Teachers and Teaching Methods

Teachers and Teaching MethodsAuthor(s): James CollingeSource: The Elementary School Journal, Vol. 76, No. 5 (Feb., 1976), pp. 259-265Published by: The University of Chicago PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1000685 .

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Teachers and

Teaching Methods James Collinge Victoria University of Wellington Wellington, New Zealand

Some writers who profess to be in-

spired by John Dewey's thought, or who are commonly regarded as con-

tinuing his influence, are described by Sidney Hook as Dewey's "betrayers" (1). These writers, Hook believes, have

flagrantly distorted Dewey's educational philosophy. Hook accuses them of acting in an intellectually irrespon- sible manner.

One subject on which Dewey is often misinterpreted is the role of the teacher. Contrary to some popular opinion, in Dewey's view the teacher is central in the process of education.

The main assertion I wish to make in this paper has to do with methods and with teachers: whatever the method used, whether it be formal or informal, one teacher to a class or team

teaching, "look and say" or "phonics" in reading, verbal exposition or dis-

covery method, the crucial factors in the success of that method are the abil-

ity, the training and education, and the conscientiousness of the teacher. It is not the system or the method in itself that is important, but whether the teacher is happy with it and capable of

using it effectively. I shall also argue that the most valuable technique that the teacher must have at her disposal is the ability to motivate her pupils in

positive ways, thus making it unneces- sary to punish and to drive them to effort in ways that can only be aversive. Indeed, the necessity for positive



260 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

rather than aversive methods of control is one of the main lessons to be learned from B. F. Skinner (2) and from the techniques of behavior modification.

Reading and written expression Let us take the vital questions of reading. Too often in our concern with methods of teaching reading, the fundamental importance of motivation, particularly the motivation that comes from success, is forgotten. The fact of the matter is that over the years millions of children have learned to read through a wide variety of methods. Undoubtedly, the use of phonics can be important, but it cannot be regarded as the sole guarantee of proficiency. The primary aim in teaching reading should be to encourage interest. If the children are not interested, no method can succeed. It is a well-established fact that two of the main factors in effective reading achievement are the availability of books in the home and the presence of interested parents who encourage their children to read. Carrying this fact over into the school, it is not hard for a teacher who is enthusiastic about reading (and this is the minimum we can expect of any teacher) to create an atmosphere in the classroom where her interest and excitement are trans- ferred to the children. The teaching method used then becomes less important than the availability of good and attractive books and the positive rewards of reading and being read to. If the teacher places her faith in graded readers, this excitement is not likely to occur. Most graded readers are bor- ing, some appallingly so, at least in comparison with the beautiful children's books available nowadays. I would not go so far as to say that in-

terest and availability of good reading material are all that are necessary, but, without them, no method of teaching and no amount of pressure by a teacher can turn out pupils who love books.

In written expression also the importance of motivation can be forgotten. Much of the talk about creative writing is nonsense, particularly the talk that places little or no emphasis on the acquisition of necessary skills, skills that are essential if the child is to ex- hibit his creativeness (3: 57). Unfortu- nately much of the writing about creativity makes little or no distinction between genuinely creative expression (which must, as Dr. Johnson so wisely said, be the product of much effort) and work that is merely bizarre or downright silly. To neglect skills acquisition in favour of some vague but comprehensive aim such as creativity or emotional and social development is, in fact, ultimately self-defeating. Erik Erikson (4) has shown how necessary it is for the school-age child to develop competence in scholastic skills, not only because they are useful and valued by society, although this is reason enough, but also because they contribute to the healthy growth of personality. The child who cannot read and write is likely to develop a sense of inadequacy and inferiority, which is psychologically damaging. Without a sense of being able to do things, and do them well, and even perfectly, even the best entertained child will become dissatisfied and dis- gruntled. Erikson describes a stage of development that he calls "industry v. inferiority." The main task for the child at that stage is to learn important skills. Erikson's evidence appears to demonstrate that the stage normally covers the period of primary educa-

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TEACHERS 261

tion. Furthermore, it is his contention that successful completion of each of eight stages is essential if the child is to become a healthy and balanced adult. By successful completion he means that the basic conflict central to each stage, in this case conflict between a sense of achievement and a sense of inferiority, must be resolved satisfac- torily.

I am not, though, advocating a re- turn to the time when the main pur- pose of written work was merely the marking of children's mistakes, with scant interest in what they had to say and with great emphasis on formal ex- ercises that were dull, uninspiring, and often meaningless to the child. The modern approach to the teaching of written expression is not merely a means of avoiding the tedium of marking; in fact, if the advice given by many of the most reputable present-day writers on the teaching of English (5-7) is followed, marking appears to be a much more difficult and subtle process than the mere noting of errors. Marking is a necessary part of teaching, and therefore its primary aim is encouragement and positive help rather than assessment, which, as Creber notes, is the proper function of examinations (6: 223). What each classroom requires, therefore, is a teacher of considerable expertise and sensitivity, a teacher who is capable of stimulating what Holbrook has so aptly called "delight in the word and its power" (5: 149). The marking of written work is primarily an indication that the child is writing for a sympathetic, if somewhat critical, audience. To be thoroughly banal, I would emphasize that the main function of words is communication, a fact that can often be forgotten when the teacher is over- zealous about marking errors. The

teacher must be interested primarily in what the child has to say, and only sec- ondarily concerned with the correctness of his expression, although I am not for one moment denying that correctness is important. If the pupil is positively rewarded by success and ap- proval for doing the right thing, rather than punished for doing the wrong, he thus receives some incentive to make progress.

Discovery learning Discovery learning is a perfect exam- ple of a method of teaching for which extreme claims are often made. In- deed, its advocates tend to be so enthusiastic that the impression is fre- quently given that it is the only really effective method. It has recently been called "the fundamental process in primary school education" (8: 1).

Any theory based on the assertion that "this is the way children learn" must invite scepticism. The history of education is littered with dogmatic theories of learning that are now largely discredited, although they were in vogue for a long time. There are many critics who question the assump- tions behind discovery learning. Prom- inent among them is Ausubel (9), who regards the repudiation of verbal learning, which is now complete in some circles, as being based on a nar- row idea of what is involved. In particular he attacks the misconception that verbal learning is invariably rote unless it is preceded by nonverbal problem-solving activities. Ausubel does not repudiate discovery learning per se; it has its place as one of many techniques available to teachers at the proper time and under the right circumstances. But it cannot be regarded as a panacea. It is not necessarily con- ducive to meaningful discovery but




can be as deadening, as formalistic, as mechanical, as passive, and as rote as the worst type of verbal teaching. The extreme advocates of discovery learning forget that children can and do learn meaningfully in other ways -from books, by watching television, by watching a demonstration, and indeed often simply by being told.

It is important to realize that in successful discovery learning the pupil has to learn how to discover, and this is where the good teacher comes in. I suspect that the successful examples of discovery learning described in the literature on open schools in England (10) owe their success not to any intrinsic value in the method as such, but to the use of the method by a good teacher, a teacher who is thoroughly conversant with the subject, at ease in the situation, and able to motivate the children. Resnick (11) has shown how skilled successful teachers are at asking the right kinds of questions at the right time, thus encouraging in the children the desirable attitudes of inquiry, strong self-evaluation, and self- direction. For discovery learning is a skill that has to be acquired. It is not enough to assume that this is the way children learn, that they are therefore automatically motivated to discover, and to leave it at that. Madden (12) indicates the necessity to learn-in small, reinforced steps-the skills required for the survival of teacher as well as children in an open classroom. This is true of discovery learning as well. The lesson that one can draw from the examples he gives, as well as others that I have cited (13, 14), is that the complete contrast between "open" and "behavior analysis" classrooms that many educators draw is more ap- parent than real. In any classroom, the desired behavior must be carefully

identified and constantly encouraged and rewarded; otherwise, the result is likely to be chaos, and the teacher will inevitably fall back on punishment and reproach. To Madden, one of the technical skills required of a good teacher is this ability to reward the good things children do rather than swoop down with a vengeance on their errors.

It is easy to understand educators' distrust of behavior modification; it has too often been used in support of traditional, authoritarian educational goals, to obtain docile and conforming attitudes on the part of the children. But far too often the objections made to behavior modification are on ideological rather than rational, educational grounds. It is a tool, the wisdom and morality of its use depending on the user. As Winett (15) has observed, behavior modification continues to be associated with traditional classrooms, although it need not be. Smith (16) has shown some of the fallacies in making too much of the conflict between behavior modification and humanism. Similarly, in the English open classroom, discovery learning and behavior modification are not so different as they are sometimes thought to be. In- deed, the type of discovery learning that stresses problem-solving, with the teacher actively involved in question- ing and suggesting the next step-the type of discovery learning that is most commonly advocated and used in successful English classrooms-bears more than a passing resemblance to programmed instruction. There is one major difference: the traditional programmed book tells pupils the answer verbally, while in discovery learning they must abstract it, most commonly by manipulating concrete materials. Nevertheless, verbal activity does play

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an important part. A major portion of mathematics learning in the open classroom, for instance, is devoted to what is often called "talking mathematics." The teacher questions orally, and the child attempts to answer using some suitable piece of apparatus. Feedback is immediate. The teacher offers ap- proval, or gives information as to the correctness of the answer, or makes suggestions for the next step, or simply asks another question. Learning pro- ceeds along a carefully designed path, with positive reinforcement given at each step toward the desired terminal behavior. In the parlance of behavior modification this process is known as "shaping."

Of course, if discovery learning in a free and open situation is to succeed, it is necessary not only that the children be rewarded appropriately but also that the teacher herself receive support and reinforcement. Some studies show that young, often idealistic teachers who might well have a thorough grasp of the relevant theory, tend, when faced with the difficulties of classroom management, to revert to formal authoritarian methods. Hoy (17) found that most of the teachers in his sample described their school sub- culture as one in which good teaching and good control were equated. The teachers reacted accordingly, even though the rigid methods they used were not consonant with the ideology they espoused. A similar result has been reported by Mercurio (18) with regard to corporal punishment. In a situation where corporal punishment was expected by the school authorities, first-year teachers inevitably acceded to the demands of the system, although they often came to the school with the opposite intentions. However hesitant one must be in generalizing

from these studies, it would appear that young teachers need the right kinds of encouragement, including substantial assistance with the difficult problem of control. If encouragement is not given, the common belief that young teachers, with their fresh approach, are more likely to achieve success in an open situation is simply not borne out by the facts. It is not true that older, more experienced teachers are necessarily less receptive to change than their younger colleagues. Bridges and Reynolds (19) discovered that the common practice in the U.S.A. of re- cruiting young, inexperienced teachers to launch innovative pro- grams, on the theory that it is easier to train them than to retrain experienced persons, is not supported by the evidence. The experienced teacher is more likely to anticipate problems, and to be able to cope with those that occur, because she has a greater range of techniques to call on when the need arises. The neophyte usually possesses only enthusiasm, and this can easily become dulled when the problems of the classroom overwhelm her.

The theme that I have reiterated throughout this paper is a simple one, but nevertheless one that is often forgotten in the classroom as well as in the literature on teaching methods: the most important factors in the success of any method or approach to teaching are not the intrinsic values of the method as such, although some ap- proaches are clearly more appropriate in certain circumstances than others, but the teacher's competence, conscientiousness, and awareness of the importance of providing the right kinds of reward and satisfaction for the pupils. The ability to develop enthusiasm in the pupils and the ability to reward success are probably the




most vital skills a teacher can possess. This does not mean that she must al- ways initiate something like a compli- cated token system of rewards. Ap- proval, admiration, and affection are, as Skinner (20) has pointed out, powerful reinforcers. However, she must retain primary responsibility for de- veloping, in positive ways, the right kinds of activity and behavior; otherwise, the result will be chaos, a lack of progress on the part of the children, frustration for the teacher, and an in- evitable recourse to formal methods and punishment.

Drucker's assertion that the En-

glish open classroom is "one of the first rigorous applications of behaviorism to large numbers of human learners" (21: 86) is not an idle one. Teacher educators in particular will do their students a disservice if, for ideological reasons, they neglect the powerful techniques of behavior modification and send teachers out into the schools filled with ideals and enthusiasm, but without the managerial and behavioral skill to practice them.

John Dewey well understood the central role of the teacher in providing that motivation toward growth and development without which both traditional and open classrooms will fail to achieve their objectives. In Experience and Education he wrote:

Once more it is part of the educator's responsibility to see equally to two things: first, that the problem grows out of the conditions of the experience being had in the present, and that it is within the range of the capac- ity of students; and, secondly, that it is such that it arouses in the learner an active quest for information and for production of new ideas [22: 96-97].

References

1. S. Hook. "John Dewey and His Be-

trayers," Change, 3 (November, 1971), 22-26.

2. B. F. Skinner. The Technology of Teach- ing. New York, New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1968.

3. R. S. Peters. Ethics and Education. London, England: Allen and Unwin, 1966.

4. E. Erikson. Identity: Youth and Crisis. London, England: Faber and Faber, 1968.

5. D. Holbrook. English for Maturity. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1967.

6. J. W. P. Creber. Sense and Sensitivity. London, England: University of Lon- don Press, 1967.

7. F. Whitehead. The Disappearing Dais. London, England: Chatto and Win- dus, 1968.

8. J. Foster. Discovery Learning in the Pri- mary School, London, England: Rout- ledge and Kegan Paul, 1972.

9. D. P. Ausubel. Readings in School Learn- ing. New York, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969.

10. British Primary Schools Today, Volume 1. London, England: Macmillan, 1972.

11. L. B. Resnick. "Teacher Behavior in an Informal British School," School Re- view, 81 (November, 1972), 63-83.

12. P. C. Madden. "Skinner and the Open Classroom," School Review, 81 (November, 1972), 100-7.

13. M. R. Wong and J. R. Wong. "Rein- forcement in the British Open Class- room," Child Study Journal, 4 (Summer, 1974), 135-43.

14. C. L. Salzberg. "Freedom and Respon- sibility in an Elementary School," Behavior Analysis and Education. Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kan- sas, 1972.

15. R. A. Winett. "Behavior Modification and Open Education,"Journal of School Psychology, 11 (September, 1973), 207-14.

16. A. B. Smith. "Humanism and Be- havior Modification: Is There a Conflict?" Elementary School Journal, 74 (November, 1973), 59-67.

17. W. K. Hoy. "The Influence of Experi- ence on the Beginning Teacher," School Review, 76 (September, 1968), 312-23.

18. J. A. Mercurio. Caning: Educational Rite

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and Tradition. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1972.

19. E. M. Bridges and L. B. Reynolds. "Teacher Receptivity to Change," Administrator's Notebook, 16 (February, 1968).

20. C. R. Rogers and B. F. Skinner. "Some Issues concerning the Control of

Human Behavior," Science, 124 (November, 1956), 1057-65.

21. P. F. Drucker. "School around the Bend," Psychology Today, 6 (June, 1972), 49-51 and 86.

22. J. Dewey. Experience and Education. New York, New York: Macmillan, 1947.



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Teachers and Teaching Methods