Teorii Ale Instruirii

8/20/2019 Teorii Ale Instruirii

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Teorii ale instruirii

-documentar –

PROF.UNIV DR. ION NEGREȚ-DOBRIDOR

1. PRINCIPIILE , TEORIILE I TEORETICIENII

DE!IGNULUI IN!TRUCȚION"L

Basic Principles

Objectivism/Behaviorism

Cognitivism/Pragmatism

Constructivism/Interpretivism

Learning happens when acorrect response isdemonstrated following thepresentation of a specificenvironmental stimulus

Learning can be detected

by observing an organismover a period of time

Emphasis is on observableand measurable behaviors

Uses a "black box"metaphor - the learner is ablack box, what happensinside is unknown

Emphasis is on

relationships betweenenvironmental variablesand behavior

Instruction utiliesconse!uences andreinforcement of learnedbehaviors

elieves behavior is guidedby purpose

#ues are antecedents tobehavior and set the

Learning is a change ofknowledge state

$nowledge ac!uisition isdescribed as a mentalactivity that entailsinternal coding and

structuring by the learner

Learner is viewed as anactive participant in thelearning process

Emphasis is on thebuilding blocks ofknowledge %e&g&identifying prere!uisiterelationships of content'

Emphasis on structuring,organiing and se!uencinginformation to facilitateoptimal processing

(ocus is on how learnersremember, retrieve, andstore information inmemory

Examines the mentalstructure and processes

related to learning

Learners build personalinterpretation of the world basedon experiences and interactions

$nowledge is embedded in thecontext in which it is used%authentic tasks in meaningful

realistic settings'

#reate novel and situation-specific understandings by"assembling" knowledge fromdiverse sources appropriate tothe problem at hand %flexibleuse of knowledge'

elieves that there are manyways %multiple perspectives' ofstructuring the world and its

entities

elieves that meaning isimposed by the individual ratherthan existing in the worldindependently

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conditions for its occurence

Learning is viewed as anactive process that occurswithin the learner andwhich can be influenced

by the learner

)he outcome of learning isnot only dependent onwhat the teacher presentsbut also on what thelearner does to processthis information&

Embedded Theories %)*+'




+avlovs #lassical#onditioning

kinners *perant#onditioning

timulus-.esponse )heory

)horndikes Laws and#onnectionism

Information +rocessing

#omponent /isplay)heory

/ual #oding )heory

Elaboration )heory

0estalt )heory

1ental 1odels

chema )heory

ubsumption )heory

#ognitive (lexibility )heory

0enerative Learning )heory

$nowledge as )ools

ituated #ognition

ocial-#ultural Learning

Principal Theorists %)*+'




andura

+avlov

kinner

)horndike

2nderson

2usubel

0ardner

0agn3

1errill

4orman

ransford and the #)05

runer

/ewey

0rabinger

Lave 6 7enger

+apert

2

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/models_theories.htm#top

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#classicalconditioning


http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#test


http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#stimulusresponse

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#thorndike


http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#informationprocessing

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#componentdisplay


http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#dualcoding

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#elaboration

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#gestalttheory

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#mentalmodels

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#schema

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#subsumption

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#cognitiveflexibility

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#generativelearning

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#knowledgeastools

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#situatedcognition

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#socialculturallearning


http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#bandura

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#pavlov

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#skinner

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#thorndike

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#anderson

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#ausubel

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#gardner

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#gagne

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#merrill

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#rummelhartandnorman

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#bransford

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#bruner

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#dewey

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#grabinger

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#laveandwenger

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#papert





http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#stimulusresponse



http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#informationprocessing



http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#dualcoding

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#elaboration

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#gestalttheory

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#mentalmodels

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#schema

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#subsumption

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#cognitiveflexibility

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#generativelearning

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#knowledgeastools

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#situatedcognition

http://openpopwin%28%22theories.htm/#socialculturallearning


http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#bandura

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#pavlov

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#skinner

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#thorndike

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#anderson

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#ausubel

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#gardner

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#gagne

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#merrill


http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#bransford

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#bruner

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#dewey

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#grabinger

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#laveandwenger

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#papert




4ovak

.eigeluth

.ummelhart

+iaget

piro and colleagues

5ygotsky

Goals of Instruction %)*+'

Objectivism Cognitivism/Pragmatism Constructivism/Interpretivism

#ommunicateor transferbehaviorsrepresentingknowledge and

skills to thelearner %doesnot considermentalprocessing'

Instruction isto elicit thedesiredresponse fromthe learnerwho is

presented witha targetstimulus

Learner mustknow how toexecute theproperresponse aswell as theconditionsunder which

the response ismade

Learnerac!uires skillsofdiscrimination%recallingfacts',generaliation%defining andillustrating

concepts',association

#ommunicate or transferknowledge in the mostefficient, effective manner%mind-independent, can bemapped onto learners'

(ocus of instruction is tocreate learning or changeby encouraging the learnerto use appropriate learningstrategies

Learning results wheninformation is stored inmemory in an organied,meaningful way&

)eachers8designers areresponsible for assistinglearners in organiinginformation in an optimalway so that it can bereadily assimilated

uild personal interpretations ofthe world based on individualexperiences and interactions%constantly open to change,cannot achieve a predetermined,

"correct" meaning, knowledgeemerges in relevant contexts'

Learning is an active process ofconstructing rather than ac!uiringknowledge

Instruction is a process ofsupporting knowledgeconstruction rather thancommunicating knowledge

/o not structure learning for thetask, but engage learner in theactual use of the tools in realworld situations

Learning activities should beauthentic and should centeraround the 9problematic: or

9pulement: as perceived by thelearner

)he focus is on the process not

the product

.ole of teacher is a mentor not a 9teller:

Encourage reflective thinking,higher-order learning skills

Encourage testing viability ofideas and seeking alternativeviews

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http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#novak

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#reigeluth


http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#piaget

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#spiro

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#vygotsky


http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#novak

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#reigeluth


http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#piaget

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#spiro

http://openpopwin%28%22theorists.htm/#vygotsky




%applyingexplanations',and chaining%automatically

performing aspecifiedprocedure'&

Instructional Models %)*+'

Objectivism Cognitivism/Pragmatism Constructivism/Interpretivism

#omputer-

asedInstruction

#ontractLearning

IndividualiedInstruction

+rogrammedInstruction

Information+rocessing1odel

ystems2pproach

#ollins 6 tevens In!uiry

)eaching 1odel

$ellers 2.# 1odel of1otivation

1errill;s #omponent /isplay1odel

2ction Learning

2nchored Instruction

2uthentic Learning

#ase-ased Learning

#ognitive 2pprenticeship

#ognitive (lexibility <ypertext

#ollaborative Learning

#ommunities of +ractice

#omputer-upported IntentionalLearning Environments %#ILEs'

/iscovery Learning

/istributed Learning

Epistemic 0ames

0enerative learning

0oal-ased cenarios %0s'

In!uiry-ased Learning

1icroworlds8imulations

1**s and 1U/s

+roblem-ased Learning %+L'

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http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#computerbasedinstruction



http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#contractlearning


http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#individualizedinstruction


http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#programmedinstruction


http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#informationprocessing



http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#systemsapproach


http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#inquiryteaching


http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#ARCS


http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#CDM


http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#actionlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#anchoredinstruction

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#authenticlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#casebasedlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#cognitiveapprenticeship

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#cognitiveflexibility

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#collaborativelearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#communitiesofpractice

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#CSILES


http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#discoverylearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#distributedlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#epistemicgames

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#generativelearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#goalbasedscenarios

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#inquirybasedlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#microworlds_simulations

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#moosandmuds

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#problembasedlearning






















http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#actionlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#anchoredinstruction

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#authenticlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#casebasedlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#cognitiveapprenticeship

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#cognitiveflexibility

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#collaborativelearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#communitiesofpractice



http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#discoverylearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#distributedlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#epistemicgames

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#generativelearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#goalbasedscenarios

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#inquirybasedlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#microworlds_simulations

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#moosandmuds

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#problembasedlearning



.E2Ls

.eciprocal )eaching

ituated Learning

7eb=uest%s'

Implications for Instructional esign %)*+'




ehavioral ob>ectives

/ick 6 #arey instructionaldesign model

+erformance-basedassessment

ystems models

Events of Instruction

#ognitive ob>ectives

Learning strategies

Learning taxonomies%0agn3s intellectual skills'

+rere!uisite skills

)ask analysis

2uthentic assessment methods

Learning through exploration

+roblem-oriented activities

".ich" environments

5isual formats and mentalmodels

Computer!Based Instruction

#omputer-assisted instruction was first used in education and training during the ?@ABs&Early work was done by I1 and such people as 0ordon +ask, and *&1& 1oore, but #2Igrew rapidly in the ?@CBs when federal funding for research and development ineducation and industrial laboratories was implemented& )he U&& 0overnment wanted todetermine the possible effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction, so they developedtwo competing companies, %#ontrol /ata #orporation and 1itre #orporation' who cameup with the +L2)* and )I##I) pro>ects& /espite money and research, by the mid

seventies it was apparent that #2I was not going to be the success that people hadbelieved& ome of the reasons areD #2I had been oversold and could not deliver, lack ofsupport from certain sectors, technical problems in implementation, lack of !ualitysoftware, and high cost& #omputer-assisted instruction was very much drill-and-practice -controlled by the program developer rather than the learner& Little branching ofinstruction was implemented although )I##I) did allow the learner to determine these!uence of instruction or to skip certain topics&

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http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#reals

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#reciprocalteaching

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#situatedlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#webquests


http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#behavioralobjectives

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#dickandcareymodel


http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#performancebasedassessment


http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#systemsmodels

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#eventsofinstruction

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#cognitiveobjectives

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#learningstrategies

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#learningtaxonomies


http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#prerequisiteskills

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#taskanalysis

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#authenticassessment

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#learningthroughexploration

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#problemorientedactivities

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#richenvironments

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#visualformats


http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#reals

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#reciprocalteaching

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#situatedlearning

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#webquests


http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#behavioralobjectives





http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#systemsmodels

http://openpopwin%28%22models.htm/#eventsofinstruction

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#cognitiveobjectives

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#learningstrategies



http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#prerequisiteskills

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#taskanalysis

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#authenticassessment

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#learningthroughexploration

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#problemorientedactivities

http://openpopwin%28%22implications.htm/#richenvironments





Contract "earning

#ontract learning involves the use of contingency contracts, which define the terminalbehavior the student is to achieve and conditions for achievement and conse!uences forcompletion or non-completion of the assigned task%s'& )he contingency contract ismutually agreed upon by teacher and student after negotiations& #ontract learning isoften used in open educational systems in which students from various grade levels sharein learning activities&

#ontract learning can also be useful in a college setting& 2ccording to $nowles, %?@@?, p&@' "#ontract learning is, in essence, an alternative way of structuring a learningexperienceD It replaces a content plan with a process plan&" (or more information on theconcept of contract learning and adult learning theory, visithttpD88www&msu&edu8user8codde>os8contract&htm&

#odde, F& .& %?@@C'& Using learning contracts in the college classroom& .etrieved 2ugust?@, GBBG, from 1ichigan tate University, Educational )echnology #ertificate +rogram7eb siteD httpD88www&msu&edu8user8codde>os8contract&htm

/riscoll, 1& %GBBB'& Psychology of learning for instruction& 4eedham <eights, 12D 2llyn 6acon&

Individuali#ed Instruction

imilar to programmed learning and teaching machines individualied instruction beganin the early ?@BBs, and was revived in the ?@CBs& )he $eller +lan, Individually +rescribedInstruction, +rogram for Learning in 2ccordance with 4eeds, and Individually 0uidedEducation are all examples of individualied instruction in the U&& %aettler, ?@@B'&

Programmed Instruction

2fter experimental use of programmed instruction in the ?@GBs and ?@Bs, & (& kinnerand F&0& <olland first used programmed instruction in behavioral psychology courses at<arvard in the late ?@ABs& Use of programmed instruction appeared in elementary and

secondary schools around the same time& 1uch of the programmed instruction in2merican schools was used with individuals or small groups of students and was moreoften used in >unior high schools than senior or elementary schools %aettler, ?@@B'&

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http://www.msu.edu/user/coddejos/contract.htm






Early use of programmed instruction tended to concentrate on the development ofhardware rather than course content& #oncerned developers moved away from hardwaredevelopment to programs based on analysis of learning and instruction based on learningtheory& /espite these changes, programmed learning died out in the later part of the?@CBs because it did not appear to live up to its original claims %aettler, ?@@B'&

$%stem &pproach

)he systems approach developed out of the ?@ABs and ?@CBs focus on language

laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations andthe use of the computer in instruction& 1ost systems approaches are similar to computerflow charts with steps that the designer moves through during the development ofinstruction& .ooted in the military and business world, the systems approach involvedsetting goals and ob>ectives, analying resources, devising a plan of action andcontinuous evaluation8modification of the program& %aettler, ?@@B'

Collins ' $tevens In(uir% Teaching Model

#ollins #ognitive )heory of In!uiry )eaching is a prescriptive model, primarily ocratic innature, meaning that it relies upon a dialectic process of discussion, !uestions andanswers that occurs between the learner and instructor& )he process is guided in order toreach the predetermined ob>ectives, which are described in this theory as teacher goalsand subgoals& Ultimately, the learners will discover "how to learn"&

)eacher goals and subgoals is one of three main portions of #ollins theory& )he second isthe strategies used to realie said goals and subgoals and the third is the controlstructure for selecting and pursuing the different goals and subgoals&

rooks , #& E& %n&d&'. Cognitive theory of inquiry teaching& .etrieved eptember ?B,GBBG, from University of 2rkansas, Educational )echnology /epartment 7eb siteDhttpD88comp&uark&edu8Hbrooks8cognitive&html

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http://comp.uark.edu/~brooks/cognitive.html

http://comp.uark.edu/~brooks/cognitive.html



Events of Instruction/Conditions of "earning

Events of Instruction

+reparation for Learning?& 2ttending - gain learners attentionG& Expectancy - inform learner of ob>ectives& .etrieval - recall relevant information and8or skills to working memory or stimulaterecall of prior learning&

2c!uisition and +erformance& elective perception - remembering stimulus features, distinctive features&A& emantic encoding - provide learning guidanceC& .etrieval and responding - elicit a performanceJ& .einforcement - provide informative feedback

.etrieval and )ransferK& #ueing retrieval - assess performance@& 0eneraliing - applying learning to a new situation

arba, .& %?@@J'& Events of instruction (Robert Gagne)& .etrieved eptember ?B, GBBG,from an Fos3 University, #ollege of Education 7eb siteDhttpD88www&s>su&edu8depts8it8edit?KC8gagne&html

Information Processing Model

)his model represents information processing as a computer model& Informationprocessing easily relates to computer input-process-output& +rocessing informationinvolves subroutines or procedures& ubroutines are performed in a hierarchical mannerto complete tasks& (low of control can be diagrammed& Logic )heorist was a computerprogram by 4ewell, haw and imon %?@AA-CB' used to simulate the human process of

solving theorems in symbolic language& 2t the same time 1I), had a pattern recognitionprogram&

)here have been many computer models for human information processing& )wo types of information processing models are those dealing with simulation, or step by step, andthose that are dealing with artificial intelligence and are task driven& Logic )heoristemulated six human characteristics of problem-solving behavior&

Information process theory of learning& %n&d&'& .etrieved eptember ?B, GBBG, fromUniversity of 1issouri in #olumbia, )he #ollege of Education 7eb siteDhttpD88tiger&coe&missouri&edu8HtJJ8I+)heorists&html

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http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/it/edit186/gagne.html

http://tiger.coe.missouri.edu/~t377/IPTheorists.html

http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/it/edit186/gagne.html

http://tiger.coe.missouri.edu/~t377/IPTheorists.html



)eller*s &+C$ Model of Motivation

Fohn 1& $eller proposed four conditions that must be met for a learner to be motivated tolearn& 2ttention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction %2.#' are the conditions that,when integrated, motivate someone to learn& 1oreover, $eller suggests that the 2.#conditions occur as a se!uential process %/riscoll, ?@@, p& ?G'& )he conditions shouldbe sustained to keep the learner interested in the topic& *nce a learner;s attention is lost,motivation is lost, and learning does not occur& hneiderman %?@@K, p& GA' states that"memorable educational experiences are enriching, >oyful, and transformational&"1otivation theory argues that relevant phenomena fulfill personal needs or goals, whichenhances effort and performance %1eans, Fonassen, 6 /wyer, ?@@J'& <ow then can oneensure that the 2.# model remain active )he key is to vary the conditions to engagethe learner& ecause each component of $eller;s 2.# model builds upon the next model,the instructor should keep the four components in mind when designing instruction&

/riscoll, 1& %?@@'& Psychology of learning for instruction& 4eedham <eights, 12D 2llyn 6acon

(ernMnde, F& %?@@@'& ttribution theory an! "eller#s RC$ mo!el of motivation.

.etrieved eptember ?B, GBBG, from 0eorge 1ason University, 0raduate chool ofEducation, Instructional /esign 6 /evelopment Immersion +rogram 7eb siteDhttpD88chd&gse&gmu&edu8immersion8knowledgebase8strategies8cognitivism8kellerN2.#&htm

1eans, )&, Fonassen, /&, /wyer, (& %?@@J'& Enhancing relevanceD Embedded 2.#strategies vs& purpose& E!ucational %echnology Research an! &evelopment' , A-?J&

hneiderman, & %?@@K'& .elateO#reateO/onateD 2 teaching8learning philosophy for thecyber-generation& Computers * E!ucation' +,, GA-@&

Merrill*s Component ispla% Model

#/) specifies how to design instruction for any cognitive domain& #/) provides the basisfor the lesson design in the )I##I) computer based learning system %1errill, ?@KB'& Italso was the basis for the Instructional =uality +rofile, a !uality control tool forinstructional materials %1errill, .eigeluth 6 (aust, ?@J@'& (o example, if we weredesigning a complete lesson on e!uilateral triangles according to #/), it would have thefollowing minimum componentsD

Objective - /efine an e!uilateral triangle %.emember-Use'Generalit% - /efinition %attributes, relationships'

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http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/strategies/cognitivism/keller_ARCS.htm






Instance - Examples %attributes present, representations'Generalit% Practice - tate definitionInstance Practice - #lassify %attributes present',eedbac- - #orrect generalities8instancesElaborations - <elps, prere!uisites, context

If the generality was presented by an explanation or illustration, followed by practiceexamples, this would be an expository strategy %E0, Eeg'& *n the other hand, if thestudents were re!uired to discover the generality on the basis of practice examples, thiswould be an in!uisitory strategy %I0, Ieg'&

1errill, 1&/& %?@KB'& Learner control in computer based learning& Computers an!E!ucation' , JJ-@A&

$earsley, 0& %n&d&'& Component !isplay theory (-.&. -errill)& .etrieved eptember J,GBBG, from Explorations in Learning 6 InstructionD )he )heory Into +ractice /atabase7eb siteD httpD88home&sprynet&com8Hgkearsley8tip8merrill&html

&ction "earning

.eg .evans is considered the architect of action learning& Inglis %?@@' defined 2L as "a

process which brings people together to find solutions to problems and, in doing so,develops both the individuals and the organiation" %p& '& 2ccording to pence %?@@K',.evans loosely defined action learning as the process of learning "from and with peerswhile tackling real problems %*4eil and 1arsick ?@@'" %p& ?'& <owever, .evans %?@KB'also says that it is not >ust pro>ect work, >ob rotation, case studies or business games&2ccording to Inglish %?@@', action learning differs from these other methodologies in thefollowing ways&

• Learning is centered around the need to find a solution to a real problem&

• Learning is voluntary and learner driven&

• Individual development is as important as finding the solution to the problem&

• 2ction learning is a highly visible, social process, which may lead to organiational

change&

• 2ction learning takes time& 2s originally envisioned, an action learning program

would take -@ months, excluding implementation& %pence, ?@@K, p&?'

+roblem, set, client, set advisor, and process are the basic elements of action learning&)he following is a brief explanation of each element %pence, ?@@K'&

• Problem ! )he problem should be non-technical in nature and deal with either

strategic or tactical issues& )he outcome of the problem solutions must matter to

the participants& +articipants within a set may work on the same problem ordifferent problems&

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http://home.sprynet.com/~gkearsley/tip/merrill.html



• $et - 2 set of four to six action learners that solve the problem together& et

members should be competent and committed and come have a range ofexpertise&

• Client - )he owner of the problem& 1ay be a set member or sponsoring

organiation&

• $et &dvisor - )he group facilitator& )he set advisor explains the action learning

process and builds appropriate interpersonal skills& )his person also maintainsopen communication with the client& 2s the action learning progresses, setmembers may take on some of these responsibilities&

• Process - *bservation of the problem, reflection and hypothesis forming and

action&

2ction learning has been applied in many areas of adult education such as nursingeducation and human resource development graduate programs&

Inglis, & %?@@'& -aing the -ost of ction /earning. 2ldershot, EnglandD 0ower&

*4eil, F&, and 1arsick, 5& F& %?@@'& ecoming critically reflective through actionreflection learning )1& 0e1 &irections for !ult an! Continuing E!ucation no. 2+' ?J-G@&%EF @ GBB'&

.evans, . %?@KB'& ction learning3 0e1 techniques for management & LondonD lond 6riggs&

pence, F& %?@@K'& Practice application brief3 ction learning for in!ivi!ual an!organi4ational !evelopment PElectronic versionQ& %/eveloped with funding from the *fficeof Educational .esearch and Improvement, 4ational Library of Education, U&&

/epartment of Education, under #ontract 4o& ..@BBGBB?'& .etrieved 2ugust G, GBBG,from httpD88ericacve&org8docs8pabBBBB@&htm

&nchored Instruction

2nchored instruction is a ma>or paradigm for technology-based learning that has beendeveloped by #ognition 6 )echnology 0roup at 5anderbilt %#)05' under the leadership of Fohn ransford& 7hile many people have contributed to the theory and research ofanchored instruction, ransford is the principal spokesperson and hence the theory isattributed to him&

)he initial focus of the work was on the development of interactive videodisc tools thatencouraged students and teachers to pose and solve complex, realistic problems& )hevideo materials serve as "anchors" %macro-contexts' for all subse!uent learning an dinstruction& 2s explained by #)05 %?@@, pAG'D ")he design of these anchors was !uitedifferent from the design of videos that were typically used in education&&&our goal was tocreate interesting, realistic contexts that encouraged the active construct ion of

knowledge by l earners& *ur anchors were stories rather than lectures and were designedto be explored by students and teachers& " )he use of interactive videodisc technologymakes it possible for students to easily explore the content&

11

http://ericacve.org/docs/pab00009.htm

http://ericacve.org/docs/pab00009.htm



2nchored instruction is closely related to the situated learning framework %see #)05,?@@B, ?@@' and also to the #ognitive (lexibility theory in its emphasis on the use oftechnology-based learning&

#)05 %?@@B'& 2nchored instruction and its relationship to situated cognition& E!ucationalResearcher' ,5%C', G-?B&

#)05 %?@@'& 2nchored instruction and situated cognition revisted& E!ucational%echnology' ++%', AG- JB&

$earsley, 0& %n&d&'& nchore! Instruction (6ohn 7ransfor! * the C%G8)& .etrievedeptember J, GBBG, from Explorations in Learning 6 InstructionD )he )heory Into +ractice/atabase 7eb siteD httpD88tip&psychology&org8anchor&html

&uthentic "earning

2uthentic learning refers to the idea that learners should be presented to problems thatare realistic situations and found in everyday applications of knowledge %mith 6 .agan,?@@@'& 2uthentic learning is the type of learning promoted by anchored instruction, inwhich instruction is "anchored" in a realistic problem situation %#ognition and )echnology0roup, ?@@B'&

Roung %?@@', recommends the following test of "authenticity&" Learning situationsshould include some of the characteristics of real-life problem solving, including ill-structured complex goals& )here should also be an opportunity to distinguish between

relevant and irrelevant information& (inding and defining problems as well as solvingthem should be a generative process& (inally, students should engage in collaborativeactivities in which they draw upon their beliefs and values&

(or more information on 2uthentic Learning, visit )iffany 1aras %University of 1ichigan,2nn 2rbor' 7eb site, httpD88www-personal&umich&edu8Htmarra8authenticity8authen&html&

#ognition and )echnology 0roup& %?@@B'& 2nchored instruction and its relationship tosituated cognition& E!ucational Researcher' ,5%K', G-?B&

mith, +& and .agan, )& %?@@@'& Instructional !esign %Gnd ed&'& 4ew RorkD Fohn 7iley 6ons, Inc&

Roung, 1& %?@@'& Instructional design for situated learning& E!ucational %echnologyResearch * &evelopment' ,%?', -AK&

Case!Based "earning

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http://tip.psychology.org/anchor.html

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/models.htm#anchoredinstruction

http://www-personal.umich.edu/~tmarra/authenticity/authen.html

http://tip.psychology.org/anchor.html

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/models.htm#anchoredinstruction

http://www-personal.umich.edu/~tmarra/authenticity/authen.html



#ase-based learning using case studies to present learners with a realistic situation andre!uire them to respond as the person who must solve a problem %mith 6 .agan,?@@@'& In order to solve problems, learners select and manipulate several principles&2ccording to <udspeth and $nirk %?@K@',

2 complete case describes an entire situation and includes background information, the

actions and reactions of persons involved, the solution, and the possible conse!uences ofthe actions taken& #ase materials should have enough background information and detailto that they are readable and believable %p& ?'&

#ase-based learning is appropriate for learning to problem solve when there is no onecorrect solution, particularly with more complex ill-structured problems %mith 6 .agan,?@@@'& #ase studies can be written so that learners use more cognitive strategies as theyproceed through increasing levels of instruction& #ases were traditionally used inprofessional education to teach decision making skills, such as the <arvard usinesschool case approach& Use of case-based studies has also become widespread in the fieldof medical education&

(or an example of investigative case-based learning in biology, visithttpD88www&bio!uest&org8case@@&html&

<udspeth, /&, 6 $nirk, (&0& %?@@?'& #ase study materialsD trategies for design and use&Performance Improvement 9uarterly' :%', G&


Cognitive &pprenticeship

)he focus of this learning-through-guided-experience is on cognitive and metacognitiveskills, rather than on the physical skills and processes of traditional apprenticeships&2pplying apprenticeship methods to largely cognitive skills re!uires the externaliation ofprocesses that are usually carried out internally& *bserving the processes by which an

expert listener or reader thinks and practices these skills can teach students to learn ontheir own more skillfully %#ollins, rown, 4ewman, ?@K@, p& AJ-AK'& )his methodincludesD

?& Modeling - involves an experts carrying out a task so that student can observeand build a conceptual model of the processes that are re!uired to accomplish thetask& (or example, a teacher might model the reading process by reading aloud inone voice, while verbaliing her thought processes %summarie what she >ustread, what she thinks might happen next' in another voice&

G& Coaching - consists of observing students while they carry out a task and offeringhints, feedback, modeling, reminders, etc&

& &rticulation - includes any method of getting students to articulate theirknowledge, reasoning, or problem-solving processes&

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http://www.bioquest.org/case99.html

http://www.bioquest.org/case99.html



& +eflection - enables students to compare their own problem-solving processeswith those of an expert or another student&

A& E.ploration - involves pushing students into a mode of problem solving on theirown& (orcing them to do exploration is critical, if they are to learn how to frame!uestions or problems that are interesting and that they can solve %#ollins, rown,

4ewman, ?@K@, K?-KG'&

Cognitive ,le.ibilit% %perte.t

#ognitive (lexibility <ypertext %#(<' is a hypermedia learning environment that providesusers with several nonlinear paths of traversing content through the use of cases,themes, and multiple perspectives& 2 #(< supports exploration of an ill-structured %ill-defined' knowledge domain through multiple representations of the content, promotingflexible knowledge ac!uisition to enhance transfer to real-world contexts %Fonassen, /yer,+eters, .obinson, <arvey, $ing and Loughner, ?@@J'& )he 777 is an ideal medium fordesigning #(< due to its hyperlinking feature and access to widespread resources thatadd richness to content&

Collaborative "earning

#ollaborative learning, also called cooperative learning, is heavily emphasied in mostconstructivist approaches %.oblyer, Edwards, 6 <avriluk, ?@@C'& 2ctually, studentsworking in groups to solve problems achieves many goals that supporters of bothconstructivism and directed instruction consider to be important& )he #)05 finds that

collaborative learning is the best way to promote generative learning&

+erkins %?@@?' finds that collaborative learning demonstrates the notion of distributiveintelligence, which states that accomplishment is not a function of one person, but rathera group in which each contributes to the achievement of desired goals& #ooperativelearning is an ideal way for students to learn the skills that extend beyond the classroomof sharing responsibility and working together toward common goals& 2ccording to/riscoll %GBBB', collaboration also provides students with a way to understand point ofview outside their own& 2dvances in technology over the past several years have madecomputer-supported collaborative learning possible& 7eb-based technologies can makethinking more visible through virtual access to knowledge experts&

/riscoll, 1& %GBBB'& Psychology of learning for instruction& 4eedham <eights, 12D 2llyn 6acon&

14



+erkins, /& %?@@?'& )echnology meet constructivismD /o they make a marriageE!ucational %echnology' +,%A', ?K-G&

.oblyer, 1&/&, Edwards, F& 6 <avriluk, 1&2& %?@@C' Learning )heories and Integration1odels %#hapter '& In .oblyer, Edwards, 6 <avriluk, Integrating e!ucational technologyinto teaching& +rentice <all&

Communities of Practice

#ommunities of +ractice include learners and instructors who interact with one anotherand other experts via virtual spaces, to build a reciprocal interchange of ideas, data, andopinions& )ransformative styles of communication are characteristic, where thecontributor, participator and the lurker or receiver, are "changed" as they share in thegoal of learning and knowledge generation and application %7ilson 6 #ole, ?@@C'&

Computer!$upported Intentional "earning Environments 0C$I"Es1

Essentially, #ILE is a type of computer conference in which learners create communaldatabases entirely through person-to-group rather than person-to-personcommunication& #ILE is a collective knowledge building effort that re!uires students todo planning, goal setting and problem solving& #ILEs are based on a specificenvironment developed at the *ntario Institute for tudies in Education&

iscover% "earning

/iscovery learning has various definitions& 2t one end of the spectrum we find discoverylearning in its simplest form& )he tools and information needed to solve a problem orlearn a concept are provided and the learner "makes sense" of them& 2nother definition is

discovery learning as experimentation with some extrinsic intervention -- clues, coaching,and a framework to help learners get to a reasonable conclusion& 2t the other end of the

15



continuum is the expository teaching model of discovery learning where the learner"discovers" what the teacher decides he is to discover using a process prescribed by theteacher&

ardin, /& %?@@@'& &iscovery learning& .etrieved eptember ?B, GBBG, from an /iegotate University, Encyclopedia of Educational )echnology 7eb siteD

httpD88coe&sdsu&edu8eet82rticles8discoverylearn8start&htm

istributed "earning

/istributed Learning is when learning is distributed across space, time, and variousmedia& 7hen telecommunications media is utilied, distributed learning refers to off-sitelearning environments where learners complete courses and programs at home or workby communicating with faculty and other students through e-mail, electronic forums,videoconferences, and other forms computer-mediated communication and Internet and7eb-based technologies& /istributed learning environments "result in a diffuse sense ofcognition - where what is "known" lies in the interaction between individuals andartifacts, such as computers and other technological devices %/abbagh 6 annan-.itland,in preparation'&

/abbagh, 4& 6 annan-.itland, & %in preparation - under contract'& ;nline learning an!

course management systems3 Concepts' strategies' an! application& Upper addle .iver,4FD +rentice <all, Inc& Expected +ublication date, Fanuary GBB&

Epistemic Games

Epistemic games are a formalied structure learning communities use to createknowledge& #onventions are set that represent defined cultural patterns or forms&7orking together to generate these forms is called participating in epistemic games& )hegame involves creating rules or conventions to be followed in generating a givenepistemic form& )he products of working together are called epistemic forms&"#ompleted" forms contain new knowledge and adhere to defined structures accepted bythe community %#ollins 6 (erguson, ?@@S 1orrison 6 #ollins, in press'&

16

http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/discoverylearn/start.htm

http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/discoverylearn/start.htm



Generative learning

0enerative learning is a learning process in which learners are given an overall problemand are asked to generate sub-problems, subgoals, and strategies in order to achieve thelarger task %/uffy 6 Fonassen, ?@@G'& 0enerative learning strategies can be divided intofour ma>or stagesD %?' recalling information from long-term memoryS %G' integrating newknowledge with prior knowledgeS %' relating prior knowledge to new concepts and ideasin a meaningful wayS and %' connecting new materials to information or ideas already inthe learners mind %0enerative Learning, GBBB'& Using this strategy, a learner relates newideas to prior knowledge in order to provide meaning to the new material %.yder, ?@@K'&

Goal!Based $cenarios 0GB$s1

0s offer learners the opportunity to role-play from a certain "characters" perspectiveor point of view& )heir "goal" is for the learner to accomplish a mission or task associatedwith their role in the scenario& In order to achieve this goal, the learner needs to ac!uireparticular skills and knowledge& )his is where and when learning takes place& 2 0,therefore, serves both, to motivate learners, and to give them the opportunity to "learnby doing&" "2s long as a goal is of inherent interest to learners, and the skills needed to

accomplish those goals are the targeted learning outcomes, PweQ have a match and aworkable 0 %4aidu, GBB?, p&G'&"

2 designer of a 0 tends to look at it from the top-down& 7hat drives the design of a0 is the set of target skills the designer wishes the student to gain in the 0& 2student, on the other hand, tends to look at a 0 from the bottom-up& 7hat drives astudent is the context and structure of the activities the 0 offers&

In(uir%!based "earning

In!uiry-based learning is an approach to instruction that engages students ininvestigations to satisfy curiosities& #uriosities are satisfied when individuals constructmental frameworks that ade!uately explain their experiences %<aury, ?@@'& )helearners involvement in the learning content fosters skills and attitudes that permit thelearner to seek resolutions to !uestions and issues while constructing new andmeaningful knowledge %In!uiry-based LearningD Explanation, GBB?, 2pril'&

17



Micro2orlds/$imulations

In microworlds, students test 7hat do you think will happen ifT !uestions in "Tconstrained problem spaces that resemble existing problems in the real world %Fonassen,?@@C, p&GJ'&" Learners generate hypotheses as they use their knowledge and skill toguess what will happen, try out those guesses, and reformulate them based on theresults of their actions within the microworld& 1icroworlds provide the learner with theobservation and manipulation tools necessary to explore and test& )he key idea behindmicroworlds is creating an environment in which students explore the ideas being learned%Fonassen, ?@@C'&

imulations are similar to microworlds in that they are experiential and model reality&imulations "Trange from models that mirror the simplified essence of reality toelaborate synthetic environments with immersion interfaces that place students insidealternate virtual worlds %/ede, ?@@C, p&?'&" 1icroworlds differ from simulations in thatmicroworlds are structured to match the users cognitive level so that it is appropriate tothe users needs and level of experience %.ieber, ?@@G'&

MOOs and M3s

1** is an acronym for 1U/, *b>ect-*riented& 1U/ stands for 1ulti-user /imension, or/ungeon, reflecting its origin as a form of the /ungeons and /ragons game developedfor multi-users on the Internet& "In 7eb-based learning, simulated role portrayal can befacilitated through 1ulti-User /ialogue %1U/' environments, in which instructors create amulti-user space with a central theme, characters and artifacts %$han, GBB?, p&K?, in7alker, ?@@J'&"

1ost 1U/s still retain this game-like atmosphere, with players earning levels often byshooting and killing other players& 1**s, however, developed as more social spaces,lending themselves readily to use as a virtual classroom, or as spaces for conferencesand meetings&

7alker, F& %?@@J, revised GBB?'& <orshop on synchronous communication in thelanguage arts classroom& .etrieved eptember ?B, GBBG, from 0eorgia outhernUniversity, /epartment of 7riting and Linguistics 7eb siteDhttpD88wwwG&gasou&edu8facstaff8>walker8tutorials8cte&html

18

http://www2.gasou.edu/facstaff/jwalker/tutorials/cte.html

http://www2.gasou.edu/facstaff/jwalker/tutorials/cte.html



Problem!Based "earning 0PB"1

+L engages the learner in a problem-solving activity& In this process, instruction beginswith a problem to be solved rather than content to be mastered %<siao, ?@@C'& tudentsare introduced to a real-world problem and are encouraged to dive into it, construct theirown understanding of the situation, and eventually find a solution %0rabowski, $osalka,6 1ccarth, ?@@K'& 1a>or goals of +L are to help students develop collaborative learningskills, reasoning skills, and self-directed learning strategies %<siao, ?@@C'&

(ive trategies for Using +LD

?& The Problem as a Guide - )he problem is presented in order to gain attentionprior to presenting the lesson&

G& The Problem as an Integrator or Test ! )he problem is presented afterreadings are completed and8or discussed -- these are used to check forunderstanding&

& The Problem as an E.ample - )he problem is integrated into the material inorder to illustrate a particular principle, concept or procedure&

& The Problem as a 4ehicle for Process - )he problem is used to promote criticalthinking whereby the analysis of how to solve it becomes a lesson in itself&

A& The Problem as a $timulus for &uthentic &ctivit% - )he problem is used todevelop skills necessary to solve it and other problems -- skills can includephysical skills, recall of prior knowledge, and metacognitive skills related to the

problem solving process& 2 form of authentic assessment of the skills and activitynecessary in the content domain %/uffy 6 #unningham, ?@@C, p&?@B'&

+E&"s

.ich Environments for 2ctive Learning& ased on constructivist ideas, .E2Ls involvestudents in constantly shaping and reshaping knowledge constructed through theirlearning experiences& .E2Ls may be implemented through cooperative learning,generative learning, student centered learning, and problem based learning %chott'&

0rabinger and /unlap %?@@A' used the term to summarie the literature on constructivistlearning theory and its five instructional design implications& Learning is active knowledgeconstruction by learners, learners gaining knowledge in realistic contexts and the socialnegotiation of learning& )hus, learning environments should be characteried by fivethemes %ostock, ?@@K, par& ?'D

?& tudent responsibility and initiativeG& 0enerative learning strategies

19



& 2uthentic learning contexts

& 2uthentic assessment

A& #ooperative support

ostock, & %?@@K'& #onstructivism in mass higher educationD 2 case study& /earning%echnology & .etrieved 2ugust G, GBBG, from $eele University, Learning )echnology 7ebsiteD httpD88www&keele&ac&uk8depts8cs8tephenNostock8docs8sin@KpaC&htm

0rabinger, &.& and /unlap, F&#& %?@@A' .ich environments for active learningD adefinition& /%=6' 6ournal of the ssociation for /earning %echnology' + %G' A-&

chott, 1& %?@@@'& Rich environments for active learning& .etrieved 2ugust G, GBBG,from an /iego tate University, Encyclopedia of Educational )echnology 7eb siteDhttpD88coe&sdsu&edu8eet82rticles8reals8start&htm

+eciprocal Teaching

+alincsar %?@KC' describes the concept of reciprocal teachingD .eciprocal teaching refersto an instructional activity that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers

and students regarding segments of text& )he dialogue is structured by the use of fourstrategiesD summariing, !uestion generating, clarifying, and predicting& )he teacher andstudents take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue& +urposeD )hepurpose of reciprocal teaching is to facilitate a group effort between teacher and studentsas well as among students in the task of bringing meaning to the text&

Reciprocal teaching& %GBBG'& .etrieved eptember ?B, GBBG, from 4orth #entral .egionalEducational Laboratory, +athways to chool Improvement 7eb siteDhttpD88www&ncrel&org8sdrs8areas8issues8students8atrisk8atClkK&htm

$ituated "earning

Lave argues that learning as it normally occurs is a function of the activity, context andculture in which it occurs %i&e&, it is situated'& )his contrasts with most classroom learningactivities which involve knowledge which is abstract and out of context& ocial interactionis a critical component of situated learning -- learners become involved in a "community

of practice" which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be ac!uired& 2s the beginneror newcomer moves from the periphery of this community to its center, they become

20

http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/cs/Stephen_Bostock/docs/sin98pa6.htm

http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/reals/start.htm

http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at6lk38.htm

http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/cs/Stephen_Bostock/docs/sin98pa6.htm

http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/reals/start.htm

http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at6lk38.htm



more active and engaged within the culture and hence assume the role of expert or old-timer& (urthermore, situated learning is usually unintentional rather than deliberate&)hese ideas are what Lave 6 7enger %?@@?' call the process of "legitimate peripheralparticipation&"

*ther researchers have further developed the theory of situated learning& rown, #ollins

6 /uguid %?@K@' emphasie the idea of cognitive apprenticeshipD "#ognitiveapprenticeship supports learning in a domain by enabling students to ac!uire, developand use cognitive tools in authentic domain activity& Learning, both outside and insideschool, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction ofknowledge&" rown et al& also emphasie the need for a new epistemology for learning --one that emphasies active perception over concepts and representation& uchman%?@KK' explores the situated learning framework in the context of artificial intelligence&

ituated learning has antecedents in the work of 0ibson %theory of affordances' and5ygotsky %social learning'& In addition, the theory of choenfeld on mathematicalproblem solving embodies some of the critical elements of situated learning framework&

rown, F& &, #ollins, 2& 6 /uguid, & %?@K@'& ituated cognition and the culture oflearning& E!ucational Researcher' ,>%?', G-G&

$earsley, 0& %n&d&'& $ituate! learning (6. /ave)& .etrieved eptember ?B, GBBG, fromExplorations in Learning 6 InstructionD )he )heory Into +ractice /atabase 7eb siteDhttpD88tip&psychology&org8lave&html

Lave, F&, 6 7enger, E& %?@@?'& $ituate! learning3 /egitimate periperal participation&#ambridge, U$D #ambridge University +ress&

uchman, L& %?@KK'& Plans an! situate! actions3 %he problem of human?machine

communication& #ambridge, U$D #ambridge University +ress&

5eb6uest0s1

2 7eb=uest is "an in!uiry-oriented activity in which some or all of the information thatstudents interact with comes from resources on the Internet" %0oldstein, ?@@J, para& ?'&

)here are two types of 7eb=uestsD

$hort term 5eb6uest ! Lasts one to three periods or days and its goal is basicknowledge ac!uisition& 2 good short term 7eb=uest will also include some type ofsub>ect integration&

Long term 5eb6uest - )akes between one week and on month to complete& 2 wellplanned long term 7eb=uest involves "extending and refining knowledge" %0oldstein,?@@J, %ypes of <eb9uests'&

0oldstein, & %?@@J'& $o = <hat@s <eb9uestAAA & .etrieved eptember ?B, GBBG,

21

http://tip.psychology.org/lave.html

http://tip.psychology.org/lave.html



Implications for Instructional esign

Behavioral objectives

ehaviorists place "an emphasis on producing observable and measurable outcomes in

students" %Ertmer 6 4ewby, ?@@, p& AC'& )hey believe that learning occurs whenlearners show the correct response to a certain stimulus %mith 6 .agan, ?@@@'& )hecurrent instructional design application of behavioral ob>ectives is reminiscent of thesebehaviorist views& <owever, most current instructional designers writing ob>ectives basedon action do not share the behaviorists disinterest in the cognitive processes that alsotake place& .ather, they write ob>ectives with an attempt to extract "best evidence" of thecognitive processes that cannot be directly observed&

Ertmer, +& and 4ewby, )& %?@@'& ehaviorism, cognitivism, constructivismD #omparingcritical features from an instructional design perspective& Performance Improvement9uarterly' 2 %', AB-JG&


ic- and Care% instructional design model

7alter /ick and Lou #arey %?@@C' advocate a systems approach model for designinginstruction in the fourth edition of their text, %he $ystematic &esign of Instruction. )heirwork is based on the behaviorist view that there is a predictable link between a stimulusand the response it produces in a learner %#olaric, n&d&'& It is the designers responsibilityto determine the sub-skills a student must master in order for the behavior to be learnedand choose the stimulus and strategy for instruction in order to assemble the sub-skills&)he basic steps in the /ick and #arey instructional design model are as followsD

?& /etermine instructional goalG& 2nalye the instructional goal

& 2nalye learners and contexts

& 7rite performance ob>ectives

A& /evelop assessment instruments

C& /evelop instructional strategy

J& /evelop and select instructional materials

K& /esign and conduct formative evaluation

@& .evise instruction

?B&ummative evaluation

(or a visual of the /ick and #arey design model, visit

httpD88www&student&seas&gwu&edu8Htlooms8I/80I(8dcNdesign&gif &

22

http://www.student.seas.gwu.edu/~tlooms/ISD/GIFS/dc_design.gif

http://www.student.seas.gwu.edu/~tlooms/ISD/GIFS/dc_design.gif



#olaric, & %n&d&'& $ystems approach mo!el for !esigning instruction& .etrievedeptember G, GBBG, from +ennsylvania tate University, +ersonal 7eb pageDhttpD88www&personal&psu&edu8staff8s8m8smcGAK8$8/ick#arey&html

/ick, 7& and #arey, L& %?@@C'& %he systematic !esign of instruction %th ed&'& 4ew RorkD<arper #ollins +ublishing&

Performance!based assessment

)he idea of assessing students based on observable performance started withbehaviorism& 2ccording to Ertmer 6 4ewby %?@@', "ehaviorism e!uates learning withchanges in either the form or fre!uency of observable performance" %p& AA'& *nce astudent can display the proper response following the presentation of a certain

environmental stimulus, learning has been achieved& )raditional behaviorist assessmentmakes no evaluation of the knowledge structure or mental processes leading to astudents response&

#riterion-referenced assessment, which measures what a student can do as compared tobehavior described in specific learning ob>ectives %mith 6 .agan, ?@@@', is based onbehaviorist principles& uch assessment is used to determine a students individualcompetency in skills defined as goals for instruction, as opposed to rank them with otherlearners&

Ertmer, +& and 4ewby, )& %?@@'& ehaviorism, cognitivism, constructivismD #omparingcritical features from an instructional design perspective& Performance Improvement

9uarterly' 2 %', AB-JG&


$%stems models

ehaviorist theories contributed to the development of "more efficient methods of

creating directed instruction" %.oblyer, Edwards 6 <avriluk, ?@@C, p& CG'& ystemsmodels take information from learning theories and turn them into step-by-stepprocedures for planning instruction& ystems models were developed in response toproblems teachers were having in satisfying the needs of large numbers of students&2ccording to aettler %?@@B' these models were initially embraced more by military andindustrial trainers than by $-?G classroom teachers& 7hile systems approaches areheavily used in the design and development of self-contained tutorials, teachers can alsouse the same approach to plan their own directed instruction with technology& ystemsmodels can help teachers evaluate the effectiveness of their own teaching as well as theusefulness of computer-based resources& 1ost instructional design models and methodsare rooted in systems models&

23

http://www.personal.psu.edu/staff/s/m/smc258/KB/DickCarey.html

http://www.personal.psu.edu/staff/s/m/smc258/KB/DickCarey.html



.oblyer, 1&/&, Edwards, F& 6 <avriluk, 1&2& %?@@C'& Learning theories and integrationmodels %#hapter '& In .oblyer, Edwards 6 <avriluk, Integrating e!ucational technologyinto teaching& +rentice <all&

aettler, +& %?@@B'& %he evolution of merican e!ucational technology. Englewood, #*DLibraries Unlimited&

Cognitive objectives

#ognitive psychology has influenced the types of goals and ob>ectives that are developedas a result of task analysis %mith 6 .agan, ?@@@'& In addition to observableperformance, attention is now given to the underlying "understanding" of a performance&(or example, an ob>ective might specify that a learner should be able to explain the

reasoning behind his8her performance& looms taxonomy addresses the cognitivedomain&

mith, +& and .ag, )& %?@@@'& Instructional !esign %Gnd ed&'& 4ew RorkD Fohn 7iley 6ons, Inc&

"earning strategies

#ognitivists conduct learner analyses to determine a learners predisposition to learningand decide how to design instruction so that is can be assimilated according to thelearners existing mental structures %Ertmer 6 4ewby, ?@@'& Learner characteristics areconsidered when a designer plans what instructional techni!ues, called learningstrategies, to use in the instruction %mith 6 .agan, ?@@@'& trategies that focus onstructuring, organiing, and se!uencing information for optimal processing are based oncognitivism& (or example, outlining, summariing, synthesiing, and advance organiers&

Ertmer, +& and 4ewby, )& %?@@'& ehaviorism, cognitivism, constructivismD #omparingcritical features from an instructional design perspective& Performance Improvement9uarterly' 2 %', AB-JG&


"earning ta.onomies

.obert 0agne, among others who developed taxonomies, made one of the first attemptsto classify learning behaviors and supply specific measures for determining different

levels of learning& 0agne developed a taxonomy for intellectual skills, one of his fivelearned capabilities& #losely related to the development of taxonomies are instructionalob>ectives and instructional systems design&

24

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/implications.htm#taskanalysis

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/bloomstax.htm

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/gagnetax.htm#intellectualskills

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/implications.htm#taskanalysis

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/bloomstax.htm

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/gagnetax.htm#intellectualskills



$earsley, 0& %n&d&'& %aBonomies& .etrieved eptember J, GBBG, from Explorations inLearning 6 InstructionD )he )heory Into +ractice /atabase 7eb siteDhttpD88tip&psychology&org8taxonomy&html

Prere(uisite s-ills

2 prere!uisite is something a person must know or be able to do before they are able tolearn something else %mith 6 .agan, ?@@@'& )o determine prere!uisite information, ananalysis must be done from the learners %novices' perspective, rather than the expertsperspective& 2n expert tends to overlook some of the things they needed to know inorder to achieve the learning goal& /etermining prere!uisite skills does not specifyinstructional strategies& 2n analysis for prere!uisites can be used for a top-down,problem-based environment as well as a bottom-up structured instructional strategy&


Tas- anal%sis

7ith the shift to cognitivism, analysis of relevant concepts goes beyond behavioralobservations of >ob performance& "#ontent analysis has outgrown the mere listing of

statements the learner will be able to recite& It has advanced way beyond the oldconventions of -. tables" %)iemann and 1arkle, ?@K, p& GC'&

/uring task analysis, goal statements are transformed into a format that can be used toguide the rest of the instructional design process %mith 6 .agan, ?@@@'& )o complete alearning task analysisD

?& 7rite a learning goal&G& /etermine the types of learning of the goal&

& #onduct an information-processing analysis of that goal&

& #onduct a prere!uisite analysis and determine the type of learning of theprere!uisites&

A& 7rite learning ob>ectives for the learning goal and each of the prere!uisite %p&C'&

Upon completion of a task analysis, the designer has a list of goals describing whatlearners should know or be able to do upon completion of instruction, as well as theprere!uisite skills an knowledge needed to achieve those goals&


)iemann, +& and 1arkle, & %?@K'& *n getting expertise into an expert system&Performance an! Instruction 6ournal' :+ %@', GA-G@&

25

http://tip.psychology.org/taxonomy.html

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/task_analysis.htm

http://tip.psychology.org/taxonomy.html

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/task_analysis.htm



&uthentic assessment methods

2s a result of the change in goals and methods of education, constructivist learningenvironments tend to use more !ualitative assessment strategies rather than !uantitativeones %.oblyer, Edwards 6 <avriluk, ?@@C'& (or example, one of the more popular ways toassess students in a constructivist learning environment is through portfolios& +ortfoliosconsist of samples of students work and products developed& 2 portfolio might alsoinclude teacher narration describing students work habits, strengths and weaknesses&+erformance-based assessments and checklists of criteria used to >udge studentsperformance might also be included %Linn, ?@@'&

2ccording to 7iggins %?@@B', "2ssessment is authentic when we directly examine studentperformance on worthy intellectual tasks" %par& ?'& 2ssessments should be built onintellectual challenges such as problem-solving, experimental research, discussion, andwriting& (urthermore, the goal of assessment is primarily to support the needs of thelearner& )he best tests should teach students the type of work that matters most&

Linn, .& %?@@'& +erformance assessmentD +olicy promises and technical measurementstandards& E!ucational Researcher' :+%@', -?&

.oblyer, 1&/&, Edwards, F& 6 <avriluk, 1&2& %?@@C'& Learning theories and integrationmodels %#hapter '& In .oblyer, Edwards 6 <avriluk, Integrating e!ucational technologyinto teaching& +rentice <all&

7iggins, 0& %?@@B'& %he case for authentic assessment & PElectronic 5ersionQ& 7ashington

/#D E.I# #learinghouse on )ests 1easurement and Evaluation& %E.I# IdentifierE/GKC??'& .etrieved eptember , GBBG, fromDhttpD88www&ed&gov8databases8E.I#N/igests8edGKC??&html

"earning through e.ploration

7hile constructivists differ among themselves about how much guidance a teachershould provide, all agree that there should be some flexibility in achieving desired goals

%.oblyer, Edwards 6 <avriluk, ?@@C'& 1ost constructivist approaches emphasieexploration over "getting the right answer&" 2 few of the radical constructivists believethat students should have total freedom and infinite time when it comes to learningthrough exploration& <owever, +erkins %?@@?' states, "Education given over entirely to7I0 %without any given' instruction would prove grossly inefficient and ineffective, failingto pass on in straightforward ways the achievements of the past" %p& GB'&

+erkins, /& %?@@?'& )echnology meets constructivismD /o they make a marriageE!ucational %echnology' +, %A', ?K-G'&

.oblyer, 1&/&, Edwards, F& 6 <avriluk, 1&2& %?@@C'& Learning theories and integrationmodels %#hapter '& In .oblyer, Edwards 6 <avriluk, Integrating e!ucational technology

into teaching& +rentice <all&

26

http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed328611.html

http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed328611.html



Problem!oriented activities

tudents solving problems, whether in a specific content area or in an interdisciplinaryapproach, is the focus of most constructivist models %.oblyer, Edwards 6 <avriluk, ?@@C'&(or example, one problem might re!uire students to use only math skills, while anothermight re!uire math, science and language arts skills& 2ccording to Fungck %?@@?'constructivist methods often integrate problem posing, problem solving and "persuasionof peers" %p& ?AA'& (urthermore, problems can be presented with specific goals, as "whatif" !uestions or as open-ended !uestions& +roblem solving in a constructivist learningenvironments is usually more complex and demands more time and use of varied skillsthan problem solving with directed instruction&

Fungck, F& %?@@?'& #onstructivism, computer exploratoriums, and collaborative learningD#onstruction scientific knowledge& %eaching E!ucation' + %G', ?A?-?JB&

.oblyer, 1&/&, Edwards, F& 6 <avriluk, 1&2& %?@@C'& Learning theories and integrationmodels %#hapter '& In .oblyer, Edwards 6 <avriluk, Integrating E!ucational %echnologyinto %eaching& +rentice <all&

7+ich7 environments

1ost constructivist approaches advocate what +erkins %?@@?' terms "richer learningenvironments" %p& ?@' as opposed to the "minimalist" classroom environment, whichdepends on the teacher, textbooks and prepared materials %.oblyer, Edwards 6 <avriluk,?@@C'& 2ccording to +erkins, most constructivist models use any combination of thefollowing five basic resources&

• Information ban-s - allow access to re!uired information %e&g&, books,

encyclopedias'• $%mbols pads - supports learners short-term memory %e&g&, notebooks, laptops'

• Construction -its - facilitates manipulation and building %e&g&, Legos, )inkertoys,

Logo'

• Phenomenaria - allows exploration %e&g&, terrarium, computer simulation'

• Tas- managers - gives help and feedback when tasks are completed %e&g&,

teachers, electronic tutors'

+erkins, /& %?@@?'& )echnology meets constructivismD /o they make a marriageE!ucational %echnology' +, %A', ?K-G&



27



4isual formats and mental models

#ognition and )echnology 0roup at 5anderbilt %#)05' is a strong advocate of helpingstudents build good "mental models" of problems to be solved %.oblyer, Edwards 6<avriluk, ?@@C'& )o promote the use of these mental models, teachers should presentproblems in visual rather than written formats& #)05 researchers %?@@B' say, "5isualformats allow students to develop their own pattern recognition skills," and they are"dynamic, rich , and spatial" %p& '& )he use of visual formats may be particularlyimportant for low-achieving students who have difficulty reading&

#ognition and )echnology 0roups at 5anderbilt %?@@B'& 2nchored instruction and itsrelationship to situated cognition& E!ucational Researcher' ,5 %C', G-?B&



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