 6 11 2 8529

1

aes/fe - 6 9 2 8610

1

h'hold/rec orna/toy figurine/doll* porc - 7 9 Yard 8737 1840 1880 1

Punch 6 19 1 8850 1860 1930 1

Scottish 6 13 2 8630 1840 1880 1

pers/h'hold access/orna frame aes - 6 13 2 8630

1

cloth/access/furn beaded fabric* glass/fabric Seed mchrome h/t drawn 6 19 1 8850

1

jew/furn bead* bone Barrel turned 6 7 2 8700

2

7 9 Yard 8739

1

Cylind banded turned 6 13 2 8630

1

Oblate turned 6 19 1 8850

1

Spher turned 6 9 2 8610

1

glass Spher mchrome wound 6 9 2 8610

1

jew/orn bead* glass (mchrome wound) 6 13 2 8630

1

Bugle mchrome cylind cut drawn 6 11 2 8529

1

Bugle mchrome cylind long cut drawn 6 11 2 8529

5

13 2 8630

10

3 8585

3

19 1 8850

9

Bugle mchrome hexag long cut drawn 6 11 2 8529

5

15 1 8861

3

19 1 8850

2

Pendant ovoid 6 19 1 8850

1

glass/aes Pendant hemispher 6 13 2 8630 1840 1900 1

rec/h'hold smoking/orna pipe* porc Composite European 6 19 1 8850 1860

1

TOTAL 235

292


4.16 Household Lighting, Heating and Power The site contained 11 examples of miscellaneous and related artefacts associated with the transmission and creation of household and street power, lighting and possibly heating (Table 4.63).309 They were recovered in the houses and yards at Nos 9, 11, 13 and 19 Steam Mill Street in Area 8 and Nos 10, 12 and 14 Barker Streets in Area 8CT. The majority were elements from room lamps fuelled by oil, kerosene or gas. Part of one lamp with a gas Venus burner invented in c.1870 which was found in Room 2 of House 19 (8874/# 17238). Houses 9, 11 and 13 had lamps decorated with glass (chandelier) prisms (Figure 3.20, Figure 3.34). The Arc Lamp electrodes were used in electrical street lighting first introduced to Sydney in 1904, post-dating the occupation of the houses in Area 8. The vulcanite ‘cord guides’ are of uncertain function but may have been used for commercial, public or household electricity.310 Table 4.63: Household lighting, heating and power items from Area 8. Note: *prism added from Glass

catalogue 8610/#76213. Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

h'hold light arc lamp graphite Arc lamp 6 11 2 8529 1905 1960 1

10 10, 12, 14

9002 1905 1960 1

lamp aes/fe - 6 9 2 8610 1870

1

7 9

8629 1870

0

aes Venus 7 19 2 8874 1870

1

prism glass - 6 9 2 8610 1850

1*

11 2 8529

1

7 13 4 8527

1

glass/aes - 6 11 2 8529

1

light/power turnkey aes/fe - 6 9 2 8610 1860

1

h'hold/service furn/elect cord guide vulcanite - 6 13 2 8630 1851 1950 2

TOTAL 11

4.17 Economy Local and Foreign Some 74 coins (Table 4.64) and 24 tokens (Table 4.65) were found at the Darling Quarter.311 Although some coins and tokens were accidentally dropped in Areas 6, 7 and 9, most were lost in the Steam Mill Street houses in Area 8. The majority were found in Room 2 of the houses, few were from the front Room 1 (except House 19) or the yard. It would have been easier to retrieve coins in the yard than from below floorboards. Coins may have dropped from the hand or pockets when dressing or laundering clothing. By far the most common coins were British halfpennies and pennies minted from 1826 to 1895. Lower and higher denominations were also found, such as a farthing, threepences, sixpences and shillings (one an 1816 issue). Only two examples of thick machine-stamped ‘Cartwheel’ pennies of 1797-1799 were discovered. They were in Phase 8 and 9 contexts in Room 1 of Houses 7 and 9. The one from House 9 was extremely worn with both faces having grooves cutting across the rim (Figure 3.8). It may have been reused as either sharpening whetstone, to wind thread/yarn/fishing line, or as a counter. There was one 1980 Australian two cent piece from a Phase 9 context in House 11.

309

Excludes fragments of copper wire catalogued under metals. Cuffley 1973/1984; Everleigh 1985; Jean 1991; Woodhead, Sullivan & Gusset 1984. 310

Street lights switched on 8th

July 1904, see The Sydney Morning Herald 6th

July 1904: 5; Wilkenfeld & Spearritt 2004: Chapter 2, p.2 and Chapter 3, p.1. Leading commercial, mercantile and public buildings began to have electricity from the 1880s but it was not installed in lower-income houses until at least the 1920s. 311

Johnson 1999; Lobel et al 1991-96; Mira 1981; Myatt & Hanley 1980; Olson 1983; Ritchie & Park 1987; Seaby 1985.

293


Coins of other countries included five 18th-century Chinese cash and halfcash,312 two French issues of 1851 and 1861; and an astounding 1688 Spanish copper cob minted in Peru.313 Many of these were found in House 9 and most were probably used as gambling counters (Figure 3.8).314 Non British or Australian coins are discussed in Section 4.2. The penny and halfpenny trade tokens were issued by 13 retailers or wholesalers to their customers. Most were based in Sydney but there was one from Melbourne and another from Rockhampton in Queensland, three were from different towns in New Zealand and one from London. Details of their businesses and products sold are listed on Table 2.8 and Table 2.9. They are discussed in more detail (with references and figures) in Section 3 according to their house location. Other token types were also found, again mostly in the houses of Area 8. Of these one from House 9 was an imitation spade guinea token issued by John Wood in Birmingham, a maker of chains, dies and tools.315 It subsequently became a fob chain pendant but first it may have been used as a counter. The three others were thick single-die struck lead tokens or counters, two with variants of a spoked or starburst design. These tokens have been found on several pre-1840 sites in Sydney and Parramatta. They could have at one time been jettons, given each day for work and then exchanged at the end of the week for real wages. This system may have worked well on the docks. Two were found in different rooms of House 13 (Section 3.3.4) but the other was from a Phase 4 context (9266) in Area 9 (Section 2.5.2). 4.17.1 Business Advertising Coin die sinkers and medallists were employed by various businesses worldwide to make small denomination tokens. In Sydney larger manufacturers, who also imported, exported and sold goods, tended to commission most of these tokens. These were then made either locally, in Melbourne or in England. Smaller clothiers, tailors, drapers and outfitters sometimes minted tokens, but they more commonly opted for marking buttons, studs and buckles that were used to fasten clothing that they sold (Section 4.3). Tokens could be exchanged freely and circulated wider than clothing items. Although worth only a halfpenny or penny, they were often curated like commemorative medallions beyond the lifespan of the actual business. Tokens ensured that the name, location and an idea of the type of business could be clearly seen and understood by other traders, merchants and customers. Many also had symbols or pictures that were directly associated with the business, or ones that were hoped would be. In Australasia these included shop fronts, significant geological landmarks, as well as symbols of confident prosperity that linked the firm to Australia’s place in the powerful British Empire. One type minted for Hanks & Lloyd Tea Mart commemorated the opening of the Sydney railway in 1855 (8630/#99937, Figure 3.44). The range of tokens found in the Darling Quarter emphasises the maritime and overland connections of Sydney in the second half of the 19th century and into the early 20th century. Although minted for one or two years they could have been given out by the company as long as they were in operation. Several issues are less common and probably had a more restricted distribution. These were the large irregular lead token (Figure 3.57) made by Henry Cohen for his Monster Clothing Hall at 245 George Street from House 19 Room 1 (8850/#16808); and the copper

312

Creswell 1979; Olson 1983; Ritchie & Park 1987. 313

Menzel 2005. 314

Costello et al 2008; Hellman & Yang 1997; Johnson 1999; Olson 1983; Ritchie & Park 1987; Wegars (ed.) 1993. 315

Hawkins 1969, 1963.

294


token (Figure 3.50, Figure 3.44) with the S. Peek & Co. Tea Stores and Steam Coffee Mills shopfront on the obverse from Room 3 of House 13 (8585/#16115). 4.17.2 Tokens at the Steam Mill Street houses The tokens found at the houses reveals what the residents were purchasing for themselves or their businesses (Table 2.8, Table 2.9, Table 4.65). Many of the tokens came from Rooms 2 and 3 of House 13 (Table 4.66). However, four of these were Professor Holloway’s pills and Ointments which may have been for the elderly Mrs Moroney. The others included the ironmongers Brown & Duthie of New Plymouth, New Zealand who may have supplied iron products to the Moroney’s business or perhaps a visitor to the house. The other tokens had been given out for tea and coffee by two Sydney suppliers, Hanks & Lloyd and S. Peek & Co. The next frequent consumers may have been in House 11, perhaps members of the Moroney family who moved in after 1870.316 They purchased drapery from Hobday & Jobberns of Christchurch, New Zealand, clothing from the Sydney importer Lipman Levy, and food, drink or perhaps accommodation from Alfred Toogood in Sydney. Only one company sold their wares to two houses (13 and 15), that was Hanks & Lloyd Tea Mart, perhaps because the token commemorated the opening of the Sydney Railway in 1855. Table 4.64: Coins from the site by country and denomination or type.

Shape Country Denomination/Type Fabric Area Phase House Room Context Cat # From To #MIC

coin Aus 2 cents aes 8 9 11

8543 81055 1980 1980 1

China Halfcash cu 8 6 9 2 8610 81903

1

Cash cu 8 6 9 1 8634 81888 1796 1820 1

11 2 8529 98755 1700 1722 1

99014

1

13 2 8630 99880 1700 1722 1

Fra 5 Centimes aes 8 6 11 2 8529 98753 1861 1861 1

10 Centimes bronze 8 6 9 2 8610 81396 1852 1852 1

Peru Cob pillars & waves cu 8 6 9 2 8610 80909 1688 1688 1

Eng/UK Farthing bronze 8 8 9 1+2 8567 81057 1881 1881 1

Halfpenny cu 6 4

8339 80445 1825 1827 1

8 6 13 2 8630 99825 1853 1853 1

3 8585 16116 1853 1853 1

7 13 3 8563 15935

1860 1

9 4

9466 80338 1826 1826 1

bronze 8 6 9 1 8634 81845 1863 1863 1

81893 1891 1891 1

2 8610 81728 1860 1894 1

11 2 8529 98752 1862 1862 1

98800 1890 1890 1

99190 1895 1895 1

99306 1895 1901 1

13 2 8630 99719 1867 1867 1

99881 1875 1875 1

99954 1885 1885 1

15 1 8861 16348 1860 1894 1

2 8810 16296 1895 1901 1

19 1 8850 16622 1862 1892 1

16844 1877 1877 1

16957 1862 1862 1

16958 1864 1864 1

17125 1881 1881 1

7 9

8629 81830 1888 1888 1

10 10, 12, 14

9002 81013 1877 1877 1

All

8501 16261 1860 1869 1

Penny (Cartwheel) cu 8 7 9 1 8570 81059 1797 1799 1

8 7 1 8598 80624 1797 1799 1

Penny cu 7 7

7987 80513 1839 1858 1

316

Hincks Volume 1 Section 3.7 of this report.

295


Shape Country Denomination/Type Fabric Area Phase House Room Context Cat # From To #MIC

8 6 7 2 8700 80832 1854 1854 1

19 1 8850 16860 1853 1853 1

7 7 2 8602 80628 1853 1853 1

19 Yard 8805 17210 1806 1860 1

All

8501 80574 1825 1827 1

bronze 6 9

8201 80444 1874 1874 1

7 7

8097 80564 1866 1866 1

8 6 9 2 8610 81558 1867 1867 1

81559 1860 1894 1

81642 1867 1867 1

11 2 8529 98770 1891 1891 1

98780 1879 1879 1

13 2 8630 15119 1867 1867 1

99524 1865 1865 1

99882 1866 1866 1

3 8585 16127 1866 1866 1

15 1 8861 16347 1875 1875 1

2 8824 16332 1860 1874 1

7 7 2 8602 80627 1876 1876 1

Yard 8736 80728 1867 1867 1

17 Yard 8785 16400 1860 1901 1

8 15 1+2+Yard 8756 16389 1868 1868 1

Threepence ag 8 6 9 1 8634 81844 1876 1876 1

2 8610 81579 1877 1877 1

13 2 8630 15849 1887 1901 1

19 1 8850 16578 1838 1887 1

7 13 2 8633 15877 1838 1887 1

3 8563 15934 1885 1885 1

8 15 1+2+Yard 8756 16388

1

Sixpence ag 8 6 13 2 8630 15341

1

15 2 8821 16315 1877 1877 1

Shilling ag 8 6 13 2 8630 15438 1874 1874 1

7 11 1+2 8587 99356 1816 1816 1

Unid Threepence? ag 8 6 11 2 8529 98754

1

coin/token Unid

aes 8 6 9 2 8610 81335

1

19 1 8850 16496

1

TOTAL 74

296

Table 4.65: Halfpenny and penny tokens and token/counters from the site by type.

Shape Type Fabric Manufacturer Wholesaler/Retailer

Area Phase House Room Context Cat # From To #MIC Name Country Name Location Country Date

token Commemorative Sydney Railway

cu Taylor, WJ Eng Hanks & Lloyd Sydney Australia 1853-1857 8 6 13 2 8630 15118 1855 1855 1

99937 1855 1855 1

15 2 8810 16277 1855 1855 1

Trade Brown & Duthie bronze

Eng Brown & Duthie New Plymouth New Zealand 1866-c.1888 8 6 13 2 8630 15724 1866 1866 1

Trade Cohen pb

Aus/Syd Cohen, H Sydney Australia 1855-c.1880 8 6 19 1 8850 16808 1857 1860 1

Trade Hide & de Carle cu Heaton & Sons Eng Hide & de Carle Melbourne Australia 1857-1861 7 7

7981 80516 1858 1858 1

8004 80523 1857 1857 1

Trade Hobday & Jobberns cu Stokes & Martin Aus Hobday & Jobberns Christchurch New Zealand by 1873-1890 8 6 11 2 8529 98828 1873 1873 1

Trade Holloway bronze Moore, J Eng Holloway London England 1842-1909 8 6 13 2 8630 15625 1858 1858 1

15748 1857 1857 1

15785 1857 1857 1

99545 1858 1858 1

Trade Iredale cu Heaton & Sons Eng Iredale & Co Sydney Australia 1820-1864 7 7

7987 80514 1854 1857 1

8 6 9 1 8634 81843 1854 1857 1

Trade Lipman Levy cu Taylor, WJ Eng Levy, L Wellington New Zealand 1842-1880 8 6 11 2 8529 99318 1857 1880 1

Trade Mulligan cu Taylor, WJ Eng Mulligan, D.T. Rockhampton, Qld Australia c.1862/3-? 7 7

7987 80515 1863 1863 1

Trade Smith Peate cu Heaton & Sons Eng Smith, Peate Sydney Australia 1836-1897 7 7

8004 80522 1857 1859 1

8 7 7+9 Yard 8736 80729 1857 1859 1

Trade Tea Stores cu Thornthwaite, J Aus/Syd Peek & Co Tea Stores Sydney Australia 1835-1857 8 6 13 3 8585 16115 1852 1852 1

Trade Toogood cu Taylor, WJ Eng Toogood, A Sydney Australia c.1845-1867 8 6 11 2 8529 99286 1855 1855 1

token/counter

pb

8 6 13 3 8585 16128 1788 1850 1

3-spoke pb

8 6 13 2 8630 99961 1788 1850 1

Starburst pelleted pb

9 4

9266 80334 1788 1850 1

token/counter /pendant

Spade guinea aes Brookes & Adams Eng Wood, J Birmingham England 1876-1908 8 6 9 2 8610 81798 1876 1895 1

TOTAL 24

297

Table 4.66: Underfloor spatial location of coins and tokens in Room 2 of Houses 9, 11 and 13. Note: *=1 token.

House 9 Room 2.

8610 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL

%

A 0 0.0

B 0 0.0

C 1 1 10.0

D 0 0.0

E 0 0.0

F 1* 1 2 20.0

G 2 1 1 2 1* 7 70.0

TOTAL

4 2 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 10 100

% 29.2 31.5 14.6 16.9 6.7 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 100


8529 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTA

L %

A 0 0.0

B 1 1 2 15.4

C 1 1 2 15.4

D 1 2 1* 1 5 38.5

E 1 1 7.7

F 1* 2* 3 23.1

TOTAL

0 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 0 0 13 100

% 0.0 15.4 15.4 15.4 23.1 15.4 7.7 7.7 0.0 0.0 100

8630 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL %

A 1 1* 2 11.1

B 1 1 5.6

C 4 1* 1 6 33.3

D 2* 1 3 16.7

E 1 1* 1* 3 16.7

F 1 * 1 * 1 3 16.7

TOTAL 0 1 7 2 0 5 1 2 0 18 100

% 0.0 5.6 38.9 11.1 0.0 27.8 5.6 11.1 0.0 100

298


4.18 Occupations, Businesses, Industries and Horse Transport It is thought that many residents accommodated in the immediate area of Darling Quarter probably worked in the local shops, businesses and on the wharves. Some may have been employed in city shops or drove vehicles. It is also likely that a number of adults and children crewed ships and other watercraft that were moored in Darling Harbour or in other bays (Section 4.19). This may have an impact on the types and frequency of artefacts at the houses in Areas 7 and 8. Artefactual evidence for occupations, business and industries other than maritime are listed on Table 4.67; and for horse and vehicle transport on Table 4.68. The artefacts from different areas at Darling Quarter reveal occupations and trades that may have been located close to or even where the residents were living. One of these was leatherworking and shoemaking and presumably tanning that requires a good supply of running water. Evidence for these connected trades was seen in all areas from Phase 4 to Phase 9. The stream exiting into Darling Harbour probably carried debris from the workshops towards the study area. According to the shoe styles this activity may have started as early as 1805. Cabinetmaking and carpentering can be seen in the cut bone block from Area 7 (8262) but even more so with tools such as axes, saws, chisels, files and a hammer. These have been found in Areas 7 and 8 from Phase 6. There was similar but less frequent evidence in the same locations for stonemasonry which also used chisels (Figure 2.6) and wedges. These tradesmen may have helped build structures or worked in quarries at Darling Harbour. Metalworking also uses files. However, the well-worn whetstone (Figure 3.67) from House 17 dumped into the toilet in the yard during Phase 7 (8770); and the solder from Houses 9 and 13 in Area 8 were perhaps used by the residents for household tasks or in the running of their home businesses. The purpose of the handmade copper funnel from Area 7 (7943) remains unknown. Machinery from Area 8 probably came from industrial businesses. The steam engine whistle from a Phase 7 context in Room 2 House 9 (8572) may have come from a boat, train or been part of an industrial machine. The tenants in the house included an engine driver, engineer and two blacksmiths.317 The large tabular siliceous stone (8214/#80398, Figure 4.21) from a Phase 8 context in Area 7 may have been utilised as an anvil or core in a small workshop (Section 4.13.3). A number of businesses in Areas 4 and 7 could have used the iron weights. The smaller lead button weights from Houses 13 and 19 in Area 8 may have weighed foodstuffs or other household/business goods. Evidence of more whitecollar work was found in Areas 8 with the folding rule in Room 2 of House 13 (8630/#99662, Figure 3.41) often used by carpenters and draftsmen and also by dressmakers and tailors. A police or ship boatswain’s whistle was in House 19 Room 1 (8850/#17129, Figure 4.23). It was possibly blown by the drayman Robert Warren who lived in the house from 1865 to at least 1871 and worked for the local PN Russell foundry. In Area 9, the eyepiece (9206/#80312, Figure 2.8) could have come from a number of different scientific instruments.

317

Tenant History: Hincks in Volume 1 Section 3.7 of this report.

299


Figure 4.23: Copper alloy policeman’s or boatswain’s whistle with chain, from House 19 Room 1, 8850/#17129. 1cm scale divisions, Gallery2.

Table 4.67: Evidence for industry and work other than waterfront at the site.

Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type Country Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

indust by-prod offcut leather

5 6

9173

1

7

9153

1

6 4

8395

1

7 5

7904

2

7906

1

7912

1

7986 1812

3

8000

1

8253

1

8338

3

6

8080

1

8260

1

7

8037

3

8

7947

2

8279

1

9

7901

2

8 6 7 1 8696

1

9 2 8610

1

Yard 8625

1

13 2 8630

2

8630 1812

1

7 9

8737

1

13 1 8579

1

9 6

9206

1

9249

3

9252

1

7

9201

2

9

9203

1

slag slag

4 7.1

11121

1

8 8 15 1+2+Yard 8756

1

fuel coal coal

4 7.1

11121

1

security chain fe

7 7

8293

1

8 7 9 Yard 8737

1

steam engine whistle aes/fe

8 7 9 2 8572

1

weighing weight fe

4 7.1

11121

1

7 7

8257

1

fitting ferrule fe

7 6

7979 1788

1

indust/pharm weighing weight pb

8 6 13 3 8585

1

8 6 19 1 8850

1

indust/work mach/tool handle fe/wood

8 10 10, 12, 14

9001

1

rec/work toy/tool whistle & chain aes

Eng 8 6 19 1 8850 1800 1930 1

work cabinetmaking/carving block bone

7 6

8262

1

equipment funnel cu

7 7

7943

1

300


Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type Country Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

mach lever fe/steel

7 7

8037

1

scientific eyepiece glass/brass

9 6

9206

1

sharpening whetstone quartzite Hone

8 7 17 Yard 8770

1

soldering solder pb

8 6 9 Yard 8519

1

8 6 13 3 8614

1

tool axe fe/steel -

7 7

8037

1

fe/steel/wood -

8 7 9 2 8629

1

chisel fe/steel -

7 7

8037

1

8

7902

1

8 6 9 2 8610

1

7 7 Yard 8723

1

13 1 8579

1

ferrule fe

7 6

7979

1

file fe/steel Flat

7 7

7987

1

9

8202

1

8 7 9 2 8572

1

All

8501

1

Half round

8 6 15 1 8861

1

7 11 1+2 8587

1

Square

7 6

7991

1

8 6 9 Yard 8655

1

Taper

7 8

8279

1

8 6 7 Yard 8647

1

7 7 Yard 8594

1

7+9 Yard 8724

1

8 7 1+2 8605

1

hammer fe/steel -

7 7

7987

1

handle wood -

6 5

8399

1

7 5

7904

1

rule aes/wood -

8 6 13 2 8630

1

saw fe/steel -

7 6

7979

1

screw driver fe/steel Slot

8 6 7 Yard 8592

1

wedge fe/steel -

7 7

8037

1

unid fe/steel -

8 7 11 1+2 8587

1

TOTAL 90

People in the Victorian period continued to depend on horses, oxen, mule and donkey transport for overland travel, but more importantly for distributing goods and services to the community. This was crucial for children, the elderly and infirm, particularly in places where there were no trains. There was a limited range of artefacts associated with this transportation but they were found in every area of the site, and in almost every Phase (Table 4.68). They included horseshoes, and harness straps, buckles rings and saddle parts (Figure 4.24).318 More unusual items were the small horsebell from Area 6 (11365/#17245) and the chain from Area 9 (9401/#68765). Being individually-fit horseshoes can be a mine of information about the size and state of health of these animals.319 Some were from large draught horses while another may have been for a mule or donkey (9241/#68760). Farriers’ tools such as large flat files were also evident (Table 4.67).

318

Seymour 1984, 2001; Stringer 1980. 319

Benn Brothers 1954; Seymour 1984, 2001.

301


The professions of at least two residents of the Steam Mill Street houses in Area 8 involved horses. Mr Moroney in House 13 was a horse dealer and ran a dray business utilising a timber shed in the yard of his adjoining property No. 11. A horseshoe, five horse buckles and a vehicle bracket were found in House 13. Two horse buckles (8850) and a horseshoe from Phase 8 (8820) were found in House 19 Room 1 (Figure 3.54). Robert Warren at No 19 (from 1865-1871 or later) was a drayman for the local PN Russell Foundry. More evidence for carts and other drawn vehicle included a step bracket from Area 7 (7987/#69127). There was only one small riding boot spur found at the site, a size typical of those worn by the cavalry rather than cowboys (8529/#98571, Figure 3.21).320 It was found in Room 2 of House 11 (8529) along with a bicycle or pram spoke nipple (#99187, Figure 3.20). In Area 4 there were partial remains of an industrial rail line that serviced some of the waterfront industries (11108/#69514). Figure 4.24: Artefacts associated with horse transport. Top left: square and rectangular harness buckle

frames from the cart horse shed in Area 7, 7953/#80494 (2), #80495 (2), #80496; #80497. Top right: horse bell from Area 6 (Public Domain) 11365/#17245. Bottom: Select horse transport artefacts from Area 9. Phase 4 chain 9401/#68765; Phase 10 horseshoe 9401/#68764 and mule/donkey shoe 9241/#68760. 10cm scale, Gallery2.

320

Stoeklin 2003.

302


Table 4.68: Evidence for transport other than shipping at the site. Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type Country Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

h'hold/trans fitting hook fe

9 4

9251 1788

1

pers/trans cloth/horse belt/strap leather

7 5

8000

1

7 6

7991

1

7 7

8097

1

buckle aes

8 6 9 2 8610

1

8 6 13 3 8585

1

aes/fe Rect 1-pin

8 6 19 1 8850

1

brass/fe D l-pin

8 6 9 2 8610

1

trans horse bell aes

6 6.1

11365

1

buckle aes D 1-pin

7 7

8097

1

Rect 1-pin

7 7

8099

4

Sq 1-pin

7 7

7953

6

aes/fe D 1-pin

8 6 19 1 8850

1

brass/fe Rect 1-pin

7 7

8097

2

fe D

7 7

8295

1

fe Rect 2-pin

8 6 13 2 8630

1

chain fe

9 10

9401

1

horseshoe fe

5 10

9101 1805

1

6 9

8201

1

7 6

8063

1

7

8087

1

8

7902

2

9

7951

1

8094

1

8 6 7 Yard 8592

1

11 2 8529

1

7 7 Yard 8594

1

8 19 1 8820

1

All

8501

1

9 4

9241

1

9 10

9401

1

ring aes

9 10

9401 1788

1

fe

7 7

7953

1

7987

1

8099

1

8345

1

saddle leather

7 6

7979

1

7

7932

1

7953

2

8099

1

leather/fe

7 6

7979

1

strap leather

7 6

7979

1

7

7953

7

8097

2

8099

4

leather/fe

7 7

7953

1

leather/fe/aes

7 7

7953

1

horse/vehicle ring fe

8 6 11 2 8600

1

indust rail plate fe

4 6.2

11108

1

vehicle bicycle aes

8 6 11 2 8529 1849

1

bracket aes/fe

6 7

8242

1

bracket, step fe

7 7

7987

1

rivet aes

6 6

8260

0

trans/indust vehicle/mach bracket aes

8 6 9 2 8610

1

fe

7 7

7927 1840

1

8 6 13 3 8614

1

handle fe

7 7

7987

1

TOTAL 77

303


4.19 Ships, Boats, Maritime Contacts and Trade Boat or ship fastenings (Table 4.69), fishing or sounding weights and sisal ropes (Figure 2.6) are direct evidence of vessels being moored, repaired or stripped at the nearby waterfront.321 These items have been found in Phases 3 to 9 contexts in Areas 6, 7 and 8 at Darling Quarter. The most common were copper alloy nails and tacks that fastened planking and other timbers of vessel hulls and superstructures (Figure 4.25). All were made from square or circular section drawn wire, a technique developed by at least 1836.322 The shorter tacks with large flat heads were used to secure copper sheathing onto hulls to prevent boring worm. This process was being done from the late 18th century on British ships of war but it had become common practice by the 1820s. Although 12 sheathing tacks were found in Areas 7 and 8, only one example, from the yard of House 11 (8626/#68803), still had part of the sheathing attached. Many of the timbers were made more secure by clinching the tack, nails spikes or bolts over a rove. Two roves were found in Area 8, one (conical) in Room 2 of House 11 (8529) and another (diamond) with a nail in the yard of House 9 (8683). Figure 4.25: Select ship’s copper alloy fastenings and fittings from the site. Top, left-right: wire drawn nails

8696/#68542, 8735/#68541; tack 8700/#68491; sheathing nail 8700/#68506; sheathing nail & diamond rove 8683/#68601; boat spike and diamond rove 8683/#68602. Upper middle: sheathing tack 8700/#68470. Lower middle, left-right: clenched nail 8672/#68572; conical rove 8529/#69941. Bottom row, left-right: sail thimble 8736/#69512; clenched boat nails 8683/#68604 (5). 10cm scale, scan by Sandra Kuiters.

Larger fastenings and fittings included three sail thimbles of which two (Figure 2.6) were found in sand over reclamation fills in Area 7 (8038) and one (Figure 4.25) in the yard of House 7 in Area 8 (8736). A long clinch bolt was recovered from an unstratified context in Area 7 (7901).

321

Chapelle 1962; McCarthy 2005; Staniforth 1985; Varman 1993. Many are identical to those at a Balmain, see Coroneos 2012. 322

Hebert 1836/37.

304


The rollock and rollock bracket from Phase 7 underfloor (verandah) contexts in Area 7 (8043, 7987) enabled oars to swivel on small rowing boats or skiffs. A solid-cast fishing weight or sounding lead (Figure 2.6) was recovered from a Phase 7 levelling fill in Area 7 (7959), while another weight, made of a tightly rolled-up lead sheet, was found in a Phase 5 reclamation fill in Area 6 (8280). In addition several fragments of twisted sisal rope (1/2 inch diameter) were found in Areas 6 and 7 from as early as the pre-reclamation Phase 3 (8384). One knotted bunch of sisal may have been left over from rope making (8480). These items could have been used on the sailing vessels or the rowing boats or to tie them up to the wharves. Table 4.69: Ship fastenings and fittings from the site. Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Fabric Type Area Phase House Room Context From To #MIC

h'hold/trans furn/fitting/v-superstru nail aes - 8 6 9 Yard 8655

1

WD 8 8 7 1 8598 1835

1

WD sq 8 6 7 1 8696 1835

1

8735 1835

1

2 8700 1835

4

9 Yard 8672 1835

2

8683 1835

6

11 2 8529 1835

2

13 2 8630 1835

5

7 7 Yard 8736 1835

1

13 1 8579 1835

1

All

8501 1835

1

screw aes Slot 8 8 7-19 Yard 8517 1850

1

All

8501 1850

1

washer aes - 8 6 9 2 8610

1

trans v-fitting rollock fe - 7 7

8043

1

rollock bracket fe - 7 7

7987

1

thimble aes - 8 7 7 Yard 8736

1

fe - 7 7

8038

2

v-hull clinch bolt fe - 7 9

7901

1

nail & rove aes WD sq 8 6 9 Yard 8683 1835

1

sheathing nail aes WD 7 7

8235 1835

1

8 6 7 2 8700 1835

1

9 2 8610 1835

1

13 2 8630 1835

3

3 8585 1835

1

7 7 2 8601 1835

1

WD sq 8 6 7 1 8735 1835

1

sheathing tack aes WD 7 8

8279 1835

1

8 6 7 2 8700 1835

2

19 1 8850 1835

2

WD sq 8 6 7 2 8700 1835

1

Yard 8647 1835

1

9 2 8610 1835

1

13 1 8608 1835

2

2 8630 1835

1

sheathing tack & sheathing aes WD 8 6 11 Yard 8626 1835

1

spike aes Boat Spike 8 6 13 3 8585 1820

1

WD sq 8 All

8501 1835

1

v-superstru nail aes WD sq 8 6 11 Yard 8626 1835

1

6 9 Yard 8672 1835

1

7 9 Yard 8643 1835

1

nail & rove aes WD sq 8 6 9 Yard 8683 1835

1

rove aes Conical 8 6 11 2 8529

1

TOTAL

64

305


Many of the ships’ fastenings were found in the underfloor deposits and yards of the houses on Steam Mill Street in Area 8. They could indicate that one or more residents worked on ships or at a yard, like Peter Hanson of House 7 who was a shipwright.323 Perhaps the tacks and nails were picked up at the waterfront or purchased to repair or make furniture (Section 4.15). Table 4.70: Fishing, ropes and ropemaking items from the site.

Gen Funct Spec Funct Shape Fabric Area Phase Context From To #MIC

work fishing weight pb 6 5 8280

1

7 7 7959

1

work rope making sisal sisal 6 4 8480

1

unid unid rope sisal 6 3 8384

2

4 8395

1

7 5 7906

1

6 7979

1

sisal/leather 7 5 7906

2

TOTAL 10

Several categories of artefacts found at Darling Quarter are evocative of shipping, maritime trade and sailors.

The conical metal whistle from House 19 (8850) could have been used by a ship’s boatswain instead of a policeman (Figure 4.23).

The fragments and reworked pieces of flint and strike-a-lights found in several areas of the site were probably once part of ship’s ballast that had been dumped at the waterfront and incorporated into fills and other deposits over time (Section 4.13.2).

There were a number of worked bone objects, such as chess pieces, that are part of a long tradition of bone (and ivory) carving, turning and decorating (scrimshaw) which was done by sailors, prisoners of war, convicts and slaves (Section 4.10.1, also Figure 4.22).324

The foreign coins and tokens show that all people who came to Sydney from another land had to arrive by boat. On the way they could pick up a variety of foreign currency in other ports, to be collected as a curiosity or used as gambling counters (Section 4.2, Section 4.17).

In the underfloor deposit of Room 2 in House 13 were three badges (8630/#15365, #15387) that appear to commemorate the sinking of the SS Orion on 7th May 1908 (Figure 3.40). They are likely to have been worn on clothing close to the date of the disaster. As this event happened after the demolition of the houses on Steam Mill Street they cannot be associated with the residents. The badges must have been lost or discarded by workers or visitors to the NSW Fruit Exchange during Phase 8 (Section 3.3.4).325

Several types of glass beads found in the houses of Steam Mill Street were one of the goods traded by the Hudson’s Bay Trading Company of Canada over many years to indigenous tribes and other people of the North Pacific rim (Section 4.4.2).

323

Hincks in Volume 1 Section 3.7 of this report. 324

Frank 2012. 325

Information and image of the SS Orion: http://www.flotilla-australia.com/holyman.htm; also The Sydney Morning Herald 27 May 1908 p. 13.

http://www.flotilla-australia.com/holyman.htm

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5.0 Report Conclusion

5.1 General Conclusion The Darling Quarter site is located within the Darling Harbour precinct, on the western edge of Sydney Central Business District. It is located on the eastern side of the harbour and is bound by Harbour Street to the east, Bathurst Street to the north, Liverpool Street/Chinese Gardens to the south and Tumbalong Park to the west. The Darling Quarter site was divided into 9 Areas based on historic lot boundaries, industries and streets:

Area 1 – Grose’s Wharf

Area 2 – William Orr Engineering Workshops

Area 3 – Anchor Flour Mills

Area 4 – PN Russell Foundry

Area 5 – PN Russell Railway Carriage Workshops and Boiler House

Area 6 – Barker’s Jetty, Brodie and Craig’s Timber Yard

Area 7 – Brook’s Slaughter House, Murphy’s Wharfage, Soap and Candle Manufactory

Area 8 – Worker’s Housing

Area 9 – Barker’s Mill Yard and Pond The basement footprint of the new development impacted on 5 of these areas:

Area 5 – 1870s Boiler House associated with PN Russell foundry

Area 6 – 1820s Barker’s jetty and subsequent reclamation work

Area 7 – 1850s reclamation, Murphy’s wharfage and cottage

Area 8 – 1840s reclamation and workers housing

Area 9 – 1820s Barker’s mill yard and mill pond, and later industrial development The site study area was also divided into ten main archaeological phases and the miscellaneous and related artefacts recovered in each area were discussed according to this phasing within each area:

Phase 1 Natural Landscape

Phase 2 Aboriginal Occupation

Phase 3 1788 to 1820s Early Foreshore Activity and Property Boundaries

Phase 4 1820s to late 1830s Barker’s Mill and Lands

Phase 5 Late 1830s/Early 1840s Reclamation

Phase 6 1840s to 1860s Residential, Industrial Development and Reclamation

Phase 7 1860s to 1900 Residential and Industrial Development

Phase 8 1900s to 1920 Resumption and Railways

Phase 9 1920s to 1980s Railways and Commercial Development

Phase 10 1980s Demolition and Re-Development A total of 8354 miscellaneous and related artefacts (5884 of them fragments) were recovered from all areas of the Darling Quarter site on the eastern side of what was called Cockle Bay, now Darling Harbour (Table 2.1). For purposes of this report these comprised miscellaneous or small finds, and those of metal and organic material that were not related to construction, services, native garden vegetation or general timber-working. By far the greatest number was found in Area 8, numbering 7673 items and representing 91.8 per cent of the entire assemblage. The majority of these were from underfloor deposits in the six houses fronting Steam Mill Street dating to Phases 6 and 7 (Table 2.2). Artefacts from Areas 5, 6, 7 and 9 were discussed where practicable in Section 2. Area

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8 was analysed in more detail with the artefacts presented by house in Section 3. Several research questions and themes were addressed in Section 4 with the aid of tables showing the gridded spatial location of functional groups from the underfloor deposits of the houses in Area 8. The numerous artefacts from Darling Quarter have on the whole demonstrated the changes made in the area to the natural and built environment over the decades since ships and boats first moored in Darling Harbour in the late 18th century. The objects from the earliest historical Phase 3 are few but can help demonstrate aspects of early family life and industry in a new settlement perched on the edge of a continent a long way from home. They also highlight important social, political and commercial issues of the British and other major powers in the 18th and 19th centuries which were restricted by the realities of sailing ships, ports, the weather, trade relations, workers and never-ending battles. Most early artefacts were flotsam and jetsam, debris floating and sinking in a shallow tidal zone, washing up on shore and accumulating with other objects in sands and silts; thickest against early fencing. In heavy rain rubbish from households and small industries would also have washed down the small stream into Cockle Bay. Some of these objects may have become redeposited in reclamation fills. Most fills contained domestic and industrial waste sourced from further inland. All were dumped and tamped-down in stages to stabilise the new land and create jetties and wharves. Higher reclaimed ground allowed the establishment of workers’ housing and industrial buildings and yards. Horse and other large-animal transport travelled along the newly laid roads and lanes to the wharves which continued to push out into deeper water to allow larger ships to service the city. The western limit of these wharves was established by c.1840-1850. Excavation of the houses in Areas 7 and 8 has provided an important archaeological resource for ongoing research into the lives of working to middle-class people in this part of Sydney. Results of the analysis of the miscellaneous and related artefacts found in the different areas of Darling Quarter are outlined below. 5.1.1 Area 5 Only 15 miscellaneous and related artefacts were recovered in Area 5 from seven contexts (Table 2.10), with two found during cleaning (context 9101). The items were deposited during Phases 6 and 7 or from the mid 19th century to the early 20th century. Many of the artefacts were handmade locally, typical of trades that operated at the waterfront in this part of Darling Harbour. The leather items discarded in Area 5 provide strong evidence for a local leatherworker or shoemaker. Only a few objects were imported or perhaps brought personally from England, such as the smart suede ankle boot (9173) marked by the London boot and shoemaker J. Davies & Son (c.1820-1859), an ivory-handled fork/knife and the Milo type smoking pipe (1867-1930). This style of pipe (from Phase 7) was made popular by the tobacconist Theophilus Milo and manufactured in bulk by several large exporting pipe making firms in the UK and Europe in the latter half of the 19th century. Technical improvements in preserving food and other products in cans from the 1840s were instrumental in allowing countries like Australia to fully participate in international trade, and also transformed military campaigns. The diagnostic attributes of the paint tin or possible pail with light blue paint indicates that the drainage channel fill (9169) was deposited in Phase 7 not 6. Other developments in power, lighting and heat that occurred during this time are not evident, with the flint nodule from Phase 7.1 (9153) revealing the reliable old-fashioned way of starting a fire. It could also have just been part of ships ballast, originally dumped along the waterfront either in Darling Harbour or another location in Port Jackson. Several flint artefacts were incorporated into reclamation or levelling fill and have been found in other types of deposits at the site (Section 4.13). 5.1.2 Area 6 Some 134 miscellaneous and related artefacts from Phases 3 to 9 were recovered from 44 contexts in Area 6 (Table 2.12). Artefacts with known manufacturer or retailer are listed on Table 2.13;

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gender and age associations on Table 2.14. Context 8201 dating to Phase 9 contained the most items, with the 16 items representing 11.9 per cent of the total assemblage in Area 6, closely followed by context 8367 from Phase 6 with 15 items. Across Area 6, context 8201 was assigned to the collection of unstratified artefacts during machining and from the initial clearance by hand. Discussion of the miscellaneous and related artefacts from this area was limited to those from the earliest historical Phase 3 to Phase 7. The artefacts from Area 6 have provided good information about this part of Darling Harbour from when it was a rocky shoreline to being part of a busy industrial area and port. The most significant early artefacts were those from Phase 3 associated with early shipping, trade and travel in a war-torn world. The ropes of hand twisted sisal fibres were vital to the construction and operation of sailing ships of every kind. The English gunflint, the only one found at the site, was from a flintlock rifle. In late 18th and first half of the 19th century such gunflints were among the technological superior armaments in the possession of the British Army and Navy. Carried to Australia by the military, a sailor or settler or even sold locally it had become unsuitable for use in the rifle but perfect to be reused as a strike-a-light. The artefacts contained in the contexts relating to Phase 4 Barker’s Mill and jetty were limited but still showed the continued activities of leatherworkers who were probably located upstream of the maritime port. The halfpenny of 1825-27 supports the stratigraphic dating of the surface accumulation 8339. The sisal rope fragments and the fishing weight show the maritime origin some of items in the reclamation fill of Phases 4 and 5. The increasing number of domestic and industrial artefacts in Phase 6 to 7 is accompanied by those associated with horse transport and cartage of goods. The variety of objects reflects the increasing availability of products made locally and imported into Sydney that were being purchased by all members of society for their home and work needs. New goods were also being made more cheaply and in the latest materials with the aid of machinery and other developing technologies. This included canning food in airtight containers so that it did not go off. The robbing and backfilling (8468) of a wall thought to have occurred in Phase 6 must have happened after c.1890 (tin can date) or the fill has been contaminated. In general the people of living and working in the area were heavy smokers and with few exceptions wore sturdy shoes and boots, including the children. The footwear changed styles over time but appears to still be made and repaired locally. The shoes discarded in Phase 6 generally have fashionable narrow squared toes. In Phase 7 there is even more evidence for industry and horse transport. Only a few of the artefacts may be directly associated with the saw mill. The workers preferred pipes made by prominent manufacturers in Scotland although one person had a closer affiliation with Ireland. Many of these pipes were probably purchased from Sydney tobacconists. 5.1.3 Area 7 The 547 miscellaneous and related items from Area 7 came from 61 contexts associated with Phases 3 to 9 (Table 2.15). There were no Phase 4 contexts. Those found from Phases 3 to 7 were discussed briefly, highlighting the main objects, their attributes and how they contribute to the significance of their contexts. The marbles found in the area are listed by fabric and type on Table 2.16 and can be compared to those from the houses in Area 8. Identified manufacturers and retailers or wholesalers of all the artefacts are on Table 2.17, and the known gender and age associations on Table 2.18. The numerous artefacts from this area have again been able to demonstrate the changes done in the area to the natural and built environment over the decades since first occupation of Darling Harbour in the late 18th century. The earliest objects from Phase 3 are few but relate to early family life and industry in a new settlement perched along way from home. The finds from this and later phases included debris floating and sinking in a shallow tidal zone, washing up on shore and

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accumulating with other objects in sands and silts. Some had washed down the stream during heavy rain from where leatherworkers, brickmakers and other industries were located. The reclamation fills during Phase 5 were mostly comprised of domestic and industrial waste, and soils, from further inland but some objects like the rope and boat rollock were more likely to have come from the waterfront. Many of the items were utilitarian shoes, boots and offcuts discarded by a shoemaker. They were made for children and adults of both genders in styles fashionable in the first few decades of the 19th century. A tobacco pipe made by William Murray of Glasgow showed that one of the fills (8338) cannot have been dumped before 1830. This maker and others from Scotland were highly patronised by smokers in this area. All the fills were dumped and tamped-down in stages to stabilise the new land and create wharves. Higher reclaimed ground allowed houses to be built, roads to be laid and industry to get deeper water access for shipping. In Phase 6 artefacts reflected the mixed domestic and commercial nature of the area at this period. There is continued evidence for leatherworking and c.1820 shoe toe styles. However, there was an increased variety of goods, especially relating to food consumption at the table and highly visible signs of horse and cart transport. Several of the items provide good dating, such as the tobacco pipes made by William Murray in Glasgow (1830-1861) and one sold by the Sydney tobacconist Hugh Dixson (1839-1904); and the rubber galoshes made from 1844. In Phase 7 an increasing number of local domestic households and industries in the area are shown through the larger quantity of artefacts. There was an even greater range of objects than in Phase 6, typical of the increasing commercialism and availability of cheaper goods for the growing population of Sydney. The waterfront and adjacent areas would have been a very busy place during this period with businessmen, tradesmen, workers, sailors and residents of the houses walking or utilising horse transport to travel or cart goods to and from home, work or the wharves. Domestic activities are evident in the number and variety of small domestic objects that were lost or discarded by adults and children below floors or in the yards of the houses. Some of the different local industries serviced by horse transportation are shown by the trade tokens, a carved bone block (8262), an iron weight (8257), numerous tools, utilitarian shoes and boots including galoshes, machinery parts and a range of horse equipage elements such as saddles, straps, buckles, rings and horseshoes. Maritime connections are seen in the rowing boat rollock (8043) and rollock bracket (7987), sail thimble (8038), pulley wheel (8037), fishing or sounding weight (7959); and sheathing nail (8235). The assemblage also includes examples of how liquids and other goods were stored and transported in wooden barrels and smaller hooped containers (8317, 8330, and especially 8345). The marked pipes, buttons, coins and tokens provide secure dates for many of the contexts. The more recent ones were the tobacco pipe (7927) made by Thomas Davidson in Glasgow who operated from 1862-1911; the tokens (7981, 8004) made for Hide & de Carle, grocers and wine merchants in Melbourne minted in 1857 and 1858; the British penny (8097) minted in 1866; and the children’s ‘Pop alley’ glass marbles (8097) a reused stopper from a Codd patent bottle not made before 1873. The most numerous domestic artefacts in Phases 6 to 8 were used in the children’s game of marbles. Although far fewer in number to those from the houses on Steam Mill Street in Area 8 the marbles from the single house in Area 7 have a similar range and type percentages. The earliest examples were hand-rolled in clay, either locally or in Europe or the UK. Possible local makers include the potter Thomas Ball (c.1801-1823) whose waster pits contained similar types of marbles. The most common types were made in Germany of limestone but only one still had painted or dyed

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surface colour remaining. The single plain porcelain and the handmade glass marbles made from 1846 were slightly more expensive. 5.1.4 Area 9 The 111 miscellaneous and related artefacts in Area 9 came from 17 contexts associated with Phases 4, 6, 7, 9 and 10 (Table 2.19). They represent a wide variety of activities that may have been conducted in the area of Barker’s Mill mill pond and mill yard during Phases 4 and 6, as well those occurring during redevelopment and clearance in Phases 6 to 10. Many fills contained artefacts derived from other locations and indicating most were derived from municipal waste (Table 2.20). The evidence for any manufacturer or retailer of the items will be outlined (Table 2.21); followed by data on the age and gender of the people who bought and used them (Table 2.22). The artefacts were discussed by phase and context. The majority of the items with known manufacturers and retailers from Area 9 were smoking pipes. Almost all were made in the UK by large Scottish and London firms. One of these pipes was made for the Sydney tobacconist James Bartlett who had a shop by 1858 until 1871 at a number of addresses on George and Clarence Streets. Other pipes were typical of those made in other countries such as France, USA and two possibly from the Netherlands or France. Most of the items with identifiable age and gender attributes were fastenings and leather footwear. The two broken slate pencils were probably used by children to do lessons at school or practice at home. They could also have been drawn on or acted as a board for informal games. The footwear comprised mainly utilitarian shoes and boots, with most being found in Phase 7 backfill within the disused mill pond (9201), and the Phase 6 mill pond sediment (9249). The different types of shoes, their general wear and tear prior to deposition, and presence of leather offcuts in the assemblage indicate that some were part of at least one leatherworker’s or shoemaker’s discarded stock. Fills deposited during Phase 4 contained four items in the vicinity of the mill pond that relate to the operation of Barker’s Mill (Table 2.20). The ‘horseshoe’ or donkey/mule shoe (9241) may have belonged to an animal working at the mill. It was found in the packing for the timber and brick flooring beside a timber ramp (9262) on the west side of the mill pond. The large iron hook (9251) was associated with the timber lining of the mill pond or may have once been attached to a structure, vehicle or machine. The barely circulated British 1826 halfpenny was found in fill (9466) possibly dumped during the first phase of mill pond construction/waterproofing. The lead token or counter with a pelleted starburst relief design may have been dropped by one of the workers at Barker’s Mill. It was found in a thin wash deposit (9266) above sandstone paving (9265) to the west of the mill pond. Similar lead tokens or counters with a limited variety of simple poorly-rendered designs have been found in small numbers on many pre 1840s sites in Sydney and Parramatta. Unfortunately their exact date of manufacture is not known and their function is not fully understood. These items were perhaps work jettons given each day to and then exchanged for real wages at the end of the week. More artefacts were found in Phase 6 contexts of the mill pond structure and sediments from siltation and initial backfilling, as well as a large associated overflow drain (9204) that by 1856 ran west from the mill pond to the harbour. Sediments would have settled in the mill pond from its time of construction in the late 1820s until it went out of use in the early 1860s. The moist anaerobic conditions in the pond ensured that organic artefacts were found in reasonable condition. Due to their similarity, some of the artefacts from the first (Phase 6: 9206) and main stages (Phase 7: 9201, 9230) of pond backfilling beginning in the early 1860s appear to have become incorporated into the final accumulated sediments (9249). Comparable objects were also found in the overflow drain fills (9207, 9252). The backfills comprised domestic (from the worker’s

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housing?) and trade waste, as well as that from furnaces and heavy industry. There was no clear evidence for maritime activities. Items relating to domestic and trade activities were also found in three contexts (9249, 9348, 9252). They included containers and vessels used to prepare and serve food. The tin can (9248) was possibly intrusive as it was opened by winding an attached key, a method patented in 1866. Only four artefacts (9450, 9470, 9509) were discovered from the Phase 7 operation of the Mill Yard in Area 9. They were from demolition and levelling fills associated with the expansion of the mill complex. The three tobacco pipes were made by large firms in the UK or Europe in the second half of the 19th century. The more unusual game counter (9509) was crudely fashioned from a broken fragment of fine earthenware plate with a fine green transfer-printed pattern. In Phase 7 the mill pond was completely backfilled using multiple dumps of soil containing municipal and trade waste and became a part of a large open tenter yard. As mentioned above these backfills (9201, 9230) contained artefacts which were remarkably similar in range and date to each other and those from the Phase 6 mill pond lining 9249 and the late sediment 9206. Contamination of the final pond sediments probably happened during backfilling and as the fill was being tamped-down. Context 9201 comprised at least 20 separate fills dumped in the area. The majority of the artefacts recovered were footwear and offcuts, some of which represent the discarded stock of leatherworkers or shoemakers. The shoes and boots were all handmade using a variety of different manufacturing techniques. Many were working or walking shoes and boots for infants and adults of both genders. One of the two shoes, which were of better quality and worn by women, had a dyed or patent leather blue upper and a rounded toe. The other was a medium high-heeled pegged shoe or boot with an iron heel plate. The duck-billed man’s suede boot, fashionable in c.1830-c.1840, had a pegged sole and medium-high heel. It was very similar to those from contexts 9249 and 9206. The practical adult-sized rubber galosh was similar to those from 9249 and 9206 but was made by the British Rubber Company in Edinburgh. This company made rubber boots (Wellingtons) and other goods from 1856. Other more domestic items in the fills included a black silk bow from a dress or hat, a wooden handle of an ink pen similar to one from the sediment 9206, and five smoking pipe fragments made by Scottish firms and typical of models dating to the late 19th and early 20th century. Phase 9 artefacts were deposited as Darling Harbour underwent various stages of redevelopment during the 20th century. Two smoking pipes (9202) show how the city was becoming more cosmopolitan. These were an unusual French pipe with a bowl in the shape of the head of painter Emile Bernard (1868-1941). This was made in a style popular from c.1890-1950. Another pipe had a relief moulded bowl back showing ‘T D’ in a circle of 13 stars and leaves up the seams. The stars represented the first states of the American Union.

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5.1.5 Area 8 A total of 7670 miscellaneous and related artefacts were recovered in Area 8 from 113 contexts (Table 3.1). The items were associated with activities undertaken during Phases 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. The bulk of the assemblage related to the workers’ housing on the southern side of Steam Mill Street occupied from the 1840s to 1901 (Phases 6 and 7). Included within Area 8 was a smaller area designated 8CT (for the Children’s Theatre) that was excavated separately. Only 24 artefacts came from 8CT and these are included in the overall total for Area 8 in the general overview tables in Section 2. The Children’s Theatre site was located on the corner of the former Barker and Steam Mill Streets and was subject to various stages of development from the 1830s onward. Artefacts from the houses at 10, 12 and 14 Barker Lane were examined very briefly within Area 8CT in Section 3.7. 5.1.5.1 Steam Mill Street Houses The introductory overview of Area 8 in Section 3 outlined the artefact functions, shapes and percentages by house, as well as listing any known country and name of manufacturers, sellers (retailers or wholesalers). The subsequent sub-sections presented the artefacts by phase in contexts associated with individual houses. Comparative analysis of significant thematic groups of artefacts in the houses can be found in Section 4. This analysis was in response to research questions posed at the start of the project, as well as others which arise during excavation and report writing. The broad aims of the research are to learn more about the occupants of the houses during Phases 6 and 7 and how they utilised different spaces in their allotments. The miscellaneous and related artefacts from the houses on Steam Mill Street were fairly consistent in variety but not in number. They were typical of working and middle-class domestic assemblages dating from the mid 19th century to the early 20th century, otherwise the Victorian period. These families, couples and individuals lived close together near the waterfront and its associated industries. For the most part they made their livelihood from local businesses. The items from the houses have provided new information about the residents’ lives that in general supports details gained from the written and pictorial records. Small (miscellaneous) finds can often reveal glimpses of otherwise intangible aspects of an individual life, such as religion, aspirations, artistic sensibility, style and even personality. The artefacts strongly indicate most activities occurred inside the houses, particularly in the ground floor rear Room 2, usually a kitchen, which for the smaller House 19 was Room 1. Far less domestic material was found in backyards. This appears to confirm what has been surmised from the documents regarding how several yards and outbuildings being utilised as business workspaces rather than just laundry-drying and recreational spaces. In contrast the yard cesspits had more artefacts associated with domestic occupation of the houses, although these were not deposited in the earlier years. Finally the archaeological evidence from all allotments has been compromised to some degree, notably Houses 15 and 17. Major disturbances occurred from at least the 1880s. Levelling and House Construction Fills There were very few miscellaneous and related artefacts from the primary levelling and house construction fills and none from Phase 5 reclamation fills. They were all similar in form and date to items associated with the occupation of the houses. The majority were found in construction and packing fills for Houses 11, 13, 15 and 19 and later House 13 Room 4 and House 17. Some had more diagnostic and datable features. A pipe from House 13 had a spur characteristic of the early decades of the 19th century. House 15 had a badly encrusted (foundation deposit?) penny with a young head of Queen Victoria (1860-1874). The pipe from the construction of the fireplace in House 17 was of a style made from c.1860-1930.

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Underfloor Deposits The room underfloor deposits in the houses on Steam Mill Street were given the most attention due to the amount of material recovered in the wet sieving program. Numerous small, and less frequently larger, objects accumulated below the floors among the dust. Many of these had clearly fallen through gaps in the floorboards or been thrown-in during repairs or other works. Whether artefacts came to be deposited in various areas of the house and yard depended on many factors. These included how conscientious the people were about keeping their homes clean, what methods were used to achieve this and whether certain kinds of rubbish were discarded in different locations on the allotments. Condition of the houses and the floorboards in particular would have influenced the size of the gaps and thus how large and often an object could fall. Wear from constant treadage near doorways and in high-traffic areas could have been countered by floor coverings or furniture. In later stages of occupation, and after the houses became unoccupied, demolished and cleared, construction and trenching activities caused surviving structural elements and associated deposits to be contaminated or partly removed. Some houses were occupied continuously by one family, while others had a rapid succession of tenants. This affected the selection and use of the artefacts. During their stay in the houses each family or individual made purchases for reasons of their own from the many items locally available. They had also brought objects with them when they emigrated or moved from another residence. Other pieces may have subsequently been acquired from interstate or overseas which were not found in any other houses. Personal interests and social and religious affiliations of the residents as well as the nature and mobility of their work affected the type of objects purchased, discarded or lost in each house. Other factors such as wealth, the number of children and health of the occupants influenced what they were able to buy, why and for whom. Underfloor Spatial Analysis Each underfloor room deposit was excavated according to a 500x500mm grid. Analysis of the spatial location of a number of key functional groups of artefacts from these deposits was undertaken to aid interpretation of how individuals and families may have used the rooms. The underfloor contexts best able to be studied were in the rear ground floor rooms, where the most activity occurred. This would probably have been the kitchen, where customarily the whole family would gather at different times of the day and night. For most household tasks as much light as possible is desirable. Advantage would have been taken of windows and doorways during the day, and fireplaces or lamps at night. The spatial analysis of the different functional groups is discussed in Section 4 and summarised below. The main conclusion is that all artefact groups have a similar or overlapping distribution pattern to each other within each room. There are no discernible differences between where each task was done in the room. Several function groups have too few examples to make firm conclusions such as cooking, food preparation and laundry. Unfortunately in several houses contemporary and later activities have severely impacted on the spatial validity of what appeared to be primary deposits. This is most clearly seen in House 11 where the artefact concentration lay in a broad diagonal band corresponding to a service trench. Underfloor Dating The date range of the artefacts makes it clear that the underfloor deposits in the rooms continued to accumulate during Phase 6 until they were sealed in the 1880s. Some of the deposits were patchy, due to local disturbances, in particular the installation of service trenches. In Phase 7 cross-contaminations occurred between the underfloor and sealing deposits; and in Phase 8 the demolition and construction fills. It was also found that Phase 9 and 10 contexts in the area contained objects probably derived from earlier housing deposits.

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Phase 6 and 7 Yards Work and Play Artefacts were also examined from the yard surfaces and modification fills, and cesspit fills from Phases 6, 7 at the Steam Mill Street houses. Although fewer in number they were often able to provide information about the timing and nature of the activities. As discussed in Section 4.18 several yards were used as work spaces, particularly by those who operated horse-drawn carts. Although many houses had horse-related artefacts, the most compelling evidence was from House 19 and especially Houses 11 and 13, where the owner Mr Moroney is known to have stored and maintained horses and carts for his dray business. Evidence for other occupations from the yards and rooms were examined in Section 4.18 and summarised below. The yards as whole were probably not pleasant places to spend recreational time in and contained few recreational items other than pipes. As there were almost no children’s toys and games in the yards, they obviously rarely played there, preferring the rear rooms either by choice or adult instruction. It is likely that children in the houses played together and shared toys either in the houses or outside on Steam Mill Street. Phase 7 Cesspits Items from the cesspits in the backyards of Houses 7, 9, 11 and to a lesser extent 17 were also analysed. They showed that while some had accumulated in the deposits during their final use in Phase 7, other artefacts had been dumped by the residents or workers. This could have happened during regular cleaning or larger-scale clearance as well as modification work to install toilets and drainage. Many objects were demonstrably similar to those found in the underfloor deposits of various rooms of the relevant house and yard surfaces. They found their way into the cesspits through general cleaning or accidental loss. However, the tobacco pipes in the cesspit of House 9 were different as many were nearly whole and of relatively late date. They are likely to have belonged to later tenants of the house and were thrown-out together when the people moved away or during final house clearance. Phase 7 Sealing Fills A series of nearly sterile clay and gravel fills were brought in to seal the underfloor of each room for sanitary purposes in Phase 7. However, they did contain a small number of items many of which appear to have been disturbed from underlying underfloor deposits (i.e. House 7 conjoined picture frame). Some were also derived from household rubbish thrown in during in a quick preparatory clean-up. Phase 8 Demolition Fills There were 45 items from demolition debris associated with the Phase 8 demolition of the houses. They were all similar to artefacts associated with the domestic occupation of the houses in Phases 6 and 7. Some provided information about the occupation of Houses 15 and 17 that were not available elsewhere due to disturbance of the earlier deposits. The most recent datable item was the glass ‘Pop alley’ marble (c.1873-1935) from demolition deposits in the House 7 yard. 5.1.5.2 General Comparison of Artefact Functional Groups in the Houses Although the varieties and functions of many objects found in each house were broadly the same there were some small and glaring differences (Table 3.3 and by significant theme Section 4 summarised below). In general the artefacts from Houses 9, 11 and 19 were the most similar in range and number. House 7 had far fewer objects in almost every shape than the other houses. House 13 had so much more of almost everything, even if only consideration is given to Room 2. However, the interpretation of the house assemblages is slightly different when the percentages of special function groups are compared across specific rooms. This approach was tried by the author as a possible way of re-adjusting perceptions of room activities where some deposits may have

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been more affected by disturbance than others, as in Houses 15 and 17. Percentages of the artefact groups were listed (Table 3.5) for the rear rooms as these were the places where most activities occurred during Phase 6: Rooms 2 in Houses 7, 9, 11; Rooms 2 and 3 in House 13; and Room 1 in the single-roomed House 19. From these rough statistics the differences between the houses are less noticeable and at times even reverse the impression gained from the minimum count data in Table 3.3. In other words it appears that in all houses residents who used these rooms bought similar types of objects in the same proportions. In House 7 they purchased/used/lost fewer of all of them; in House 13 far more of all of them. The simplest assessment from this would be that the tenants of House 7 may have been poor but they did almost all of the same things in the room as their neighbours, just far less often. However, could the explanation be more complicated, a combination of the successive tenants’ gender, age and marital status rather than just an extreme poverty divide? The artefacts and the historical records clearly show that there were children and women in the house at some stage but perhaps that was only for part of Phase 6. The rest (most?) of the time House 7 may have been a household of single or widowed men who had little use for many of the things purchased by women, children, couples and families? In addition such tenants may not have spent a great deal of time in the house. Other less convincing but possible reasons may be thriftiness, extreme carefulness and cleanliness, floor coverings or blocking furniture. The paucity of finds could also be due to disturbance, but this was not especially noted during excavation. Why the Moroneys (and others) in House 13 purchased/used/lost so many things is also interesting. This large family owned the house and lived there continuously until 1883. With a few gaps the underfloor accumulation in Room 2 was well preserved. Rather than just a product of greater wealth or even overspending, perhaps the high total was more due to feeding, clothing and bringing up so many children. Other types of items could be accounted for by the fact that the family’s dray business was operated from the shared yards of Houses 11 and 13 and was probably administered from one of the rooms. Commercial visitors and family members living in House 11 after 1870 would have continued to visit the main home/office. There is some evidence for the operation of this business (Section 4.18). In addition the high number of beads, clothing and sewing artefacts in House 13 compared to their neighbours may indicate another money-making venture was being conducted in the house, this time run by Mrs Moroney and her daughters. This proposition is summarised below (and in Section 4.8). The possible social difference between the residents of Houses 7 and 13 may be evident in some of the personal and household possessions. Those objects purchased by the Moroneys of House 13 tended to be fashionable and of good quality. These included quality jewellery and accessories, and new styles of cutlery for tea drinking and multiple dinner courses. Although the cutlery from House 7 was well represented, the varied practical types included those that were very old fashioned and well-worn. During the later years of the 19th century the artefacts indicate that the tenants of Houses 9, 11 and 19 were also very up to date and appear to be middle class. Similarity of Assemblages and Interconnections Some of the artefacts from different houses were so similar as to indicate a close personal connection between the residents, as suggested by the historical records. Alternatively, they may have been purchased from the same door-to-door salesman or shop, exchanged as gifts or dropped during shared child-minding and play. Identical items were the ivory nit combs found in underfloor deposits of Houses 7, 11, 13 and 19. Each of the bone Chinese hand fan sticks from houses 7, 11 and 19 were similar but were also slightly different.

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Clothing and Consumerism The clothing fasteners, mostly buttons and studs, were typical of the period, although some types were more expensive or unusual. A comparison of the types and marked buttons in each house is in Section 4.3. Most of the clothing artefacts marked by tailors, outfitters and other retailers were purchased in Sydney or London. There was also a range of clothing made regionally, interstate and in other parts of the UK. The bone and porcelain and mother of pearl (MoP) buttons were used to secure undergarments, bodices or light shirts. Metal buttons were mainly used to secure men’s shirts and trousers with the larger types for jackets or coats. The insignias on several metal buttons show that some of the residents in Houses 9 and 11 had been in the British Army, and those in Houses 11, 15 and 19 the Royal Navy or Marines. Most men saw service after 1855. Someone from House 9 had also been employed by the NSW Water Police. A livery button with an eagle from House 13 may have been worn on a hunting jacket or upper-class household uniform. It can be compared to two jacket buttons, perhaps made in the USA, worn by a resident of House 11. These had a design of a central flower or rosette encircled by many small bald eagle heads. Black glass buttons were found in many different shapes and sizes at the houses and some had inlaid silver decoration. They were worn by both men and women. Many small glass and metal-mounted buttons were worn on men’s waistcoats or other higher quality outer garments. Some of the smaller ball-shaped varieties were fashionable for bodices and bracelets. Spatially the clothing artefacts were distributed in each room in a similar way to many other functional groups. This can probably be explained by a combination of factors: taking advantage of the brightest locations in the room for mending and needlework; sweeping behaviour during cleaning towards doors; tread-worn floorboards; and major disturbances. Again the distribution and concentrations in Houses 7 and 9 mirrored each other with far fewer being in House 7. In House 9 there was a definite build-up at the rear door, either the favoured position for sewing or revealing sweeping behaviour of dust and rubbish out the door. In House 9 there was also a small group on the south side of the fireplace, perhaps taking advantage of a window and the fire. The distribution in House 11 was identical to other artefacts plotted in this report. In Room 2 they were lying in a diagonal path that is located where a service trench was cut and backfilled (discussed in Section 3.3.3). Very few artefacts were in Room 1. In the multi-roomed House 13 few items were in Room 1 but there were 214 in Room 2 and 32 in the adjacent Room 3. Again in Room 2 the finds were scattered around the centre of the space with a higher concentration to the southwest. The artefacts in Room 3 were in the northern half of the room with a small cluster near the centre of the north wall. Rooms 1 and 2 of House 15 had relatively few clothing items probably due to significant disturbance to the deposits. The clothing artefacts in the single-roomed House 19 had a similar scatter and clustering to other artefacts in this report with a concentration beside the back door and a scatter from there northward across the room going in front and south of the eastern fireplace. Other small groups were to the northwest and southwest. Jewellery Most of the jewellery found in the houses was modest and affordable (Section 4.4). They often comprised a couple of copper alloy rings, pendants or brooches and a selection of fallen glass (paste) ‘gems’ and semi-precious stone inlays. These ‘gems’ were made to imitate diamonds, emeralds, sapphires, rubies and amber. Almost all the houses had a small number of higher quality

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jewellery and finer accessories whose loss would have been keenly felt. As they would have been carefully guarded recovery of these types of items should not be used as the only indicator of overall household wealth. The best quality were perhaps House 19 with a woman’s 1861 gold ‘Regard’ ring and the locket from a man’s fob Leontine chain with polished carnelian and agate panels. These compare well with the fairly expensive swirling inlaid gold brooch/stud and dark red intaglio Leontine pendant with a helmeted Athena in House 11. The women who lived in the Area 8 houses followed the prevalent fashion for wearing black jewellery and fastenings that lasted into the early 20th century. This fashion began with Prince Albert’s death in 1861 when Queen Victoria continued to wear back during her long years of mourning. The most expensive of the black jewellery were the three polished jet bead spacers and pendants found in Houses 11 and House 7 (worn). House 13 had a loose jet ring or button inlay. Mined only in Whitby, Yorkshire, jet was a relatively expensive material so moulded black glass was commonly sold as a cheaper alternative. Sewing, Embroidery and Beads The most numerous item lost in the houses was beads, mainly made of glass (Sections 4.4.2 and 4.8). Although the beads could have been threaded onto necklaces, bracelets or earrings, in the Victorian period they were also commonly embroidered onto dresses, bags and furnishings. Larger beads had either fallen from jewellery or from lamp fringing. Some could also have been lamp, curtain or blind pulls. Most glass beads were imported from Europe and could be purchased from local stores. Beading jewellery and embroidering were suitable household occupations for girls and women. Beaded garments and other items were extremely fashionable, and would have enabled their creativity to shine. However, the number of small beads that were dropped below the floors of Rooms 2 and 3 of House 13 appears to exceed the number that perhaps could be reasonably expected to fall, if only Mrs Moroney and two daughters were involved in beadwork. In comparison with other houses on Steam Mill Street the beads are more than triple the total of the next highest count which was concentrated all in one room of House 19. The beads, buttons and the broken sewing equipment recovered from the rooms at House 13 indicate that Mrs Moroney, her daughters (and their daughters?) and perhaps her maid created an awful lot of dresses or decorative soft furnishings over the years. Another explanation could be that they were making at least some of these items for friends, clients or perhaps as piecework for a local shop. The spatial location of the beads in each house varied from room to room. Most beadwork and general sewing would probably have been done while sitting near a window or doorway during the day. However, some may have been done beside a bright fire or lamp at night. This idea is supported by concentrations of beads in various parts of the rooms, although the position of some of the doors and windows in the houses is conjectural. The distribution in House 7 mirrored House 9 in both rooms 1 and 2 probably due to the twinned layout of the rooms including the position of the fireplaces. The beads were mostly located some distance from the fireplaces in Room 2. However, in House 7 very little beadwork or sewing appears to have been done at all. It is possible that the needleworker was extremely careful or that the floor was partially covered. In House 11 the beads are concentrated in a wide diagonal grouping across the southwestern half of Room 2 with only four in Room 1. Again this distribution may have been largely due to service trench backfilling rather than primary accumulation. Beads in House 13 were concentrated around the centre of Room 2 and in the adjacent Room 3 beside the north wall and northwest corner. In House 15 there were tight groups of beads in the extreme northern corners in the west and east (north of the fireplace) of Room 1. Disturbance of Room 2 left a haphazard scatter of only nine beads. Lastly Room 1 of House 19 was where every

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activity on the ground-floor occurred during Phase 6. As with many other categories of artefacts in the room the beads clustered along the south wall near the back door and were also in the northwest corner. More beads were found beside the fireplace in this room than in any other house. Crocheting, Lacemaking and Knitting Lacemaking was done in all houses using bone bobbins, with the possible exception of House 17 (Section 4.8). Three bobbins were found in House 11. For the houses with two rooms on the ground floor only the rear room appears to have been used for this purpose. The only evidence for crocheting was in Houses 13 and 17, with the evidence for the latter in a cesspit. Evidence for knitting was recovered from a Phase 8 deposit in the yard of House 7. It should be noted that broken bone handles of crocheting hooks were distinguished from those used for knitting on the basis of size and presence of a hook. Chinese and other Ethnicities In the artefact assemblage analysed for this report there was no definite evidence for the presence of people of Chinese ethnicity at the site (Section 4.2). However, several types of artefacts were made in China, such as coins and bone fans (found in Houses 7, 11 and 19). A number of other items including bone dice, combs, certain types of glass beads and other jewellery or accessories may also have been imported from that country but more research would be needed to establish the connection. The 18th-century Chinese coins found in Houses 9, 11 and 13 were almost certainly used in gambling. Other countries were also represented by artefacts in the houses. These included the two French centimes from Houses 9 and 11 and the Spanish copper cob minted in Lima Peru in 1688 from House 9. These coins could have been picked up at any of the ports on the voyage to Sydney. They were perhaps specially collected but the cob could also have been used for gambling. Interestingly House 9 contained four of these foreign coins. Grooming The 26 grooming artefacts from Steam Mill Street were found in all houses with the exception of the disturbed House 17 (Section 4.5). More grooming artefacts were discarded by the residents of House 11, followed by those in House 13. The predominant shapes were combs of various sizes, and to a lesser extent ‘nit’ combs and haircombs (to secure hairstyles). Almost all were made of vulcanite (c.1851-) but there was a group of four similar ivory ‘nit combs’ from Houses 7, 11, 13 and 19. House 11 also had three grooming items not found in other houses and suggest that more attention was given to this personal activity. These were a vulcanite hair clip, a shaving razor with ivory scales and a hair curler made from a modified tobacco pipe stem. The marked Scottish comb in the House 11 Room 2 underfloor deposit was made from 1860-1910. Health and Hygiene Even fewer artefacts associated with health and hygiene was found at the houses (Section 4.5). They comprised two bone toothbrushes, one from the yard of House 9 (Phase 7) and another sold by a Paddington, Sydney chemist and druggist H. Hood from House 19 Room 1 (Phase 6). Their scarcity at the houses could imply a lack of hygiene practiced by the residents or that they took care to keep their toothbrushes and other items safe. The five bone rings from feeding bottles or teething rings were an excellent indicator of the presence of babies in the houses. The rings or nipple guards were found in Houses 9, 11 (2), 17 and 19. Interestingly none came from House 13 occupied by the Moroney family with nine children. It is possible that by the time the family moved into the house the children were already too old for bottle feeding.

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Smoking Of all the miscellaneous artefacts only tobacco pipes were found in every indoor and outdoor space (Section 4.7). However, like most other activities smoking mostly in the rear Room 2 and rarely in the front Room 1 of the houses, and of course in Room 1 of House 19. Spatially many of the pipe fragments were found fairly close to doorways but in House 11 they clustered in the centre of the room. In House 19 most were found close to the north and south walls but this may have been partly due to later disturbance. The best evidence was in three rooms of House 13. Here broken pipes were mainly found around the centre of Room 2, across the centre of Room 3, and sparsely scattered in Room 4. In House 9 the pipes were mainly gathered in the southwest corner of Room 2 but a number of others were found in the yard. Smoking was obviously widely practiced and an acceptable form of recreation in all houses. Unlike other houses, the bulk of the evidence for smoking at Houses 7 and 9 was in the yard and demolition deposits. The most popular pipemaker at Steam Mill Street was the large firm of Duncan McDougall, followed by Thomas White of Edinburgh, Charles Crop and Thomas Davidson of Glasgow (Table 2.6,). The heaviest smokers appear to have lived in House 13. They favoured pipes made by Duncan McDougall of Glasgow and those sold by the Sydney tobacconist Thomas Saywell. The frequent smokers in House 9 tended to prefer different pipes, those made by Charles Crop of London and sold by the Sydney tobacconist Hugh Dixson. Local early makers such as William Cluer and Joseph Elliot were only found in Room 1 of House 13 and Room 2 of House 11 respectively. A single pipe from the yard of House 7 was attributed to the Dutch maker FS Sparnaaij. The pipes from House 13 showed the greatest variety of pipemakers, tobacconists and styles or types (Table 4.32). Many models were short cutties with highly patterned bowls or more modern commercial and composite forms. Of the colonial types ‘Squatters Budgeree’ was the most favoured, as were pipes with an Irish Cork or harp theme. None of the Armorial British pipes were found at House 13. The smokers in House 9 also smoked many types of short cutties, but preferred armorial British designs. Most of the evidence came from the yard, including an early ‘TD’ model and later styles such as ‘Thorn’ and two zoomorphic types with a horse rescue and a kangaroo. It is possible that most of the smoking was done outside but it could also have been where some of the household rubbish was dumped. Far less smoking appears to have occurred in House 7 but those found in the rooms and yard had a boat or ship theme. The tenants of Houses 11 and 19 liked similar themes to those in House 13 but smoked less. Those in House 19 were also fond of floral designs, including that of the Scottish thistle, several of the colonials and some commercial and composite models. House 15 had the only example of a pipe where the bowl was moulded into the shape of a bearded man’s head (‘effigial’). Probably made in Britain or Europe, it was more carefully rendered than those made in Sydney from the 1820s-30s The pipes were made into a wide variety of types and forms. The earliest was a ‘TD’ style made in England from 1775-1820. The most recent were the composite vulcanite examples made from c.1865. The pipes towards the end of the 19th century changed in accordance with the fashion for composite curved or bent European models and those emulating wooden ‘Briars’. At this time many tobacco manufacturers and tobacconists began to increase their business advertising with more choosing to mark pipes with their own brand or name instead of the pipemaker’s name.

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Clerical and Education The 508 artefacts associated with clerical tasks from the houses on Steam Mill Street in Area 8 mainly comprised worn stubs or broken slate pencils, followed by lead (graphite) pencils (Section 4.9). Some slate pencils were found still within their iron holders. Slate pencils and boards were the main clerical equipment used by children in school. It is less likely that those found in the houses were used by adults, although some businesses used slate pencils and boards as a convenient way to keep notation or a tally. The children of the Steam Mill houses may have attended the local school more frequently after education became ‘compulsory’ in the 1870s. However, many may have still worked during the day to support their families. The worn and fragmentary state of most of the slate pencils and less-common boards could indicate that most were brought home because the school or Sunday school had discarded them. Many pencils from the houses had distinctive grooving, whittling or other modifications showing individual ownership. The slate pencils may have been used to draw rather than practice letters and sums at home. Others would have been a convenient board for informal games such as noughts and crosses, as found in House 9. Crayons also found in the houses may have been used to draw on the boards or paper sheets which were relatively expensive. Lead pencils were mainly recovered from the houses in the form of graphite ‘leads’ with only one from House 9 still within a wooden holder. There was a small range of narrow square and rectangular-sectioned leads as well as thicker rectangular stubs commonly used by tradesmen and butchers. Narrow circular-section leads were used in leadholders and propelling pencils from c.1822 for which several fragments were recovered in every house except Nos 15 and 17. One from Houses 13 was an expensive machine-decorated mechanical pencil or holder made by F and S Mordan & Co., London from 1823-1830. It was likely to have been used by a man. The pivoting rule from the same house could have been used in draughting or measuring by a variety of tradesmen or women including dress makers or tailors. Other adult clerical items such as ink pens were less common at the site and mostly represented by broken nibs. However, a complete polished bone handled-pen with a broken nib was found in House 9. Spatially the clerical artefacts in the rooms of the houses show that this activity mainly occurred in the rear rooms Room 2 of buildings with two ground floor rooms; and in Room 1 of House 19 which had only one room in the main period of occupation (Phase 6). The exception is House 13 where Room 3 also has 22 items. The patterning is not regular and as discussed in Section 3 the underfloor accumulations in several rooms were affected by disturbances such as service trenching. In general, the artefacts in Houses 11 and 13 appear to cluster in the centre of the room; whereas those in Houses 9 and 19 were closer to the back door. There is also a distinct lack of clerical items, especially slate and lead pencils, in House 7. This may be due to a lack of children in the household and/or adult writing and reading skills of some of the tenants. The clerical objects in Houses 15 and 17 can be explained by the limited amount of undisturbed underfloor deposits. Toys and Games The 551 games and toys at the houses on Steam Mill Street were mainly retrieved during sieving of the underfloor room deposits (Section 4.10). Of these 496 were marbles of many varieties but most were made of limestone. The most recent types were reused glass stoppers from Codd patent bottles (c.1873-1935). The other 55 items comprised dominos, dice, chess pieces and a counter made of bone; a quartz dice; a range of porcelain dolls and toy teaset pieces; and various informal counters. In addition there was a rubber ball from House 11 and an iron wheel from a toy in House 9. Objects that were possibly reused as informal toys were found in House 19. They were a ground ceramic knob broken from a vessel lid, a porcelain ornamental pipe; and a policeman’s or boatswain’s whistle.

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Many children’s toys are traditionally divided by gender, with marbles being associated with boys and teasets and dolls with girls. The artefacts from the houses do not provide more information about the truth of these attributions. The higher numbers of marbles lost at the site can be partly due to the requirements of the games, compared to teasets with limited shapes associated mainly with pretend-play of serving and pouring of food and tea. Some of the teasets could have been used in doll houses. Each girl may have had only one doll that could have been kept well into adulthood. In addition some of the ‘dolls’ found in the houses were actually more like ornaments and probably little handled. It is likely that the children regularly played together in and around the houses and nearby streets. The similarity between some of the dolls and teasets and figurines indicates a possible close connection between the girls of the families in Houses 13 and 19. Two of these dolls were shown praying with their heads covered and had large stomachs. These may have been used as small votives to wish for a good pregnancy or for general Catholic worship (Section 4.12). House 11 contained fragments of dolls that were of better quality than their neighbours and help form the impression that they belonged to a middle-class family recently arrived from Britain who lived in the house towards the end of the 19th century. Adult and general family games were also represented in the rear rooms of the houses. These pieces were often handmade in bone and similar to examples found at contemporary sites in Sydney or Britain. They show that chess was played or the chess pieces were carved in Houses 9 and 13. The game of dominos was represented by two different sets lost in Houses 9 and House 11. Finally two bone and a quartz dice could have been used in a range of games. They were found in Houses 11, 13 and 7 respectively. When at home the children played mostly indoors, particularly in the rear room where many household activities appear to have occurred. The front room of the houses was rarely played in, excluding House 19 which had only one room in Phase 6. Playing with marbles and toy teasets in the front room was allowed more often in Houses 7 and 15 (albeit with the little actual evidence in any rooms), and to a lesser extent House 11. Very few examples have been found in the yard although there were some in the cesspits. Less marbles and other toys were found in Houses 7 and 9. This could be due to fewer children, floor coverings; relative poverty; or that the children played less or chose to play elsewhere. More marbles were lost in the yards of Houses 7 and 9 than their neighbours. The relatively few marbles in Houses 15 and 17 was probably a consequence of greater disturbance. Analysis of the spatial locations of the marbles in the underfloor deposits of each room of the houses shows that they were scattered across the same parts of the rooms as many other artefacts, and in near identical concentrated groupings. The position of the marbles in the underfloor deposits represents where they fell through the boards after rolling. Almost all were found in the rear rooms of the two-roomed houses and in the busy single-room of House 19, which had more marbles (137) than its neighbours. As with other items from Room 1 in House 19, the marbles were concentrated in the northwest corner and near the south wall, especially beside the rear door. There were also groupings near the southwest corner and beside the southern end of the fireplace. In Room 2 of House 7 the marbles were clustered in the southeast and southwest corners. There were more marbles in Room 2 of House 9 where they were concentrated in the southwest corner near the door and on the southwest side of the eastern fireplace. The rear room in House 11 had marbles scattered in a diagonal direction in the western side of the room. This location is identical to other artefacts from the room which indicates they were scraped together during service trench backfilling. The larger House 13 had 73 marbles in Room 2 and 24 in Room 3. In Room 2 they were

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scattered around the centre of the room with most towards the southwest. In Room 3 the marbles were most concentrated in the extreme northwest corner. Music, Art and Collection The harmonica was the only musical instrument from Steam Mill Street, found in Houses 9 and 13 (Section 4.11). The reeds in metal plates could represent two to six harmonicas depending on their type. More were found in House 13. Harmonicas were developed from c.1820. Evidence for artistic pursuits was limited to drawing crayons and a narrow paintbrush ferrule from House 15. Most of the white or grey crayons were in House 11 although other fragments were found in Houses 9, 13 and 15. Of the three collected artefacts two were picked up from the natural world. The other from the front room of House 11 was a tiny medallion from 1888 commemorating the Silver Anniversary of the Royal wedding between Prince Edward and Princess Alexandra. Religion and Friendly Societies Most of the artefacts associated with religion were used by the residents of the houses to practice their Catholic faith (Section 4.12). They show a strong Christian influence in their lives. These included religious figurines of the Madonna and possibly the baby Jesus in House 19; the Miraculous Mary and St Benedict medals from Houses 9, 11 and 19; and the Catholic Abstinence League medal from the demolition deposit above Houses 11 and 13 and two praying dolls mentioned above from Houses 13 and 19. In addition a number of beads found in the houses, perhaps made of bone or metal or glass, could have fallen from rosaries. The carved bone Oddfellows staff from House 19 and the knife mortared into a wall of House 11 reveal other ritual practices of the tenants and owners. Weapons and Munitions There was limited evidence at the houses for both flintlock and percussion weapons and munitions (Section 4.13). By the time of the occupation of the houses flintlocks were being superseded by percussion firearms. There were 14 brown-black English and lighter brown French flint nodules, flakes and fragments from various deposits in Houses 7, 11, 13, 17 and 19. The majority of these were found in rooms 2 and 3 of House 13. All are thought to have originated as ballast flint dumped at the waterfront, with pieces perhaps brought home by the residents to help light fires. Percussion firearms, generally adopted from the 1860s, were represented by a percussion cap, bullet and six cartridge casings from a .303 rifle and smaller hand-guns such as a .22 pistol. They were found in rooms of Houses 9, 11 and 13. Some may have been military weapons, others for personal protection or hunting. Utensils, Metalware and Equipment There was a range of artefacts associated with the cooking, preparation, serving and consumption of food at all the houses (Section 4.14). The most common category was cutlery tableware and tea ware dating from the late 18th to the early 20th century.326 The majority were probably made in the UK but only a small proportion had legible marks. Most of the utensils would have been relatively inexpensive but showed signs of long use before being broken and discarded. Some general observations about the cutlery from the houses can be made. The basic cutlery set appears to have comprised a number of bone-handled knives and some forks, supplemented by silvered forks, desert and table and teaspoons with plain Fiddle or Old English patterns. Some of the knives, forks and spoons were old fashioned, perhaps passed on in the family. Several houses had a limited number of plain spoons to serve table condiments, a mustard spoon in Houses 9, 13 and 17 and a salt spoon in Houses 9 and 11. Residents from House 9 lost a more knives and forks

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Banister 1970; Dunning 2000; Moore 1995.

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than any other household and had the only marked Britannia plated fork. The oldest knives were from Houses 7 and 9. The occupants of every house, with the possible exception of House 17, appear to have enjoyed drinking tea. However, newer and more expensive cutlery forms were mostly used by the residents of House 13 and to a lesser extent those in Houses 19 and 11. House 13 had more elaborate variants of Old English pattern teaspoons for tea drinking and entertaining. Two with floral or ridge designs were found in Room 2. Those from Rooms 3 and 4 had the King and Old English thread and palmette patterns which were single-stamped indicating they were made in Scotland. Cooking and or heating items were very rare at Steam Mill Street. However, pot hooks, a handle and stove part were found in Houses 7 and 9. In addition three fragments of laundry blue pigment were recovered from Houses 7, 9 and 19. Household Furniture, Fittings and Ornaments The houses contained 235 artefacts that were part of the household furniture, fitting and ornaments (Section 4.15). Some of the plain door and furniture plates typical of Victorian hardware had fallen in Houses 7, 9 and 19. Those from other houses may have been in better repair. Far fewer examples of household hardware were found in House 7 although the house doors had a latch and key, and the windows had shutters (sash dog). Ship’s copper alloy fastenings and fitting have been found in almost every house, particularly Houses 7 and 9. They may have been reused to repair furniture or incorporated into a new piece by carpenters and cabinetmakers. These fastenings, as well as copper alloy hasps, hinges and escutcheons (Figure 3.13), may have belonged to furniture, chests or other objects that had been on board ship, perhaps owned by immigrants or sailors. Several of these hardware items were found in House 9. The appearance of small boxes or cabinets may be enhanced by the oval MoP inlays (House 11) and bone knob (House 7). These boxes could have contained items such as tea, sewing kits, toiletry articles or jewellery. Some rooms in Houses 9, 11, 13 and 19 had curtains hung on poles with rings and every ground floor room in House 13 had upholstered furniture (tacks). All the other houses appear to have had at least one upholstered piece. The other tacks found in all the houses could have been from furniture or floor coverings. A number of glass beads may have been embroidered onto cushions boxes or a variety of other soft furnishings. Others may have served as blind or lamp pulls or decorative fringing. The residents of every house had broken several of their ornaments. Again there were less in House 7 with a glass ring, broken picture fame and chains that may have hung mirrors or been attached to plugs. There were a small number of possible clock parts from Houses 9, 11 and 13 and small porcelain figurines in Houses 9, 13 and 19. Household Lighting, Heating and Power The houses contained ten artefacts associated with the transmission and creation of household and street power, lighting and possibly heating (Section 4.16). Most were elements from room lamps fuelled by oil, kerosene or gas. One with a gas Venus burner invented in c.1870 was found in Room 2 of House 19. Houses 9, 11 and 13 had lamps that were decorated with glass (chandelier) prisms (Figure 3.20, Figure 3.34). The Arc Lamp electrode and possibly the vulcanite cord guide appear to be intrusive to the house deposits as they were part of the street light electrical service introduced to Sydney in 1905. Economy Local and Foreign The range of 69 coins and 18 tokens found in the houses emphasises the overland and maritime personal and business connections of Sydney in the second half of the 19th century and into the

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early 20th century (Section 4.17). They were found in all houses, mostly from the rear rooms with fewer from the front rooms and yards. The majority of the coins were found in Houses 13, 11 and 19 with very few from House 7. It would have been easier to retrieve coins in the yard than from below floorboards. Coins may have dropped from the hand or pockets when dressing or laundering clothing. By far the most common issues were British halfpennies and pennies minted from 1826 to 1895. Lower and higher denominations were also found, such as a farthing, threepences, sixpences and shillings (one minted in 1816). Only two examples of thick machine-stamped ‘Cartwheel’ pennies of 1797-1799 were discovered. They were in Phase 8 and 9 contexts in Room 1 of Houses 7 and 9. The one from House 9 was extremely worn with both faces having grooves cutting across rim. It may have been reused as either sharpening whetstone; to wind thread/yarn/fishing line; or as a counter. There was also one 1980 Australian two cent piece from a Phase 9 context in House 11. Coins of other countries included five 18th century Chinese cash and halfcash, two French issues of 1851 and 1861; and an astounding 1688 Spanish copper cob minted in Peru. Many of these were found in House 9 and most were probably used as gambling counters. The penny and halfpenny trade tokens found at the houses were issued by 11 retailers or wholesalers to their customers. Although minted for one or two years they could have been given out by the company as long as they were in operation. Several issues are less common and probably had a more restricted distribution. Most companies were based in Sydney but there were three from different towns in New Zealand and one from London. The tokens found at the houses reveals what the residents were purchasing for themselves or their businesses. Many of the tokens came from Rooms 2 and 3 of House 13. However, four of these advertised Professor Holloway’s pills and Ointments which may have been administered to an elderly Mrs Moroney. The others included the ironmongers Brown & Duthie of New Plymouth, New Zealand who could have supplied iron products to the Moroney’s business or belonged to a visitor to the house. The other tokens had been given out for tea and coffee by two Sydney suppliers, Hanks & Lloyd and S. Peek & Co. The next frequent consumers appear to have lived in House 11, perhaps members of the Moroney family who moved in after 1870. They purchased drapery from Hobday & Jobberns of Christchurch, New Zealand, clothing from the Sydney importer Lipman Levy, and food, drink or perhaps accommodation from Alfred Toogood in Sydney. Only one company sold their wares to two houses (13 and 15), that was Hanks & Lloyd Tea Mart, perhaps because the token commemorated the opening of the Sydney Railway in 1855. Other token types were also found including one from House 9 was an imitation spade guinea token issued by John Wood in Birmingham, a maker of chains, dies and tools. It subsequently became a fob chain pendant but first it may have been used as a gaming counter. The two others from different rooms of House 13 were thick single-die struck lead tokens or counters, one with a spoked design. These tokens have been found on several pre-1840 sites in Sydney and Parramatta. They could have at one time been jettons, given each day for work and then exchanged at the end of the week for real wages. This system may have worked well on the docks.

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Occupations, Businesses, Industries and Horse Transport It is thought that many residents accommodated in the houses worked in the local shops, trades, manufactories, on the wharves and dockyards (Section 4.18). Some may have been employed in city shops or drove vehicles. It is also likely that a number of adults and children crewed ships and other watercraft that were moored in Darling Harbour or in other bays. Many of the tools and equipment found in the houses could have been used for home maintenance or their trade work. Cabinetmakers and carpenters used axes, chisels, files that were found in several houses. Stonemasons also used chisels and metalworkers and farriers used files. The well-worn whetstone found in a House 17 cesspit had sharpened tools or knives; and the solder fragments from Houses 9 and 13 in Area 8 were perhaps left over from roof repair. Machinery found in the houses probably came from businesses where the residents worked. The steam engine whistle from House 9 may have come from a boat, train or been part of an industrial machine. The tenants in the house included an engine driver, engineer and two blacksmiths. The smaller lead button weights from Houses 13 and 19 may have weighed foodstuffs or other household/business goods. The folding rule in House 13 was a type often used by carpenters, draftsmen and also by dressmakers and tailors. Dependence on horse transport for people and goods was evident at the houses. The professions of at least two residents of the Steam Mill Street houses in Area 8 involved horses. Mr Moroney in House 13 was a horse dealer and ran a dray business utilising a timber shed in the yard of his adjoining property No. 11. A horseshoe, five horse buckles and a vehicle bracket were found in House 13. House 19 contained two horse buckles, a horseshoe and a police or ship boatswain’s whistle. The horse gear and the whistle were possibly owned by Robert Warren who was a tenant from 1865-1871+ and worked as a drayman for the local P. N. Russell Foundry. There was only one small riding boot spur found at the site, a size typical of those worn by the cavalry rather than cowboys. It was found in House 11 along with a bicycle or pram spoke nipple. Ships, Boats, Maritime Contacts and Trade Boat or ship fastenings found in the houses were direct evidence of vessels being moored, repaired or stripped at the nearby waterfront (Section 4.19). The most common were copper alloy nails and tacks that were designed to fasten planking and other timbers of vessel hulls and superstructures. All were made from square or circular section drawn wire, a technique developed by at least 1836. The shorter tacks with large flat heads were used to secure copper sheathing onto hulls to prevent boring worm. This process was being done from the late 18th century on British ships of war but it had become common practice for the mercantile fleet by the 1820s. Only one tack from the yard of House 11 still had part of the sheathing attached. Many of the timbers were made more secure by clinching the tack, nails spikes or bolts over a rove. Two different kinds of rove were found in House 11 and in the yard of House 9. Larger ship’s fittings included a sail thimble from the yard of House 7 which could have been reused as a toy. Two tenants at House 7 may be directly associated with the ship fastenings and fittings, the shipwright Peter Hanson and a carpenter who could have been reusing them to repair or make furniture. Other artefacts relating to shipping and maritime connections from the houses include the metal whistle from House 19 of a type also used by boatswains; the ballast flint reused as strike-a-lights; worked bone objects in the sailor scrimshaw tradition; foreign coins and tokens; and the SS Orion badges from House 13 which must post-date the houses as they commemorate a disaster at sea which happened in 1908.

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