TF1 N10(190331)A Gendered Perspective on Changing ... · digital equity from a gendered and demographic perspective, several cross-cutting initiatives can contribute to the three

2030AGENDAFORSUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT

AGenderedPerspectiveonChangingDemographics:Implicationsfor

Labour,FinancialandDigitalEquity

FlorenciaCaroSachetti(CIPPEC)GalaDíazLangou(CIPPEC)FernandoFilgueira(CIPPEC)

MargoThomas(Women’sEconomicImperative)SarahGammage,ICRW)

CarolynCurrie(Women’sEnterpriseScotland)MargaritaBenekedeSanfeliú(FUSADES)

AbigailHunt(ODI)ReikoHayashi(IPSS)

SubmittedonMarch15,2019RevisedonMarch31,2019

AbstractThedemographic transitionhasbeenoneof thegreatestphenomenaaffectingdevelopmentworldwideanditseffectsongenderequityareundeniable.Lowerfertility and ageing populations create both challenges and opportunities forgender equity, while women still face obstacles towards labour, financial anddigitalinclusion.G20countriesareatverydifferentstagesoftheprocess,yetmosthavebirthratesbelowreplacementlevelsandpopulationisageing.Adoptingacomprehensiveandintersectionalapproachtowomen’seconomicempowermentthatcontemplatesage-andgender-specificrights,prioritiesandneedsiscrucialto both fulfilling women’s rights and facing the challenges associated withdemographicchange.

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2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment

Challenge

Thedemographictransitionhasbeenoneofthegreatestphenomenaaffectingdevelopmentaroundtheworld:ithastransformedthestructureofsocieties.Demographic change can affect andbe affectedby gender relations throughdifferentchannels.

Demographictransitionsaretriggeredbyadeclineinmortalitywhilefertilityremainshigh,sparkingaprocessofnaturalincreasethatleadstoanincreasingdependencyratioandpopulationgrowth.Then,fertilityfalls;augmentingadultcohortsbeforeageingtakesplace.Thiscriticalperiodiscalledthewindowofdemographicopportunityordividend,withdependencyratesattheirlowest.As time advances, fertility remains low and population ages, increasingdependencyratios.

Fordevelopmentbenefitstomaterializeduringthetransition,dropsinfertilitymustconvergeamongdifferentsocioeconomicstrata;newcohortsneedtobeeducated to be productive; and employment opportunities must exist,especially forwomenandyoungsters.Fulfilling these requirements can leadcountriestoprofitfromthedemographicbonusandeventuallylengthenit.Theimplications of the transition on women remain less analysed. While theprocesscancertainlybringimprovementsinfemalestatus,theconnectionisnotstraightforward.

Thefertilitydeclinecanbringhealthbenefitsforwomenandtheirfamilies.Asparents have fewer children, they have more time and money available toinvestintheonestheyhave.Thistranslatesintobetterhealthandeducationalstatusforeachchild(Dyson,2010).

Lower fertility is also associated with reduced care responsibilities, whichtraditionally fall onwomen. Bywomen’s increased reproductive choice andlater fertility, reduced and planned childbearing and childrearing relaxconstraints on women’s time and allow them to pursue activities such asemployment and education (McNay, 2005). Nonetheless, women do notnecessarily reach decent work opportunities and the unequal genderdistribution of unpaid work creates a double burden of work. In advancedeconomieslikeJapan,Spain,KoreaandItaly,difficultiestoreconcileworkand

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caringcontributetoverylowbirthrates.

Declining fertility can provoke adverse gender consequences. Majortransformations in family arrangements imply thatmarriage rates decreasewhile divorce rates, out-of-wedlock childbearing and single-parent familiesincrease. Moreover, low fertility can trigger coercive policies and societalpressure to limit women’s reproductive rights. In societies with sonpreferences, families may give up girls for adoption, use gender-selectiontechnologies or carry out sex-selective abortions, leading to a demographicmasculinizationwithundeterminedeffects(Guilmoto,2009).Stateregulationsbecomecriticaltoprovideadequateprotectionforwomenandchildreninthesecases.

Ageingalsoimpactsgenderrelations.Peoplelivemorehealthyyearsandcanbe economically active for longer. Yet increases in longevity also boost caredemand,whichaffectswomen’sburdenofunpaidwork.Moreover,ageing,afalling family size and differential life expectancies by gender can beproblematic for older women, especially due to gender gaps in labourparticipation, social security and savings. Typically, older women displayhigherpovertyratesthanmen.

WhileG20countriesareatverydifferentstagesofthedemographictransition,mostsocietiesexperiencebelow-replacementfertilitylevels,whichbringrapidageingandpopulationdeclineinthelongrun.AstheG20represents86%oftheglobaleconomyandtwo-thirdsoftheworldpopulation,itholdsahugeroleinleveraging the demographic transition to reduce gender gaps, promotewomen’s economic empowerment and foster inclusive and sustainabledevelopment.

Proposal

Thedemographictransitionisaninevitablephenomenonthatwill,soonerorlater, affect all societies, going from high birth and death rates to a severedeclineinboth(Dyson,2010).Thisprocesshasbeenakeyfactorunderneaththetransformationofgenderrelationsandwomen’sempowermentduringthe

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last century (Davis & Van de Oever, 1982; Dyson, 2010), as it impacted onwomen’s working and education opportunities, care responsibilities andhealth, among others. Given impending demographic change, a life-courseapproach togenderequitybecomescritical toboth fulfillingwomen’s rightsandfacingthechallengesassociatedwiththistransition.

G20countriesareatverydifferentstagesof the transition.Europe,Oceania,NorthAmericaandsomeLatinAmericancountrieshavealreadyachievedanageingpopulation,withaveragebirthratesalmostaslowasdeathrates.Africa,MiddleEast,AsiaandotherLatinAmericancountriesarestill inthemidstofthe process, with natural increase happening at a decreasing rate (Dyson,2010)1.

Atdifferentstages,thedemographictransitioncreatesdiversechallengesandopportunitiesforgenderrelationsandforwomen’slabour,financialanddigitalinclusion.Thissectionwillpresentpolicyrecommendationsinthesefieldstopromotegenderequityandwomen’srights.

Cross-cuttingpolicies

Whiletherearepoliciesthathelptospecificallyaddresslabour,financialanddigital equity from a gendered and demographic perspective, several cross-cuttinginitiativescancontributetothethreegoals.

First,socialnormscreategenderrolesandstereotypesthatshapebehaviourssincechildhood.Theseconstructionsareinternalisedbymenandwomenandaffecttheirdecisionmakingandopportunitiesthroughouttheirlives.Nopolicyisgenderneutral:socialnormsareembeddedininstitutionsandtechnologies,and these biases must be considered to avoid compounding existinginequalities. A gendered analysis of the demographic transition stresses theneed to confront these norms. Gender norms limit women’s agency andperpetuatethesexualdivisionoflabour,whichneedstobeaddressedincominggenerations. To fulfil women’s rights, it is crucial to design policies andcampaigns that bust discriminatory norms and promote equality ofopportunitiesbetweenmenandwomen,throughdisplayingmoreegalitarian

1Seeappendixforcountry-leveldemographicinformation

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genderroles.

Second, it is paramount to design social protection systems that guaranteedecent standardsof livingover the life cycle, accounting for genderandageconsiderations. Typically, older women receive lower pensions than men,compoundedbyobstaclestowork,discriminatorylawsandlackofknowledgeoftheirrights(Samuelsetal,2018).Womenalsodepicthigherlevelsofpovertyandunemploymentthroughouttheirlives,especiallywhentheyhavechildren.Therefore,socialprotectionfloorsshouldguaranteeaccesstohealth,educationandincomesecurity,byprovidinguniversalchildhoodgrants,unemploymentinsurance and universal pension coverage. Additionally, it is necessary tosocializethecostofcareandensureuniversalaccesstoqualitycareoverthelife-cycle. These policies can potentially alleviate poverty, promote qualitylivelihoodsandfosterdevelopment.

Comprehensive reproductive health services are associated with lowermaternalmortality,loweradolescentpregnanciesandfewerunsafeabortions.Improvedaccesstosexualeducationandtosexualandreproductivehealthcarecanenablewomenandgirlstomaketheirowninformeddecisionsregardingmarriage and childbearing. Reproductive empowerment enables economicempowerment,andrecognizingthisiskeyinthecontextofthedemographictransitionandforwomen’shealthandrights.

Third,collectingandanalysinggender-andage-disaggregateddataalongthelifecycleiscrucialtointerrogateevolvingandintersectinginequalitiesandtodesign,deliverandevaluatepoliciestailoredtothespecificneedsofdifferentgroups,suchasyouth,womeninreproductiveageandtheelderly.Engenderingdata and policy systems will assist in diagnosing the current position andsetting a coordinated plan for change. By taking this gender-lens approach,barriers can come into sharp focus andappropriate initiativesbe identified,implementedandtracked,settingaframeworkforsuccess.Impactevaluationsbecomealsoimperativetobetterunderstandthelinkbetweengenderequityandthedemographictransition.

Labourinclusion

Theburdenofcareanddomesticunpaidworkisoneofthemaindeterrentsfor

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women’s labour participation. As described above, the transition’s effect istwofold: declining fertility diminishes the burden of care, yet an ageingpopulation increases care demand. Additionally, the unequal genderdistributionofpaidandunpaidworkmayfurtherdecreasebirthrates.

The recognition, reduction, redistributionand representationofunpaid careworkiscriticalforwomen’seconomicempowerment(Gammageetal,2018)and to profit from the demographic bonus, requiring an integrated set ofpolicies.First,initiativesmustrecognizethesocialandeconomicvalueofcare,bypromotingmeasurementoftimeuseandprovidingcompensationthroughsocialprotection.Second,reducingtheburdenofcareispossiblebydevelopingquality,affordableandaccessiblecareinfrastructureforchildren,thesickandtheelderly,aswellasbyimplementingtime-and-labour-savingequipmenttoreduceworkloads.Toredistributeunpaidworkbetweenwomen,menandtheState,providinguniversalhigh-qualitycareservicesandadvancingcoverageand lengthofpaternity leaves is essential. Finally, it isnecessary to supportcarersandpromotetheirrepresentationincollectives,thepolicyenvironmentandthelabourmarket.Raisingawarenessofandseekingtoshiftnormsaroundthegendereddivisionof caremustunderpin this4Rapproach.Additionally,thereisaneedtogeneratefurtherknowledgeaboutintersectinginequalities(gender,age,ethnicity)andtousetheseinsightstoinformpolicydevelopment,monitoringandevaluation.

While reduced care responsibilities freewomen’s time to participate in thelabour market, decent work and education opportunities are far fromguaranteed.Womenhaveloweraccesstopaidworkacrossthelifecourseandhigher likelihood of being in low-paid or informal work, resulting in lowlifetimesavingsandhighereconomicinsecurity.

Activelabourmarketpoliciesarevitaltofosterskillacquisitionandimprovewomen’s employability (Díaz Langou et al, 2018). These initiatives need tomainstreamgenderandcontemplateage-specificneedstoaddressthebarriersthatwomenface,suchascarework.Trainingprogrammescanhelptheyouthgettheirfirstjobandre-skillolderwomen,whilepreventingthereproductionofhorizontalsegregation,especiallyinachangingworldofwork.Additionally,asgenderbiaseshampergenderlabourequity,encouraginggender-neutraljobadvertisements and blind recruitment processes can foster women’s

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employment.

Furthermore,womenalsoperformmostpaidcareanddomesticwork:theseare highly feminized sectors with high informality. States must designstrategiestomonitorinformalityandpromoteworkers’registration.Creatingnon-contributorybasicpillarsforpensionsandcashtransferscanhelpreducethecostsofformalizationforlow-skilljobs.

Inacontextofincreasinglifeexpectancies,womentendtolivelongerthanmenonaverage,andsoaccountforthemajorityofolderpersons,shiftknownasthe‘feminizationofageing’(Greengross,2015).Hence,womenare in the labourmarketfor longerhealthyyears.Gender-and-age-baseddiscriminationattheworkplacecanbewidespread,duetostereotypesarethatolderworkersarelessproductive, lessphysicallycapableandslowto learnoradapttochange(UNFPA and HelpAge International, 2012). The un-recognition andundervaluation of older women’s contribution leaves them unsupported bypolicy -withmany falling through thegap in initiativesaimedatsupportingwomen(ignoringage)andolderpeople(ignoringgender)2.

These trends will becomemore acute given ageing populations worldwide,including G20 countries. Adopting a comprehensive and intersectionalapproach to women’s economic empowerment which fully responds to therights,prioritiesandneedsofolderwomenrequires specific, tailoredpolicyresponses.

Olderwomen’sincomesecurityneedstobestrengthenedbyensuringaccesstocomprehensive social protection (including universal pensions), assets,property and financial services, and supporting their labour participation.Creating decent paid work and supporting entry into high-value and high-returneconomicsectorsthroughskills(re)development,life-longlearningandtacklingbarriersto(re)entry–includingdiscrimination–arecritical.

2AdaptedfromSamuelsetal(2018)

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TacklingtheasymmetricgenderrevolutioninthechangingworldofworkDuringthelastdecades,gendergapshavebridgedintheworldofwork.Womenhavemassivelyenteredthe labour forceandtraditionallymale-dominated fields.Nonetheless,progresshasbeenuneven:globally,menhave not increased their participation in unpaid work nor have theyenteredfeminizedsectors.This becomesmore relevant in the changingworld of work. An ageingpopulation increases demand for care and health services, nowadaysmostly provided by women. Additionally, the digitalization andautomation ofworkwill imply greater demand for STEM-related skills,whichpredominantlymenacquire.Hence,asbothcareandSTEMsectorsregister increased labour demand, to avoid reinforcing horizontalsegregationbygender,itisnecessarytofostermen’sinclusionincareandwomen’sparticipationinSTEM.Addressingsocialnormsongenderrolesagainbecomesparamount.

Financialinclusion

Meaningfulfinancial inclusionisvitaltotacklepovertyandinequalityandtostimulate inclusiveandsustainableeconomicgrowthanddevelopment(SuriandJack2016;Allenetal2016;ADB2018).Fortheseeffects tomaterialize,enhancing financial literacy and access to financial services such as credit,loans,savingsandpaymentsfrombanksandformalproviders,especiallyforwomen,isparamount.

Limited financial inclusion is a global problem that affects womendisproportionately.Thegendergapisclear:72%ofmenand65%ofwomenworldwidehaveaccesstoanaccount(Trivellietal,2018).Menare65%ofbankcustomers, hold 75% of deposits and manage 80% of total loans (GlobalBankingAllianceforWomen,2018).Indevelopingcountries,70%ofwomen-owned small- and medium-sized enterprises are underserved by financialinstitutions (UN Foundation and Bank of NYCMellon, 2018). This situationworsens for older women, who may have limited knowledge of financialproductsandlackincomesecurity.

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Women’s financial inclusion can nurture development by enabling theireconomic autonomy and better resource management within households,which could in turn foster savings, smooth consumption, facilitate businessopportunities andprovide income security (Trivelli et al, 2018).Apotentialtwo-way relationship between financial and labour inclusion could create avirtuouscyclethatcanbolstertheglobaleconomy.Policiesneedtoconsiderwomen’sspecialneedsatdifferentages3.

First,providingdigitalIDsforallandguaranteeingdataprivacyisessentialtopromoteaccesstothefinancialsystem.Thisisabiggerchallengefordevelopingcountries.InIndia,aninitiativefosteringaccountownershipthroughbiometricID cards helped significantly reduce the gender gap in account ownership(Demirgüç-Kuntetal,2018).

Second,interventionsmustfosterwomen’saccesstofinancialservicesandalsoreduce usage costs. No-cost, basic financial instruments that can be easilyaccessed(e.g.throughmobilephones)canservethispurpose.Theintersectionoffinancialanddigitalinclusioniscritical:digitalsolutionscanaddressbarrierssuchaselderwomen’smobility,restrictionsonwomen’sfreedomofmovementorinteractionswithmenoutsidetheirfamily(WorldBank,2018).Additionally,governmentscanprovideincentivesforusagegrantingdiscountswhenpayingwith electronicmeansor bymaking government cash transfers through thefinancialsystem,especiallythoseforwomenrecipients.Financialeducationisimperative in this context, as lack of familiarity and knowledge about thefinancialsystemcanhamperusage,particularlyfortheelderly.

Additionally, financial inclusion can boost profit from the youth bulge forcountriesinthedemographicwindowofopportunity.Usingaffirmativeactionto target young entrepreneurs could assist in improving labour marketinclusioninadditiontofinancialinclusion.Financialliteracyshouldbepartofschools curricula to close the gap in new generations and to allow earlyfinancialinclusion.

Finally,duetolowerearningsandhigherparticipationinunpaidwork,womenusually face difficulties to build credit records, save and raise collateral.

3RecommendationsbasedonTrivellietal(2018)

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Governments must abolish all laws that hinder women’s property andinheritance rights andpromotenon-discriminatory legal systems.Moreover,allowingalternativesourcesof collateral, suchasmovableassets,andcreditrecords based on non-financial information can contribute to women’sfinancial inclusion. Fostering income security throughout the life course canalsocontributetobuildingcollateralandencouragesavings.

Digitalinclusion

Participation in the digital world is essential to improve livelihoods, fostersocialintegrationanddevelopone’spotentialandopportunities.Nonetheless,digital gaps persist. Around the world, women fall behind in access toinformationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs):250millionfewerwomenthanmenusetheinternetand200fewerwomenhaveaccesstoamobilephone(EqualsGlobalPartnership).Theelderlyalsolagbehindintechnologyaccess,literacyandusage.Theintersectionofthesedividesexposesolderwomentohighervulnerability.

Digitalinclusioncanpotentiallyprovideservicessuchashealth-care,educationandemploymentmatching for all.Therefore, thedigital genderdivide couldworsengenderinequalitiesinseveralfieldsandthesearelikelytogrowduetotheincreasingomnipresenceoftechnologiesinthedigitalage.Digitalgapscanturn into welfare gaps unless governments address the barriers that thedigitallyexcludedface.

Fertilitydeclinecanhaveapositiveeffectonyoungwomen’seducation.Thus,digitalliteracymustbeincludedinschools’curriculatobridgedigitalgapssinceearlyages.Inthisvein,governmentmustdevoteresourcestodevelopstrongergender-sensitiveinitiativesinSTEM.Olderwomenshouldnotbeleftbehind,fortheyarethemostdisadvantagedinusingICTs:initiativestoacquiredigitalskills must consider age-specific needs. Digital education must alsocontemplatetherisksforsexualharassment,stereotypingandexploitationthatnewtechnologiesallowwithexpandedaccess.

Morejobsaresettobecomedigitally-mediated(e.g.crowdwork,gigeconomy)andthereisanurgentneedtoensureequalaccesstoeconomicopportunitiesandqualityworkinthedigitaleconomy.Evidenceshowsthatthegigeconomy

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–consistingofdigitalplatformsthatconnectworkerstoserviceproviders–isgrowingfastgloballyparticularlyinfeminizedsectors.IntheEuropeanUnion,on-demandhouseholdservicesaresettobethefastestgrowinggigeconomysector,withrevenuesprojectedtoexpandatroughly50%yearlythrough2025(VaughnandDavario,2016;HawksworthandVaughn,2014).Gigeconomyjobsmayprovideworkerswithmoreflexibilityandfreedomtochoosetheplaceandtimetowork,allowingforbetterbalancebetweenworkandfamily4.

Nonetheless,whilethegigeconomyexhibitssomenewfeatures,onthewholeit represents the continuation (even deepening) of long-standing structural,gendered inequalities existing in ‘traditional’ labour markets. Significantgender divides in participation, earnings and retention prevail, as well assectorial segregation. Additionally, marginalised groups – e.g. thoseexperiencingintersectinginequalitiesbasedongender,race,ageorclass–areconcentrated in the lowest paying forms of gig work. Public policies mustguarantee access to social protection and labour rights for gig workers,especiallywomenandtheelderly,toensuredecentlivelihoods.

Policymakersalsoconsiderthegigeconomyasanoptiontosupportaccesstojobs, particularly among youth given the high rates of unemployment. Thisdrawsattentiontothepressingneedtoensurethatdigitaljobsareopenandaccessible to all, as well as providing decent working opportunities.Additionally,itiscriticalnottolosesightoftheelderly.Olderwomenaresettostay longer in labour market as populations age, and may face a doubleexclusion due to a lack of appropriate skills or access to adequate digitalinfrastructure,andduetogendereddigitaldivides.(Re)trainingolderpeopleisneeded, as is ensuringa genderedand life courseapproachwhich takes thespecificneedsofpeopleofallagesintoaccountinpolicyfocusedonthedigitaleconomy, which will span economic, labour, technology and social policydomains.

4AdaptedfromHuntandSamman(2019)

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References

• ADB.2018.“FinancialInclusionintheDigitalEconomy,”AsianDevelopmentBank.https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/200001/financial-inclusion-digital-economy.pdf

• Allen,F.,Demirgüç-Kunt,A.,Klapper,L.,&MartinezPeria,M.S.(2016).TheFoundationsofFinancialInclusion:UnderstandingOwnershipandUseofFormalAccounts.JournalofFinancialIntermediation,27,1-30.

• Davis,K.andP.vandenOever(1982)‘Demographicfoundationsofnewsexroles’,PopulationandDevelopmentReview,8(3):495–511.

• Demirgüç-Kuntetal(2018).TheGlobalFindexDatabaseMeasuringFinancialInclusionandtheFintechRevolution

• DiazLangou,G.etal(2018).Achieving"25by25":ActionstomakeWomen'sLabourInclusionaG20Priority.GenderEconomicEquityTaskforce.T20Argentina.

• Dyson,T.(2010).PopulationandDevelopment.TheDemographicTransition.LondonandNewYork:ZedBooks.

• EqualsGlobalPartnership.https://www.equals.org/• Gammage,S.etal(2018).TheImperativeofAddressingCareNeedsforG20countries.GenderEconomicEquityTaskforce.T20&W20Argentina.

• Gasparinietal(2015).Bridginggendergaps?TheriseanddecelerationoffemalelabourforceparticipationinLatinAmerica.LaPlata:CEDLAS

• Greengross,S.(2015)‘Understandingageingandgender’,inAgeInternational(ed.),Facingthefacts:thetruthaboutageinganddevelopment.AgeInternational

• Guilmoto,C.Z.(2009).ThesexratiotransitioninAsia.PopulationandDevelopmentReview,35(3),519-549.

• GlobalBankingAllianceforWomen(2017).LaOportunidaddelaBancaMujer.Retrievedfrom:http://www.gbaforwomen.org/download/la-oportunidad-de-labanca-mujer/

• Hunt,A.,andSamman,E.(2019).Genderandthegigeconomy.Criticalstepsforevidence-basedpolicy.ODI.Retrievedfrom:https://www.odi.org/publications/11272-gender-and-gig-economy-

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critical-steps-evidence-based-policy• Lloyd,C.B.(1994)‘Investinginthenextgeneration:theimplicationsofhighfertilityatthelevelofthefamily’,inR.H.Cassen(ed.),PopulationandDevelopment:OldDebates,NewConclusions,NewBrunswick,NJ,andOxford:TransactionPublishers.

• McNay,K.(2005).Theimplicationsofthedemographictransitionforwomen,girlsandgenderequality:Areviewofdevelopingcountryevidence.ProgressinDevelopmentStudies,5(2),115–134.

• Samuels,F.etal(2018).Betweenworkandcare.Olderwomen’seconomicempowerment.OverseasDevelopmentInstitute(ODI).Retrievedfrom:https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/resource-documents/12509.pdf

• Suri,T.,&Jack,W.(2016).TheLong-RunPovertyandGenderImpactsofMobileMoney.Science,354(6317),1288-1292.

• Trivelli,C.etal,2018.Financialinclusiónforwomen:awayforward.GenderEconomicEquityTaskforce.T20&W20Argentina

• UNFPAandHelpAgeInternational(2012)Ageinginthetwenty-firstcentury:acelebrationandachallenge.UNFPAandHelpAgeInternational

• UnitedNationsFoundationandBankofNeyYorkCityMellon(2018).PoweringPotential:IncreasingWomen’sAccesstoFinancialProductsandServices.Retrievedfrom:https://www.bnymellon.com/_global-assets/pdf/our-thinking/powering-potential.pdf

• Vaughan,R.andDavario,R.(2016).AssessingthesizeandpresenceofthecollaborativeeconomyinEurope.Brussels:EuropeanCommissionRetrievedfrom:https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/2acb7619-b544-11e7-837e-01aa75ed71a1/language-en

• WorldBank,2018.Women,BusinessandtheLaw

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Appendix

G20countries:stageinthedemographictransitionandgendergaps

Asmentionedabove,G20countriesareatdifferentstagesofthedemographictransition.This sectiondescribes the currentprocess fordifferentgroupsofcountriesanddisplaysgraphsanddataforthis,togetherwithillustrationsongendergaps.

Advanced,developedeconomieswithhighhumandevelopmenthavealreadytransited the transformation of their population structure, migration apart.Thesesocietiescurrentlyhavesmallyoungcohortsandalargeoldpopulation,whilemanycountrieshavebirthratesbelowthereplacement levelandhighdependency rates. Reforming care towards the elderly without neglectingchildcareresultsakeypolicyimplicationforcountriesgoingthroughthisstage,likeJapan,KoreaandtheMediterraneancountries.

Many Western, high-income countries with high human developmentexperience low aggregate fertility but no convergence among differentsocioeconomicstrata.Thissituationleadstolargegendergapsinlabourforceparticipationandemployment,urgingforinvestmentinsocialprotectionandcareregimes.ThecasesofLatinAmericahigh-incomecountriesaretheclearestexamples.InChile,UruguayandArgentina,women’slaborforceparticipationhasincreasedonaverage,yetforlowerincomegroupsithasremainedalmoststagnantforthelast15years(Gasparinietall,2015).

In middle-income countries, with considerably high level of humandevelopment,suchasLatinAmericaorEastAsia,fertilityhasdeclinednearthereplacement rates, yet countries still experience population growth, to avaryingdegree.Theprocessofurbanization is advanced, yet still going, andsocialprotectionandcaresystemsneedtobedeveloped.

Finally,somesocietiesarestillexperiencingaprocessofhighfertility,whichleads to fast population growth, called populationmomentum, and a youthboom. These countries aremostly located in Sub-Saharan Africa and, whilemanyhavealreadystartedthemortalitydecline,inothersmortalityhasalmoststagnated due to the high incidence of infectious diseases and low life

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expectancylow.

Totalfertilityratebycountry.2010-2015.

Source:WorldDevelopmentIndicators,2016

1.17

1.35

1.44

1.50

1.60

1.62

1.73

1.75

1.80

1.80

1.81

1.96

2.05

2.18

2.29

2.33

2.36

2.46

2.53

0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00

Korea

Italy

Japan

Germany

Canada

China

Brazil

Russian Federation

United States

United Kingdom

Australia

France

Turkey

Mexico

Argentina

India

Indonesia

South Africa

Saudi Arabia

Replacementrate:2.1

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Age structure of societies: young and elderly cohorts as percentage of totalpopulationbycountry.2016.


17


Gendergapinlabourparticipationbycountry.2016


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TF1 N10(190331)A Gendered Perspective on Changing ... · digital equity from a gendered and demographic perspective, several cross-cutting initiatives can contribute to the three