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THE CHALLENGE OF DIVERSITY
Montreal/New York/London
THE CHALLENGE OF DIVERSITY
Walter Johnson
Copyright © 2006 BLACK ROSE BOOKS
No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by any means electronic or
mechanical including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval
system—without written permission from the publisher, or, in the case of photocopying or
other reprographic copying, a license from the Canadian Reprography Collective, with the
exception of brief passages quoted by a reviewer in a newspaper or magazine.
Black Rose Books No. II339
National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data
The challenge of diversity / Walter Johnson. Johnson, Walter, 1947-
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN: 1-55164-273-5 (bound) ISBN: 1-55164-272-7 (pbk.)
(alternative ISBNs 9781551642734 [bound] 9781551642727 [pbk.])
1. Canada--Ethnic relations. 2. Canada--Race relations. 3. United States-- Ethnic relations.
4. United States--Race relations. 5. Multiculturalism-- Canada. 6.
Multiculturalism--United States. I. Title.
E49.J63 2005 305.8’00971 C2005-902390-2
Statistics Canada information is used with the permission of the Minister of Industry, as
Minister responsible for Statistics Canada. Information on the availability of the wide range
of data from Statistics Canada can be obtained from Statistics Canada’s Regional Offices, its
World Wide Web site at http://www.statcan.ca, and its toll-free number 1-800-263-1136.
Statistics for Chapter 5, with permission from the Toronto Star.
Pages 256 and 257 constitute an extension of this copyright page.
Cover design: Associés libres
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CONTENTS
List of Illustrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
Chapter 1
The Human Rights Revolution In Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Chapter 2
Perspectives On Human Diversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Chapter 3
From “White Canada” To The Multicultural Mosaic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Chapter 4
Immigration Debates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Chapter 5
The Challenge Of Diversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Chapter 6
Cultures In Conflict: The Hijab And Kirpan Controversies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Chapter 7
Canada’s Aboriginal Population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Chapter 8
Ethnicity, “Race” And Crime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Chapter 9
Origins Of English/French Conflict. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Chapter 10
Economic Dimensions Of Inequality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 2.1: “Couples (married and common-law) by visible minority status,
Canada, Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver, 2001 and 1991” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 2.2: “Proportion of visible minorities, Canada, 1981-2001”. . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figure 2.3: “Visible minorities groups, Canada, 1991-2001” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Figure 2.4: “Proportion of foreign-born, selected countries”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 2.5: “Foreign-born as a proportion of total population in selected interna-
tional metropolitan areas”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Figure 3.1: “Proportion of foreign-born, Canada, 1901-2001” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 3.2: “Proportion of immigrants born in Europe and Asia by period of
immigration, Canada, 2001”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Figure 4.1: “ Average earnings of recent immigrants aged 25 to 54, by highest
level of schooling and number of years in Canada, compared with the Cana-
dian-born, Canada, 1990 and 2000”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 4.2: “Levels of educational attainment among immigrants of the 1970s
and 1990s, Canada, 1981-2001”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Figure 4.3: “Labour Force Participation Rates for immigrants and non-immi-
grants (Percentage)”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Figure 5.1: “Singled Out”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Figure 5.2: “Who Gets Arrested”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 6.1: “Immigrants by major religious denominations and period of
immigration, Canada, 2001”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Figure 6.2: “More religions by median age, Canada, 2001 Census” . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 7.1: “Persons registered under the Indian Act” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Figure 7.2: “Population reporting Aboriginal identity, by age groups, Canada,
1996 and 2001”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
Figure 10.1: “Change in average income, by income deciles, census families,
Canada, 1990-2000”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Figure 10.2: “Men younger than 40 experienced little or no gains in average earn-
ings during the 1990s and make less than they did two decades ago” . . . . . . .197
Figure 10.3: “Women less than 30 earn less than they did two decades ago”. .198
This book is dedicated to the memory of Our Generation editors
C. George Benello
Abe Limonchik
Dan Daniels
Bert Young
and the artist/teacher Clifton Ruggles
All were deeply committed to the task of
intercultural bridge building
and the cause of social justice.
PREFACE
Discriminatory practices and legislation were socially sanctioned and en-
trenched in the legal system in Canada at the beginning of the 20th Century. In
the intervening period, the country has experienced a human rights revolution
with a dramatic improvement in the level of tolerance and understanding and a
much broader recognition of the rights of other people, the benefits of diversity,
and the need to recognize and even compensate for past injustices. These changes
took place because of the dedication and social activism of countless number of
courageous individuals and groups who challenged the established norms of so-
ciety. Legislation such as the Charter of Rights and Freedoms is really only the “ic-
ing on the cake” for the efforts of such people. Chapter One of the book
documents the extent to which inequality for women, religious and ethnic mi-
norities, and recently arrived immigrants was a fact of life in Canada for much
of the 20th Century.
Chapter Two outlines the physical and cognitive differences that exist
among human populations and the attempts to explain these differences over
time. At the beginning of the 20th century the explanations offered were essen-
tially pseudo-scientific rationalizations for widespread social and ethnic inequal-
ity. The intervening years have seen a dramatic shift in emphasis from the
differences that exist among human populations to the essential similarities. In
the scientific field, for example, the work of the human genome project has
served to undermine many biologically based explanations for inequality and re-
inforced the importance of social and cultural factors in explaining the differ-
ences that do exist. Chapter Two also contains some of the most recent census
data on emerging demographic trends in Canada and the United States.
Chapter Three, Four and Five of the text deal with some of the challenges
posed by the increasing ethnocultural diversity of Canadian society through an
examination of immigration history, the current debate over immigration pol-
icy, and the “hot button” issues of multiculturalism, racism, employment eq-
uity legislation, and racial profiling. Opposing viewpoints on many of these
issues are presented as a way of encouraging critical thinking. Chapter Five in-
cludes an in-depth analysis of the controversial Toronto Star series on racial pro-
filing and the ensuing debate.
Chapter Six deals with the growing religious and cultural diversity in Can-
ada and how it is related to changes in immigration and refugee policies. Key
components of the four fastest growing religious affiliations in Canada are re-
viewed. Underlying tensions between the cultural traditions of long-established
residents and newcomers are examined through recent debates and controversies
over the wearing of Hijabs (head scarves) by Muslim women in schools, the pos-
session of Kirpans (ceremonial daggers) by orthodox Sikhs, and changes to police
uniform requirements which permit the wearing of turbans. Other more intrac-
table challenges posed by such cultural practices as female circumcision are also
discussed in the context of Canada’s constitutional commitment to multicultur-
alism.
Within some communities the tension between religious tradition and the
secular nature of Canadian society has manifested itself in increasing genera-
tional conflict, the rise of street gangs, and controversies over the changing role
of women. This chapter also describes some of the major issues that have arisen
in the past decade as many cultural communities attempt to cope with these
challenges.
Heightened public security concerns in the wake of the terror attacks on the
World Trade Center on September 11, 2001 have focused intense scrutiny on
immigrants and refugees from countries torn by religious and ethnic divisions.
This chapter concludes by outlining the historical roots of some of these conflicts
and how the turmoil in their countries of origin continues to plague many new
immigrants once they have arrived in Canada.
Chapter Seven documents the effects of government policy on aboriginal
populations since the birth of Canada. The evolution of policy, which lurched
from initial cooperation and partnership to paternalism and attempted assimila-
tion, and eventually to the idea of cultural autonomy, is examined critically
with an emphasis on the Indian Act and its consequences. A variety of view-
points are presented on current controversies over aboriginal self-government,
land claims, the legacy of residential schools, the role of aboriginal women, and
differential treatment of aboriginal offenders in the criminal justice system. New
data on comparable health indicators and some of the most recent Canadian cen-
sus information on the aboriginal population are included in this chapter.
Chapter Eight reviews recent data from Corrections Canada and the United
States Department of Justice to illustrate how social and ethnic inequality affects
the likelihood of being incarcerated in the two countries. While the rate of prison
x / THE CHALLENGE OF DIVERSITY
construction in the United States has steadily increased over the past twenty
years, Canadians have been moving towards the idea that alternatives to impris-
onment may be more effective in reducing the likelihood of recidivism and actu-
ally preventing crime in the first place.
Chapter Nine describes how French-speaking Quebecois, a linguistic minor-
ity on the North American continent, struggled to maintain their language and
culture in the face of overwhelming pressures to assimilate from the dominant
English speaking majority. The strategies used to achieve this goal are evaluated
critically and related to the ongoing constitutional debates that have dominated
the political agenda in Canada for the past forty years. The chapter concludes
with some of the most recent census data on language trends both in Quebec and
the rest of Canada.
Chapter Ten outlines the dimensions of economic inequality in Canada and
the criteria by which inequality is measured. The most recent census data is used
to assess the relative social mobility of identifiable groups in Canada such as the
young, recently arrived immigrants, the aboriginal population, and people of
colour. The role of education in promoting social mobility is examined critically.
Controversies over the measurement of unemployment, the definition of pov-
erty, and the efficacy of programs designed to reduce inequality, are presented
and evaluated. Opposing viewpoints on such issues as the relative merits of so-
cial programs, “family values” and the proper role of government are broadly
outlined as a way of illustrating the nature and content of many public policy
debates in Canada.
Walter Johnson
PREFACE / xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In acknowledging those who made this book possible, first and foremost are Lu-
cia Kowaluk and Dimitri Roussopoulos, two colleagues and friends from the Our
Generation editorial board, who have been unfailing in their support and encour-
agement of my work for over thirty years. Many thanks also to the talented Linda
Barton, Black Rose Books Managing Editor, who adroitly and expeditiously su-
pervised the production of this book for publication.
Although I take complete responsibility for the contents of this book, there
are a number of people I would like to thank for their valuable insights and sug-
gestions. I am indebted to colleagues and friends in the Department of Anthro-
pology and Sociology at John Abbott College who give true meaning to the idea
of academic collegiality. They are Sharon Rozen-Aspler (Chairperson), Katherine
Allen, Jose Benmoyal, Richard Element, Richard Gilbert, Wendy Hadd, Edwin
Holland, Marcia Kovitz, Jacque Lavoie (retired), Raymond Lieu, Roger Maclean,
John Pestana, Steve Soroka, Margaret Waller, and our late, much beloved col-
league and friend, the incomparable Bert Young.
A special thanks to Stephane Blackman, a former student and now Sergeant
with the Deux Montagnes Regional Police Force, who, for many years, has dem-
onstrated his commitment to public service, and community-based policing, by
sharing his experiences as a police officer with my students.
Others who have provided inspiration, encouragement, or assistance at dif-
ferent stages of the project include Marjorie Hambides Stubbs (John Abbott
Nursing), Dr. Duncan G. Sinclair, Francoise Dykler, Jessica Mosher and Patti
Altridge.
To the thousands of students who have taken my courses over the past
twenty years in Humanities, Social Science, Police Technology, Nursing, Dental
Hygiene, Correctional Intervention, and Documentation Technology, I wish to
acknowledge my gratitude for the privilege of both teaching them and learning
from them.
Finally, to my partner Donna Johnson and our family, Kelly Johnson,
Ryan Johnson, Edmund Idziak, and Eliane Rouben, my heartfelt thanks for their
patience and encouragement while I was working on this book.