AJCJ, Vol. Xlll, No. 1 (1988)

TEACHING CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESEARCH: AN EXPERIENTIAL MODEL

LARRY S. MILLER and MICHAEL C. BRASWELL East T e n n e s s e e State Univers i ty

ABSTRACT

Teaching research methods to undergraduate criminal jusl~e students typically has been viewed as problematic. Students often experience considerable anxiety concerning required research c o u r s e s and frequently lack the motivation to learn and appreciate the usefulness of research. Experienlial case studies have been successfully utilized to teach criminal juslice students the application of theory in practical situations. An evaluation of the experiential model was made in a post-test only conlxol group research design with two groups of criminal justice research students. The results of the comparison supported the experiential approach and showed greater success utilizing this method over a b'adil~onal teaching method.

INTRODUCTION

Many higher educational institutions offering social science courses require some type of research methods and/or statistics courses in their curricula. Many students approach research courses with apprehension, anxiety and even fear (Hagan, 1982; Brown & Curtis, 1987). Students typically view such courses as obstacles to completion of degree requirements and would not select such courses as electives (Brown, 1982). There is some indication that the reason many students select criminal justice as their major is due to the avoidance of required math courses in other disciplines (Tobias, 1980).

Despite the apprehension many students experience, the mathematical component of research courses is not necessarily what makes the courses difficult. In many cases it is the logical component (scientific method) of research that makes the course incomprehensible. As the scientific method of research is founded upon philosophical logic, many students are ill prepared for logical thinking. Many criminal justice courses are either devoted to memorization of rules and procedures or utilized as a forum for

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debating issues. While these learning techniques are essential aspects of social science education, they are at the expense of necessary analytical skills (Brown, 1982).

There is considerable debate as to how much research skills and of what type should be taught for undergraduate criminal justice students (Caine, et al., 1978; Lundgren & Fawcett, 1980). By in large, an applied approach appears to be the most appropriate (Brown, 1982).

Some student reluctance in taking research courses may be the unanticipated application of such knowledge to the field. Many students fail to see the relevance of research courses in their chosen vocation (Brown & Curtis, 1987). Students may be reluctant to recognize the need for research skills or understand the application of the scientific method in the criminal justice profession. With the progression of the notion that criminal justice practitioners are professionals, the lack of ability to understand related research and the potential contribution to the literature falls short of professionalism. All professionals are expected to read and critique relevant research literature if not contribute to it. Consequently, undergraduate students should be able to critically read and understand the research literature pertaining to their profession. Teaching research courses requires not only a balance of this application; but an understanding of the need for such coursework.

EXPERIENTIAL CASE STUDY METHOD

Case studies have been used in a number of educational and professional disciplines as a means of enhancing the learning process (Green, 1976; Crawford, 1977; Taylor, 1978; Mills, 1980). The experiential case study method differs from other forms of case study learning approaches in that the student develops a workable course of action or solution to the problem from relevant educational and practical experiences. While problem-solving case studies is a traditional form of instruction, the primary use appears to be in the teaching of skills rather than application of theory and concepts.

While many criminal justice educators attempt to bridge the gap between theory and practice, many of these attempts are limited to providing examples or illustrations of cases in class. The experiential teaching model goes a step further by providing a structured practical case example in which the student becomes involved, evaluates the situation, recognizes and applies knowledge learned in the academic context, and develops a workable solution to the problem.

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The experiential case study method can contribute three important qualities to the behavior and attitude of the criminal justice student. The first quality is one of "realism." Realism of the cases supports the relevance of research needs to students. Students, when shown how research skills will affect their profession, are more likely to understand the relevance of such knowledge. Empathy is the second quality of the experiential case study method. The interpersonal value of "empathy" is well documented (Rogers, 1951; Heck & David, 1973; Emener & Dowd, 1977). By allowing the student to become hypothetically involved in the experience itself, a greater sense of participation results.

This quality allows for greater student awareness of personal and circumstantial interactions. As a result, the student discrimination process is greatly improved regarding situations he/she is likely to encounter. The third quality that the experiential case study method encourages the student to demonstrate is "initiative." Once the student understands a case scenario, the student must initiate a solution to the problem. In many research courses, the student is provided with all necessary information and is only required to work out the research problem mathematically. Initiative within the experiential case study method requires the student to plan out the research steps themselves then provide the mathematical conclusions. The student in this way "experiences" the research method. The experiential case study method has shown significant success in teaching behavioral and social theory courses in criminal justice (Miller & Braswell, 1986). By applying experiential case studies to those courses endowed with social theory (management theory, counseling, crises intervention, ethics, etc.), students recognize the usefulness of such theory in their chosen profession. While research courses are more technical in nature, students seem to have the same problem with course relevance to practice. The experiential case study method may increase the student's awareness of the relevance of such coursework in the profession as well as enabling the student to learn these applications more readily than traditional teaching methods allow.

METHOD

Subiects. Two groups of criminal justice junior and senior level students were selected to test the hypothesis that research methods and statistics are more readily learned using experiential case study methods. The students were enrolled in two separate sections of a required criminal justice research course. Section 1 (Group 1) was designated as the experiential group (N = 32) and the second section (Group 2) was designated the control group (N = 34).

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ApParatus. Four examinations were prepared to test knowledge and to be averaged for a final grade in each of the two classes. The examinations were based on text readings and class lectures and discussions. The text selected for the course was entitled Research Methods and Statistics: A Primer for Criminal Justice and Related Science~; (Hy, Feig, Regoli, (1983). Exam number one and the final examination were application only and contained no problem-solving exercises or equations requiring students to perform any mathematical function. Examinations two and three consisted of a combination of application questions and problem-working exercises. The final exam was comprehensive.

In addition to the four examinations, each student in both groups was required to complete eight homework assignments providing examples of problem-solving exercises. The students in the experiential section (Group 1) were provided with experiential case study homework assignments (see Appendix A for two examples). The control group (Group 2) were provided with standard homework problems.

The standard homework assignments consisted of statistical problems where data were provided to the control group students. These standard (traditional) homework problems stressed the mathematical component of statistics rather than having the students think through the problem itself. This was the main difference between the control group and the experiential group homework assignments. The experiential student group were required to evaluate the need for statistical analyses, determine the best approach in design and even be aware of the political effects of research. In other words, the experiential group were required to look at the "whole picture" of research rather than just a little piece of it.

Procedures. Both sections of students were provided with the same basic lectures and text material. Group 1 was provided with more discussion covering the experiential homework assignments. Both sections received identical examinations. The instructional emphasis for both sections was on application of research methods and statistics over the actual problem-working and mathematical calculations of statistical analyses. The experiential homework assignments for Group 1 particularly stressed this aspect.

A Student's t test for independent samples and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis. Exam number 1 for both groups was subjected to the Student's t test to determine if an inherent difference existed between the experiential treatment Group 1 and the Control Group 2. The final comprehensive examination for both groups was subjected to the

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Student's t test to test the hypothesis that the experiential group would produce higher test scores than the control group. ANOVA was utilized to examine differences between the four examination scores for the experiential group (Group 1) and for the control group (Group 2).

RESULTS

The two groups of students were similarly comparable in terms of their inherent knowledge of research methods and statistics. As the~ data in Table 1 indicate, the scores on examination number 1 were not significantly different for the two groups (~-1 = 65.88; -~- 2 = 65.06; t = 0.19). The first examination covered application material during the first three weeks of class. No homework assignments were provided during this period. Group 1 did produce significantly higher scores on the final examination than Group 2 (~-1 = 75.31; Y-2 = 68.24; 12 < .024, one-tailed test). Such a result indicated the experiential teaching method may have contributed to the higher scores for Group 1.

TABLE 1 Comparison of First and Final Exam Mean Scores

of Experiential Treatment Group and Control Group

Treatment Group 1 (N = 32)

.~ Std. Dev.

Exam 1 68.875 17.590

Final Exam 75.313 14.490

Control Group 2 (N = 34)

X Std. Dev. t-statistic

Exam 1 65.059 17.227 0.19

Final Exam 68.235 14.037 2.02"

"Significant at 0.024 level (one-tailed probability).

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One-way ANOVA was used to examine the differences in test scores within each group. While the scores on the four examinations indicated a general improvement for most students in both groups, no significant differences were noted. As Table 2 indicates, there was no significant difference between the four examinations for Group 1 (F = 2.27, 12 > .08) nor for Group 2 (F = 0.41, p_ > .74). As examinations number two and three contained problem-working mathematical functions as well as application questions, two new scores were produced controlling for the problem-solving questions. Since the instruction stressed the application of research and statistics, a closer inspection of these scores seemed warranted. After controlling for the problem-working questions for examinations two and three, a significant difference was noted for Group 1 (experiential group). Table 2 depicts that Group 1 produced significantly increasing scores for application learning than Group 2 (F1 = 7.40, 12 <.001; F2 = 0 .39 , 12 > .76) . A Newman-Keuls multiple comparison test also confirmed (12 < .05).

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TABLE 2

Comparison of Exam Mean Scores of Experiential Treatment Group and Control Group

Source of Degrees of Mean Variation Freedom Square

Group 1 Among 3 476.61 all exams Within 124 210.22

Adj. total 127

Group 2 Among 3 86.38 all exams Within 132 209.73

Adj. total 135

Group 1 Among 3 1604.70 all exams Within 124 216.79 control for Adj. total 127 problems

Group 2 Among 3 87.61 all exams Within 132 226.55 control for Adj. total 135 problems

F Ratio Probability

Group 1 2.27 0.084 all exams

Group 2 0.41 0.745 all exams

Group 1 all exams con- trol for problems

7.40 0.000

Group 2 all exams con- trol for problems

0.39 0.763

Note: A Newman-Keuls multiple comparison test was also conducted between the uncontrolled exams (application questions and problems) and the same exams controlling for problem-working questions with significant results indicated for the experiential group (~ < .05).

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The findings suggest that the experiential instructional method was largely responsible for the significant differences in scores. While there were no differences in both group's scores on working of statistical problems, there were significant differences in scores on the application of such methods and statistical analyses. Group 1, with significantly higher applications test scores, indicated a greater propensity for applying such methods and statistics in a practical manner than Group 2.

DISCUSSION

The two student groups were provided with the same basic instruction on research methods and statistics with the exception of the experiential case study method. While students in both groups performed similarly in mathematical calculations on examinations, the experiential group performed significantly better on application of research methods as reflected in test scores.

The eight homework assignments provided the experiential group stressed the application of research methods and statistics over the mathematical component. The examinations for both groups were standard application questions and problem-solving mathematical exercises. While neither group performed exceptionally well on the math problems of the exams, the experiential group was better able to apply the methods taught in class in a practical situation. It is felt that application of research methods is far more important than the mathematical component in criminal justice research. With the availability of calculators, computers and software packages (e.g., SPSS, SYSTAT, SAS, etc.), is not as important for students to know how to apply a mathematical solution to a problem. Knowing what to ask seems to be more important than how to ask. The experiential case study method appears, from these data, to be appropriate in instructing students what to ask (application) rather than how to ask (mathematical functions).

Although not systematically measured, students in the experiential group seemed to better understand the reality of research needs in their chosen profession than did the control group. Often students will return to their research instructors after graduation or a field experience internship to state how they now feel research helped them in their jobs. Often, the same students indicate how they wished they had learned more about the applicability of research in criminal justice.

Feedback provided by students in the experiential group indicated they felt research was more important in criminal justice than they had originally realized. Most criminal justice students

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feel such courses of instruction will not benefit them in the "real world." The control group was not able to perceive the usefulness of research skills for future employment. Many in the control group felt cops and probation counselors do not need these skills. The experiential group seemed to realize that at least knowing what research is would benefit them in practice. Many of the students in the experiential group indicated they could at least read research articles and critically analyze those articles. Many students seem to avoid reading articles with "a lot of tables" and refer to less scholarly publications for information. If criminal justice is a profession, then students should not stop learning about their profession after graduation. One student in the experiential group stated, "1 would not want to go to a physician who has not read a medical journal since becoming a doctor." Using an experiential teaching approach may well encourage students to not avoid research but to utilize it as another tool for their profession.

REFERENCES

Braswell, M. & Meeks, R. and family therapist: Thera0v, 9:29-33.

(1982) The police officer as a marriage A discussion some issues. Family

Brown, S. (1982) Research methods and criminal justice curricula: Surmounting the obstacles. Criminal Justice Review, 7:11-16.

Brown, S. & Curtis, J. (1987) Fundamentals of criminal justice resear(;:h. Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Co.

Caine, R., Centa, D., Doruff, C., Horowitz, J. & Wisenbaker, V. (1978) Statistics from whom? Teaching Sociology. 6:37-45.

Crawford, D. (1977) Cases and materials: Evidence for police. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America.

Emener, W. & Dowd, T. (1977) Empathy and the conning client. Journal of Humanic~, (May):28-36.

Goldstein, A. (1977) Police (;:risis intervention. Kalamazoo, MI: Behaviordelia

Green, E. (1976) Phvscholoav for law enforcement. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Hagan, F. (1982) Research methods in criminal !ustice and criminoloav. New York: Macmillan.

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Heck, E. & Davis, C. (1973) in a counseling analogue. 20:19-26.

Differential expression of empathy Journal of Counseling Psvcology,

Hy R., Feig, D., & Regoli, R. (1983) Research methods and statistics: A primer for criminal justice and related sciences. Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Co.

Lundgren, T. & Fawcett, R. (1980) Statistics from statisticians. Teaching Sociologv, 7:191-207.

Miller, L. & Braswell, M. (1986) studies in police education: Ju~;tice Review, Fall.

The utility of experiential case A comparative analysis. Criminal

Mills, R. (1980) Offender assessment: A casebook in corrections. Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Co.

Parker, L. & Meier, R. (1975) Interpersonal psycholoQv for law enforcement and corrections. St. Paul, MN: West

Rogers, C. (1951) Client-centeredtherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Co.

Russel, M. & Biegel, A. (1976) Understanding human behavior for effective law enforcement. New York: Basic Books.

Taylor, M. (1978) A computer simulation of innovative decision- making in organizations. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America.

Tobias, S. (1980) Overcoming math anxiety. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Co.

APPENDIX A

You have recently been assigned to the Planning & Research Unit of the Metro Police Department. The promotion from patrol after six years was a surprise to you. You applied for the position because it was plain-clothes duty and the only promotion position currently available. "An easy step into criminal investigations," you thought to yourself. Your recent graduation from the nearby university with a Bachelor's degree in Criminal Justice certainly did not hurt your being selected for promotion.

The Planning & Research Unit is a small group of officers under the command of the Deputy Chief for Administrative Services. Their primary purpose is to collect data on every aspect

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of the police department's operations from investigations to personnel management to intelligence gathering. "A boring, no-action job," you told yourself.

Your job is to design and implement evaluations of departmental operations for future policy planning. While in school you had taken a couple of required research courses which covered these types of evaluations. Although you made B's in the courses, you now wish you had kept your textbooks and notes. You really didn't understand the importance of research skills for criminal justice at that time. After all, you were going to be a cop, not a research statistician.

As you sit at your new desk glancing over the IBM-PC computer manual in front of you, your Lieutenant interrupts your daydreams. "Hello Sergeant. That new title sounds pretty good doesn't it? . . . . Sure Does Lieutenant. It's been a long time coming," you state.

"Well, I wanted to welcome you on-board and get you started. I've got a couple of assignments already lived up for you," your Lieutenant comments as he places several file folders on your desk.

"You certainly don't waste time letting a guy get his feet wet," you state thumbing through the folders.

"Time's something we don't have much of around here. Everybody wants an answer now--not tomorrow. Makes our job even harder. Those files need to be worked on as soon as possible," your Lieutenant responds.

As you glance through the file folders you note that they concern a wide range of topics. One is on police patrol productivity with police vehicles, one is on a new training program and one is on developing a prediction formula for criminal investigations. "Might as well start on one," you state reluctantly.

Assignment #1: Police Patrol Productivity and Feasibility of "Take-Home" Patrol Cars.

Recent criticisms have been encountered by the Chief's office on the use of several patrol personnel having assigned take-home cars while others are using fleet cars. The question is: Should the department assign take-home cars for patrol personnel or should the practice be banned? The current policy on patrol officers being assigned take-home cruisers is only that they live over a certain number of miles from the station-house. Therefore, the department has 100 patrol officers (non-supervisory rank) with

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take-home cars and 300 patrol officers (non-supervisory rank) without take-home cars. Research literature in a number of police journals have indicated that take-home cars result in fewer accidents, lower maintenance costs and expenses than fleet vehicles. Attached you will find training, productivity, financial, maintenance, expense, and accident data on all these 400 patrol officers and their vehicles.

1. What questions would you ask about this problem? How would you got about answering the question in a scientific research manner?

2. Develop a research design by formulating a (one) hypothesis, identifying and operationalizing the variables and a methodology.

. What types of data would you require, where would you obtain them and what level of data would they be? (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio).

4. What statistical test(s) would you select and why?

. If you were to work out this problem and found significance, what conclusions would you make? What other research questions might arise from the findings? What questions would the Chief have about your findings? Would there be any political implications about the findings?

EXAMPLE 2

You are counselor with a local community services agency. The agency uses federal and state grants to implement various projects in the community including alcohol and drug rehabilitation, rape crisis centers, and juvenile probation services. You were hired shortly after your graduation from college. Your career goal is to work in juvenile justice as a counselor and took this job because it would give you experience and strengthen your credentials.

The agency was awarded a state grant for drug and alcohol prevention among high school students. Since you were primarily responsible for writing the particulars of the grant, you are project director. From several of your courses at college and from reading journal articles on drug and alcohol use and prevention among high school students, you felt the best approach for prevention would be peer pressure; similar to the "just say no" approach. You felt that if the students did not think drugs and alcohol were "cool" they

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would avoid using them. You also knew that peer pressure would be better than lectures from adults. You designed the prevention program as students led small group discussions regarding the dangers of alcohol and drug abuse. It is an innovative approach, but one you felt sure would work. Your job is to organize the discussions, provide educational material and report on the success or failure of the program to state authorities.

Before the discussions began, you prepared an opinion questionnaire with a "cool scale." The statements on the questionnaire were designed to determine how "cool" drug and alcohol use is considered by high school students. The scale ranged from 0 (least cool) to 50 (most cool) for each of the 100 statements. You administered the questionnaire to the participants before the group discussions began and found most believed occasional use of drugs and alcohol was OK (cool).

Seven months into the program, your supervisor calls you in to her office.

"Jane, I just had a call from a member of the school board. Apparently there has been some discussion regarding the intervention program you're conducting at the high school. Some parents are complaining that the kids are learning how to use drugs and alcohol instead of avoiding them. Also, that the kids should spend their time in classes rather than in "rap sessions."

"Helen, that's crazy. I've seen some real changes in those kids' attitudes since we started this program. The peer group discussions seem to really be changing their opinions toward drugs and alcohol." You respond. "What evidence do you have that your program is working? Something I can take to the school board for proof?" Helen asks.

"1 conducted an opinion questionnaire before the program began and found the kids didn't think there was a problem with drugs and alcohol. In fact, they thought it was "cool" to use drugs and alcohol. Now they're talking about how "uncool" it is." You state.

"Well, I'm with you, but rye got to answer the parents and the school board's questions. I need some hard facts that your program works, not just your opinion. I hate to cancel your program and try something else, but we may have no choice. I know your program has probably changed student attitudes for the better, but has it been significant? I mean, if the program changes the attitudes of a few students and does little for the majority, I can't see continuing the group discussions. The school board

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believes they should be in class learning about drug and alcohol abuse from a health teacher." Helen responds.

"Helen, I'll try to come up with some concrete evidence to prove my point," you state.

1. Develop a research design by formulating a hypothesis, identifying and operationalizing the variables and a methodology.

2. What type of statistical data could you obtain and what level would it be (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)?

3. What type of instrument would be needed to generate these data?

4. What statistical tests would you select and why?

5. If you were to work out this problem and found significance, what conclusions would you make? Would you have the concrete evidence you need for the school board? What limitations in the study could you identify?

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