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Teachers, Tutors and Inspectors: views of pre‐serviceteacher education in BotswanaMichael J. Kahn aa Faculty of Education , University of BotswanaPublished online: 06 Jul 2006.

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Educational Review, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1990

Teachers, Tutors and Inspectors: views ofpre-service teacher education in Botswana

MICHAEL J. KAHN, Faculty of Education, University of Botswana

ABSTRACT The paper reports on a survey carried out in Botswana on the attitudestoward pre-service education of serving teachers and tutors/education officers. Thestudy commences by considering similar work previously carried out in the UnitedKingdom. Comparison in the Botswana case is also made of the differing viewswithin two subsamples, namely those between science and mathematics teachers, andbetween seasoned teachers and novices. Problems of cross-cultural comparison arediscussed, and the implications of the survey findings for teacher education policy inBotswana are considered.

1. Introduction

In designing teacher education programmes it clearly makes sense to consult bothformer student teachers and the present consumers of those teachers' services,namely their employers (not to mention school pupils and the community), regard-ing the most appropriate type of pre-service programmes teachers should follow.Such studies have not been carried out previously in Botswana, and, generallyspeaking, there has been little student evaluation of tertiary education programmesin the country. Unsurprisingly, former student teachers are frequently ready to offerunsolicited advice regarding the nature of the training they themselves underwent,but as a basis for action it is necessary to move from the anecdotal to the empirical.It is one thing to collect the odd opinion about the use value of a particular coursebut something very different if quantitative data across a wide range of experiencesappear to support the opinion.

A systematic assessment of the perceptions of serving teachers toward their pre-service education was thus carried out by surveying the entire science and mathe-matics teacher output of the University of Botswana of the period 1980-85. Thefindings of this survey are reported below.

The article commences with a brief review of similar evaluation studies ofteacher education programmes abroad, and then moves on to consider the re-sponses obtained in the case of Botswana. The differing views of three groups,namely teachers and tutors/inspectors, science and mathematics teachers, andnovice as opposed to experienced teachers, are examined. Implications of thefindings for educational policy in Botswana are then considered.

2. Other Artitudinal Studies

Attitudinal studies of teachers are new to Botswana, although this is not so

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4 M.J. Kahn

elsewhere. In fact, no large body of educational research on teachers exists inBotswana, although Allen (1986) has provided a qualitative report on the views ofteacher training college students of what characterises a 'good teacher'. By contrast,a vast amount of such attitudinal work has been done in the United Kingdom andthe United States. Given the strong historical links with the former, comparisonand review by country will be restricted to the United Kingdom.

A comprehensive study of pre-service teacher education carried out in the UnitedKingdom was the project 'Structure and Process of Initial Teacher Education'(SPITE), at the University of Leicester (Patrick et al, 1982). SPITE operated over aperiod of three years, and concentrated on aspects of the operation of the Postgra-duate Certificate in Education (PGCE). The survey component of this study waseffected by questionnaire, and covered 29 university education departments andnearly 5000 students. Respondents completed a questionnaire at the beginning oftheir course, and another at the end. The findings of the survey are based on nearly3000 returns from both questionnaires. Besides revealing a wide divergence ofstyles of teacher education, as well as varying expectations on the part of studentand tutor alike, the main findings showed that the overall rank order of aims givenby students and lecturers coincided to a large measure. By the end of their training,nine attributes out of a list of 30 were regarded as most necessary by 70% of thestudents. These attributes covered lesson preparation, questioning skills, variety ofmethod, boardwork and visual aids, and discipline and management skills. Thestaff surveyed numbered close to 1000, with 60% being used in the final compara-tive study.

Any Botswana study would clearly differ in one crucial respect. Given the verysmall annual output of teachers from the single university, a survey would have toinclude serving teachers as well as inductees in order to obtain any statisticallymeaningful data. This makes for certain risks. It is not only that the years ofdistance from the training institution might lend disenchantment to the view, butalso that a growth in self-confidence from many years of successful teaching maylead to a negation of the value of positive aspects of initial training.

Evaluation of training programmes is certainly not a novel idea. Wragg (1982)reviews the glut of such works and makes the point that one should anticipatehaving one's training programme labelled as inadequate, both by product andconsumer, given than no programme is perfect. Other trends reported by Wraggwere the desire expressed by recently qualified teachers for a longer teachingpractice, and the view that school work required a move away from the indepen-dent, critical and progressive college atmosphere toward the conformity, pragma-tism and realities of school praxis. Another reported weakness inherent in researchof this kind is the problem that the assessment of attitudes is highly value-laden. Asthe SPITE report concludes (Patrick et al, 1982, p. 206), "problems of evaluationand criteria necessary for entry into teaching prove difficult issues to resolve".

A study which was felt to correspond closely with what was required in Botswanawas one carried out by Woolnough (1980) of the Department of EducationalStudies at the University of Oxford. A copy of this questionnaire was obtained, andmodified with permission (Woolnough, 1986). It was decided to conduct a similarsurvey locally which would allow some comparisons with the situation Woolnoughhad quantified.

The survey by Woolnough is distinguished from others above by the very specificnature of the questions being asked. It may therefore be worthwhile to note what

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Pre-service Teacher Education in Botswana 5

Woolnough found in England and Wales. The survey, conducted for the Associa-tion for Science Education, concentrated on teacher preparation through the PGCEroute. He obtained results from 173 teachers (including 129 heads of department)and 130 tutors and science advisers (equivalent in some respects to the Botswanaeducation officers). The latter groups were spread across 63 teacher traininginstitutions and 101 Local Education Authorities, which reflects the decentralisednature of education in the United Kingdom. The return rate was 90%. Thosesurveyed in the schools were roughly equal in number to those who support andmaintain the system. In Botswana the pattern is rather different: preparation andmonitoring of teachers is highly centralised, and the teacher group vastly outnum-bers tutors and education officers. The Botswana education officers also play therole of inspectors.

The attitudes of the teachers in the Woolnough survey toward various aspects oftheir training are summarised in Table I. These were common to all groupssurveyed. Language skills, curriculum development and pupils' psychological devel-opment were also felt to be important by all. There was little support from teachersfor history or philosophy of science or comparative science education. Generallythere was very strong agreement between the groups, although the tutors attachedless importance to science and society issues than did teachers. Areas to which theteachers felt more attention should be given were pupil assessment, technology,career advice and preparation for exams. Finally, tutors tended to stress theimportance of learning theories and reasons for teaching integrated science morethan the other groups.

TABLE I. Most useful and least useful skills, United Kingdom

Most useful (rank) Least useful (rank)

1 Lesson planning 1 Making apparatus2 Lesson presentation 2 Teaching exceptional students3 Practical organisation 3 Individualised teaching techniques4 Teacher demonstration 4 Team teaching5 Safety 5 Extra-curricular science6 Discipline 6 School-industry links7 Questioning skills

Source: Woolnough (1980).

3. The Botswana Surrey

Reply-paid questionnaires were sent out to all science and mathematics teacherseducated at the university and believed still to be in post. The qualifications held bythese teachers were the three-year Diploma in Secondary Education, four-year BScwith Concurrent Diploma in Education, or one-year Postgraduate Diploma inEducation. In addition, the two key groups involved with the preparation andmonitoring of the teachers, namely the university tutors themselves and educationofficers in the Ministry of Education, were surveyed. Besides using the survey todetermine some useful baseline data, the main thrust was towards assessment ofattitudes. The Botswana survey was loosely based on one of the Oxford ones andmodified to suit the local structure of teacher preparation. A total of 117 question-

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6 M. J. Kahn

naires were sent out to former trainees, and 74 replies (30 science, 44 mathematics)were received. This represented a return rate of 65%. A total of 18 questionnaireswere sent out to tutors and education officers. The responses for this group totalled12. The research design also allowed comparison of the differing views of mathema-tics and science teachers, as well as looking for difference of attitude betweenexperienced CAT= 38) and inexperienced teachers (iV=*36). The sample size may beminiscule by comparison with Woolnough's survey, but, as will be shown below,some useful trends do emerge from the data.

Interestingly, a full decade after the Botswana National Commission on Educa-tion, which had noted the high turnover rate for science and mathematics teachers,the average length in post of the respondents was but three years. The goal of astable teaching force is still some way off.

Teachers and Tutors/Education Officers

The intention of the survey was to assess differences in attitudes between thevarious subgroups in the survey sample towards the different components of thepre-service education programme being offered at the University of Botswana. Thesubgroups comprised experienced and novice teachers, science or mathematicsteachers and tutors combined with education officers (EOs). Respondents wereasked to assess the importance, using a Likert-type scale, of various items compris-ing the pre-service teacher education programme. To effect comparisons, theresponses to the questions were listed in rank order, with the sequence of ranksadjusted for tied values (Table II). The calculation of rank correlation coefficientsfollowed the standard method.

Taken as a whole, the agreement between the views of mathematics and scienceteachers and tutors/EOs (TEOs) regarding the value of most of the attributes beinggraded, was tested using the Spearman rank correlation test, corrected for ties(Cohen & Holliday, 1982). This yielded the value of r=O-65 significant at the 0-01level. This value might be taken as an indicator of strong identity of purposebetween the two groups. However, this statistic fails to pick up particularly strongdisagreements on various items. Accordingly, the items seen as most important andleast important by teachers and the TEOs were identified. The items so ranked bythe teachers are presented as Table III and Table IV respectively. Where therankings between the teachers and TEOs appeared to be markedly different, theLikert frequencies were tested for significance of difference using the chi-squaredtest with Yates's correction for continuity as appropriate.

It is intriguing that the most important concern of the teachers was for theteaching of the least academically able, with the next most important beingsubject-society links. The latter was of very low priority for the TEO group. Bycontrast, items of highest importance for the TEOs are listed in Table V. Theseincluded lesson preparation, establishing aims and objectives, language and ques-tioning skills (p<0.05) and assessment techniques. These items might be labelledthe craft aspects of teacher preparation. On the other hand, the teachers rankeddiscipline problems higher that the TEO group. However, as shown below, thisconcern of teachers with class control decreases with experience. Overall, the abovedifferences give the impression of a certain lack of emphasis by practising teachersto preparation for the day-to-day but essential roles of the classroom practitioner.

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Pre-service Teacher Education in Botswana

TABLE II. Ranking of items on Botswana questionnaire

Ranked item

1 Planning a scheme of work2 Establishing aims and objectives3 Choice and use of visual aids4 Gass discipline and controlS Department organisation6 Lesson presentation7 Demonstration methods8 Maintenance of equipment9 Practical work organisation

10 How to organise field trips11 Pupil assessment techniques12 Use of tests13 How to set homework14 How to use textbooksIS Marking registers16 How to obtain books or apparatus17 Teaching very able pupils18 Teaching least able pupils19 Class questioning skills20 Preparation for exams21 Problem-solving skills22 Using the chalkboard23 Place of science/maths in society24 Philosophy of science/maths25 Curriculum design and development26 Learning theories27 Sociological effects on learning28 Language skills29 Maths/science interface30 Psychological principles (applied)31 History of science/maths32 History of education33 Pupil career guidance34 Pastoral care of pupils35 The whole school organisation36 Dealing with Ministry of Education

Teachers

85

144

123

21191831118

3023353426

117131531

226

629242422103136

7261916

TEOs

11

131025

113221328

16

221935321365

256

102228193528

62810323217192717

Experienced

122

127

125

1922123385

2524333527

1171112324

253

283

28211031358

221917

Novice

48

11282

22141828112034243532265

14111430

128

826212224

63236

6301814

Science

181010582

22104

3357

2627333028

1141420322

288

3024222010363514241718

Maths

52

154

125

1720223112103219363422

1161122322

225

222229219

2934

8281712

TABLE III. Five most important items ranked by teachers

Teachers

Teaching least able pupilsPlace of science/maths in societyLesson presentationClass discipline and controlEstablishing aims and objectives

TEOs

12345

622**1*101*

*p<0-05;

Two items rated far higher by the teachers were department organisation andexaminations, both differences being significant at the 0.01 level. The first is

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M. J. Kahn

TABLE IV. Five least important items ranked by teachers

Teachers TEOs

How to organise field tripsUsing the chalkboardHistory of science/mathsHow to obtain books or apparatusMarking registersHistory of education

313131343536

2810'*32323532

TABLE V. Five most important items ranked by TEOs

Teachers TEOs

Lesson presentation 3 1*Establishing aims and objectives 5 1"Planning a scheme of work 8 1*Pupil assessment techniques 11 1Class questioning skills 17 5*

•p<0-05.

connected with operating in an efficient and respected way; a concern with this areamay also arise from perceived problems regarding the status of the cadre. Thesecond is not surprising, given the importance attached by the community tosuccess in the national examinations, and the corresponding pressure on theteachers. In this concern, however, they do not appear to be supported by theTEOs. Another difference which showed up was in dealing with the ministry:teachers clearly felt the need for some guidance in how to deal with their employer,whereas the TEOs did not feel this was necessary.

The five least important items (Table IV) identified by teachers show a closeagreement with the TEO group, with the exception of the mundane item, using thechalkboard, which was strongly promoted by the TEOs. This strengthens theperception that the practical aspects of teacher preparation are not highly prized byteachers. Of the five items (Table V) most favoured by the TEOs, no less than fourhave rankings significantly different to their rankings of appraisal by the teachers,and all are 'craft' skills.

Science and Mathematics Teachers

Regarding the opinions of mathematics and science teachers, overall rank correla-tion was the high value of r=0-84. As previously, for the whole group of teachers,the item both groups felt to be most important was the teaching of the leastacademically able pupils. This is consistent with a study of the in-service needs ofserving teachers by Mannothoko (1986), which also identified teaching the less ableas an area of great concern. However, it should be noted that Mannothoko's surveyincluded a significant number of expatriate respondents, particularly in the sci-ences. The survey being reported here is entirely comprised of citizens of Botswana.

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Pre-service Teacher Education in Botswana 9

Where a major difference in emphasis between the subject teachers did turn upwas in the need for schemes of work and for establishing aims and objectives, withthis part of the teacher's craft rated lower by science than by mathematics teachers.This may be an expression of the fact that the schools employ a centrally producedworksheet system for the teaching of junior secondary science, and in thesecircumstances some teachers clearly did not feel the need to plan as far ahead as didtheir mathematics counterparts, for whom such a teaching aid did not exist. Thescience worksheet system came complete with a teacher's guide, including sugges-tions for the sequencing and timing of topics. In these circumstances some teachersmay be inclined to follow the system routinely, rather than develop their ownapproach suited to their particular circumstances.

Novice and Experienced Teachers

The same high correlation (r=0-88) between choices held for novice teachers (lessthan two years' experience) compared with more experienced teachers. Nonetheless,three items of difference appeared. Novices were more concerned about thepreparation of schemes of work (p<0-01), teaching the least able and problems ofclass discipline (p<0-05). Such concerns are precisely what might be expected: withexperience, these areas tend to become more or less automatic. Looking at therankings, it is also clear that experienced teachers rated aims and objectives, use oftests and lesson preparation (p<0-05) as more important than did the novices. Anitem of great importance to the former group was that of curriculum development.

Across the Countries

Finally, subject to the qualifications which are discussed below, a comparison maybe made between the items ranked highly by the United Kingdom and Botswanateachers. This is most certainly a somewhat dubious exercise; after all, the mostglaring difference between teachers in Botswana and the United Kingdom is thatthe former are required to teach in a medium which for most is a second or eventhird language. Nonetheless, we find that, in common with educators in the UnitedKingdom, the teachers were very concerned with lesson presentation and discipline.The three items which were ranked distinctly lower in Botswana, namely question-ing skills, practical organisation and demonstration technique, may reflect the waythe worksheet system has come to dominate junior secondary science classes. The'pupil-centred' recipe-type worksheet hardly requires a demonstration method to beemployed, and if pupils 'are working at their own pace', it might happen thatteacher-whole class verbal interaction is diminished.

Space was also provided on the questionnaires for 'other comments'. Somerespondents took advantages of this, and a point made by a number of teachers wasthe desire to pursue further studies. Many also suggested that pre-service teachingpractice should be longer in duration and occur more than once in a givenprogramme. By comparison with the present length of teaching practice in theUnited Kingdom, the six weeks' duration in Botswana was very short indeed.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

Some of the above findings are hardly surprising: for example, one might anticipate

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10 M.J. Kahn

certain differences of emphasis between experienced teachers and novice teacherswho have yet to find their feet. Equally unsurprising is the choice of items by theTEO group: these are mainly general teaching skills which constitute the art andcraft of the business.

Where the survey has been useful is in detecting the strong emphasis given byteachers to seeking aid to deal with the problem of teaching the least able. In thissense the teachers may well be ahead of the thinking of the professionals. What ismore, identification of this problem runs counter to the prevailing wisdom. Afterall, access to secondary education is by selection test at the end of the seven-yearprimary school cycle. In theory, therefore, more academically able pupils, not lessacademically able pupils, are the future clientele of teacher trainees. Accordingly, itis a concern for teaching more able pupils which might be expected to be voiced bythe teachers.

However, it may be argued there are other factors at work in determining accessto secondary education, and the simple equation of high achievement on theselection test equalling a school place is not strictly true. One obvious factordetermining access is prowess in English, which is a second or even third languagefor pupils. Such fluency has strong correlation with socio-economic status, and is initself no guarantor of high ability. Thus the secondary school population is moreheterogeneous than selection testing might suggest. The teachers, having themselvesleft the classroom as pupils more recently than the TEOs, may be rather moreattuned to such varied pupil characteristics. The clear implication of the trainees'perception is that pre-service courses ought to give more consideration to thisimportant area.

The identification of teaching the less academically able as a key objective of pre-service training is a valuable finding of this survey, and is part of a dialoguebetween teachers and tutors which has recently begun to emerge in Botswana.Previously, the absence of such exchange corresponded to what Dove (1986, p. 246)has called "gaps between theoretical studies and experience of practical teaching".Where the education system offers in-service developmental opportunities, as isnow the case in Botswana, survey findings such as those above are not necessarilyacademic exercises, but may influence training policy and provision.

At this point it is worth mentioning a covert aspect of the survey. Numerousteachers who took part later expressed positive views about being consulted for thisfeedback. Such views might not be forthcoming in a rather more blas6 cadre, andcharacterise the Botswana situation, where the education community is still rela-tively close-knit.

The concern for the place of science/maths in society, which was so highly ratedby teachers, is also interesting: it is suggested that this reveals something regardingtheir self-image, namely that science and mathematics teachers ought to be valuedmore highly than they presently are. This speculation is strengthened by thefindings of another survey (Kahn, 1988a), which indicated that trainee scienceteachers had a somewhat 'ivory tower' attitude towards their subject. The same isimplied in the response to department organisation, also ranked far higher by thecadre than by the TEOs. It is in school departments that the cadre works, andwithin which it realises some of its self-esteem and status. If departments are poorlyorganised, these aspects (along with many others) clearly suffer. Further research isneeded in this area.

The differences between the viewpoints of science and mathematics have been

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Pre-service Teacher Education in Botswana 11

traced to actual curriculum practice, and it is suggested that these arise from thevery different ways in which these two subjects are taught. These findings must beplaced in perspective alongside the sense of disquiet regarding discovery methodworksheet approaches which has been voiced in recent years (Johnstone, 1983;Mayer, 1985). However, this does not necessarily mean that the worksheet systemyields 'poor' results. In recent years, attainment by pupils in the integrated scienceexaminations has been satisfactory by comparison with other subjects (Kahn,1988b). Furthermore, given that 50% of science teachers in the Botswana schoolsare expatriates, with consequent high turnover, the worksheet system serves a usefulco-ordinating function. In addition, the language difficulties for both pupil andteacher may be reduced by the use of such teaching aids. What is to be avoided,however, is the slavish use of the system without creative thought by the teacher.

This survey has shown that, while the overall correlation between what teachersand tutors want out of pre-service education is high, there are significant differencesof emphasis which warrant consideration in the design of pre-service educationprogrammes. It is suggested that, despite the small size of the sample, usefulinformation has been gained from the exercise. This poses the immediate questionas to how the information may be used to effect change. An obvious way, and onewhich has already been taken, is to ensure that the findings reach the practitionersinvolved. In the highly centralised education system of Botswana, change from thecentre is actually possible. Fortunately, there are two vehicles through which thismay occur the internal review of courses, mentioned above, and a recently initiatedprogramme of in-service education workshops.

Acknowledgements

Thanks for useful discussions are due to the present and former staff members ofthe Faculty of Education, University of Botswana, Professor D. Rubadiri, Dr G.Kibria and Revd D. Lindfield, and to the University for funding this research. Aspecial vote of gratitude must go to all those educators who took the time tocomplete the questionnaire.

Correspondence: Michael J. Kahn, Faculty of Education, University of Botswana,Private Bag 0022, Gaborone, Botswana.

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12 M. J. Kahn

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