The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical andArchaeological Study by Robert SchickReview by: Alan WalmsleyJournal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 119, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1999), pp. 320-322Published by: American Oriental SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/606120 .

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Journal of the American Oriental Society 119.2 (1999)

The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Is- lamic Rule: A Historical and Archaeological Study. Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam, vol. 2. By ROBERT SCHICK. Princeton: DARWIN PRESS, 1995. Pp. xviii + 583, maps, plates. $59.95.

The speed and processes by which solidly Christian Palestine and Jordan of the sixth century C.E. became more and more Islam- icized after the conquest of 633-36 C.E. are poorly docu- mented and little studied. While the non-violent conquest of towns and the countryside is now commonly accepted by histo- rians and archaeologists alike, the manner and extent of socio-

religious change in the Christian communities in the centuries

immediately after the conquest has been difficult to assess. The issue is complicated by the lack of any general agreement on socio-economic conditions in the decades before the Islamic

conquest. Were towns in accelerating decline (as, for instance, Antioch in north Syria), or successfully adapting to new trade and commercial opportunities? Recent work at centers such as

Jerusalem, Caesarea, Pella, and Scythopolis would argue for a

continuing urban vibrancy well into the early seventh century, and likewise for a line of Arab villages on the Jordanian steppe east of Amman, from Umm al-Jimal to Rihab, Samra, and Umm al-Rasas. What elements of society continued after the Islamic

conquest and what changed-either because of or in spite of the

conquest-is only cursorily known and imperfectly understood. Our poor comprehension of these issues, which lie at the core of late antique and early Islamic studies in Palestine and Jordan, is in many ways attributable to major deficiencies in the quality, quantity, and availability of data, be it literary, epigraphical, nu-

mismatic, or archaeological. All credit, then, to Schick for recognizing and tackling an

important, yet much neglected, topic regardless of the major difficulties involved in gathering, collating, and analyzing the available data. His stated intention was to identify and explain, through an integration of archaeological and literary sources,

developments in the social history of the Christian population of Byzantine Palestine and Arabia from 602 to 813 C.E. Liter-

ary works and epigraphical data, although patchy in their cov-

erage, make an important contribution to the analysis. These sources have their own problems of interpretation, of which Schick is only too aware. Standing at the center of his study, however, are the region's numerous Byzantine churches: their

architecture, their decorative regimes of brightly colored mo-

saics, the detailed imagery presented, and subsequent struc- tural modifications and damage (usually iconoclastic) to the mosaics. Also crucial to the study is the termination date for the ecclesiastical function of each church and the nature of this terminus: by violence, voluntary abandonment, or con- version (forceful or willingly) of the building into other uses. Here archaeology, although fraught with problems (as Schick

clearly recognizes; see further below), is the major source of information.

Schick's book, a revised version of his 1987 Chicago doc- toral thesis, consists of two major sections, one analytical and the other consisting of tabulated data arranged alphabetically by site. Central to the work is the second section: an extensive

"Corpus of Sites," constituting about half of the book (pp. 225-

484), which is particularly thorough and comprehensive in its

coverage. Through an integrated presentation in summary of data from Byzantine and early Arabic literary works and archae-

ological research, Schick attempts to identify a Christian and/or Muslim presence at each site and the development of each

group, especially the Christians, during the period under study. Major sites such as Jerusalem, with its many literary references, churches, Islamic buildings, and archaeological excavations, are comprehensively analyzed, while other localities rate only a few lines. Unfortunately, this often reflects, not the historical im-

portance of individual sites, but availability of information and hence is largely outside Schick's control. Reference to unpub- lished archives in Jordan and Israel may have helped, but often such reports are little more than unsubstantiated opinions by the excavators and are of low reliability.

The corpus is supported by a full bibliography of over 1,130 references that span the major European languages, Arabic, and

specific Hebrew works-an excellent resource for any student of late antique and early Islamic Palestine and Jordan.

The first section (pp. 9-224) presents a detailed discussion and analysis of the disparate historical and archaeological data

brought together site-by-site in section two. A number of major themes are pursued with some vigor: social conditions in Chris- tian Palestine and Jordan immediately before the Sassanid of- fensive of 614 (chapter one); the Sassanid occupation of 614-28,

especially its impact on Christian populations (notably in Jeru-

salem), and the evidence for military activity by the Jews and

raiding by nomadic tribes, particularly of monasteries in the wilderness south-east of Jerusalem (chapter two); the Byzantine reconquest, the visit of Heraclius to Jerusalem and the recon- struction of Jerusalem, the dealings of the emperor with local

population groups and the extent to which Byzantine control was reasserted over the region (chapter three); the Islamic con-

quest, especially its military and legal character as preserved in

the literary and archaeological sources (chapter four); the his- torical events of the early Islamic period and specifically their

impact on the Christian population of Palestine and Jordan

(chapter five). In chapter six continuity and discontinuity in church use dur-

ing the early Islamic period (C.E. 640-813)-an important study but not without its problems (see below)-is discussed pri-

marily from an archaeological perspective. Tables list churches

according to whether they were in use throughout the period or

only for part of the period, as concluded from the evidence

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Reviews of Books

collated in the Corpus. Schick concludes that "a large number of churches were in use in the Umayyad period, but that only a reduced number continued for long into the Abbasid period" (p. 119). He proposes that about half the churches continued in use into the early ninth century, and investigates the character- istics of these developments. Further topics dealt with are the

growth of the Muslim population, using material evidence

(mosques, for example) and literary works (chapter seven); the

mostly benign Muslim policies toward the Christians, espe- cially the important issue of legal attitudes to the construction and repair of churches in the Umayyad and Abbasid periods (chapter eight); a detailed consideration of the physical evidence for iconoclastic damage to the churches of Palestine and Jordan, predominantly to the floor mosaics (chapter nine). In this chap- ter, a wide range of issues dealing with iconoclasm is explored from a new and often refreshing perspective. According to Schick, the damage to church mosaics was regularly inflicted by the Christians themselves, as careful repairs show. Where the

repairs were rough or non-existent, Schick suggests that later

occupants (still Christians?) of disused churches were respon- sible for the damage. Earlier, Schick cautiously ascribed the absence of iconoclastic damage to church abandonment before c. 720 (p. 129; however on p. 186 it is only one of a number of

possibilities), and this becomes a measure of church continuity in the Corpus. Yet I have considerable reservations as to whether the lack of iconoclastic damage to a mosaic is solely attributable to (and can be used as evidence for) the ecclesiastical demise of a church; the mixture of damaged and intact images within a single church would suggest a considerably more complicated scenario, including the presence and even intentional use of floor coverings to conceal undesirable images.

As Schick notes (pp. 6-7), the archaeological evidence on late antiquity and early Islamic Palestine and Jordan is beset with a number of major problems, and these often considerably lessen the value of this data for the writing of a social history of the seventh to ninth centuries. The chronology of building con- struction, use, and abandonment is repeatedly difficult to estab- lish and impossible to verify, excavations are more often than not inadequately published (woefully so), and there are serious methodological problems, as many churches were simply cleared of later occupation without sufficient records being kept. Where possible, Schick has tried to address these problems, but not al- ways with complete success. In some instances he appears a lit- tle too uncritical in accepting the conclusions presented by excavators in site reports, most notably the horribly confused and misdated results from Khirbat Karak and Kursi (pp. 272-73 and 378-88). Not even the information about the Pella churches is above question (pp. 424-27), especially as there is convincing literary and geological evidence for not one but two large earth- quakes affecting north Palestine and Jordan in the mid-eighth century (dating to 747 and 750 C.E.; see I. Karcz and A. Elad,

"Further Comments on the 'Sabbatical Year' Earthquake," Tar- biz 61.1 (1991): 67-83, in Hebrew with English summary). Perhaps, then, the Pella church-and those at many other cen- ters-were not abandoned but in the process of being repaired (was permission first required?) when the second and greater earthquake of 750 brought them crashing down. Hence the num- ber of apparently abandoned churches, especially in the popu- lous north, may be greatly exaggerated; they were, rather, simply awaiting repair. The evidence of reconstruction work in process at the church of Bishop Isaiah at Jarash when it was destroyed (pp. 319-20) would seem to support this proposition.

The text is mostly clean and free of errors, although there are a number of annoyances. There are some typographical mis- takes, especially in the contents lists before the main body of the text, and the surname Pringle is misspelled ("Pringel") through- out. Schick sometimes lapses into using unsuitable language: for instance, "medieval," "early Arab" (meaning early Islamic), "squatter"-terms that can be misleading and even derogatory. They do not adequately describe the historical periods nor cor-

rectly inform the reader as to the real nature of occupation. It

appears as though on occasion he has inadvertently but uncrit- ically taken these terms from his sources, not all of whom deal

impartially with the period. Also requiring some standardiza- tion are place names. While Schick explains his approach in the introduction to the Corpus (pp. 227-28), there is still great variation in usage between ancient and modern, and Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek. The provision of a concordance of place names would have gone a long way toward alleviating this prob- lem, while being a valuable resource. The maps, being no more than plain line drawings, are just adequate. Most mystifying is the lack of integration of the plates at the end of the book into the text even where directly relevant-for instance, in describ- ing the end of the Humaymah churches. Primarily these were matters of editorial responsibility.

In this book Schick has collected and scrutinized two very different categories of data, literary and archaeological, in an at-

tempt to understand the extent and nature of social continuity in Christian populations during two centuries of rapid political, re- ligious and economic change. This was no easy task, given the quantity (insufficient), quality (poor), and disparate nature of the evidence, and the complexity of the issues being considered. However Schick has managed to deliver a plausible, if not (given the above) complete, account of Christian history in Pal- estine and Jordan after the Islamic Conquest. His book marks an important step in our understanding of socio-economic and re- ligious transitions in the early Islamic period, and recent articles by Schick display a developing comprehension of the complex issues involved. New archaeological projects, if properly con- ducted, promise to deliver much new and more reliable infor- mation on church usage (and, hence, ownership) in the early Islamic period, especially as credible ceramic chronologies are

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Journal of the American Oriental Society 119.2 (1999) Journal of the American Oriental Society 119.2 (1999)

finally appearing for the region (although much more needs to be done in the south). Simultaneously, it is hoped, archaeology and history will continue to find common ground and develop mature methodologies to deal with the many complex questions of social continuity and change during the transition from Byz- antine to Islamic hegemony over Palestine and Jordan.

ALAN WALMSLEY UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

The Jews of Medieval Islam, Community, Society, Identity:

Proceedings of an International Conference held by the

Institute of Jewish Studies, University College, London, 1992. Edited by DANIEL FRANK. ttudes sur le judaisme m6di6vale, vol. 16. Leiden: E. J. BRILL, 1995. Pp. xiv +

357. HF1 163, $105.

Cultural historians seek to integrate social, religious, and in-

tellectual history in their quest to understand the continually

shifting cultural identities of their subjects. Those seeking to

understand the cultural history of the Jews ask such questions as

how Jewish identity is constructed; where and how the bound-

aries are established between Jews and non-Jews; how Jewish

cultures interact on all levels with the cultures of the surround-

ing non-Jewish world; what the relationships are between elite

and popular culture; and what roles "marginal" groups such as

women play in Jewish culture. The work in question here consists of a collection of articles

presented at a conference held by the Institute of Jewish Stud-

ies at University College in London in June of 1992, that, as a

whole, treat the cultural history of the Jews of medieval Islam.

The collection is of exceptionally high quality overall and well

edited by Daniel Frank. As an added bonus, most of the schol-

ars represented derive from Israeli institutions and typically write in Hebrew-making this volume of particular importance to the non-Hebrew-language world.

The book is divided into three sections, following a prologue

by Norman Stillman that discusses the urbanization of most of

the Jewish world of Islam as part of the urbanization of the Is-

lamic world in the wake of the Conquest. Examining the close

proximity of Jews, Muslims, and Christians in urban settings sets the tone for the following three sections.

Part one, "Communities and Their Leaders: Iraq and Spain,"

opens with Menahem Ben-Sasson's examination of inter-com-

munal relations during the Geonic period. Because the Jewish

communities west of Egypt became important only after the ex-

ilarchate and gaonate(s) of Babylonia-Iraq and the Land of

Israel had divided up the Islamic world into its four domains of

finally appearing for the region (although much more needs to be done in the south). Simultaneously, it is hoped, archaeology and history will continue to find common ground and develop mature methodologies to deal with the many complex questions of social continuity and change during the transition from Byz- antine to Islamic hegemony over Palestine and Jordan.

ALAN WALMSLEY UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

The Jews of Medieval Islam, Community, Society, Identity:

Proceedings of an International Conference held by the

Institute of Jewish Studies, University College, London, 1992. Edited by DANIEL FRANK. ttudes sur le judaisme m6di6vale, vol. 16. Leiden: E. J. BRILL, 1995. Pp. xiv +

357. HF1 163, $105.

Cultural historians seek to integrate social, religious, and in-

tellectual history in their quest to understand the continually

shifting cultural identities of their subjects. Those seeking to

understand the cultural history of the Jews ask such questions as

how Jewish identity is constructed; where and how the bound-

aries are established between Jews and non-Jews; how Jewish

cultures interact on all levels with the cultures of the surround-

ing non-Jewish world; what the relationships are between elite

and popular culture; and what roles "marginal" groups such as

women play in Jewish culture. The work in question here consists of a collection of articles

presented at a conference held by the Institute of Jewish Stud-

ies at University College in London in June of 1992, that, as a

whole, treat the cultural history of the Jews of medieval Islam.

The collection is of exceptionally high quality overall and well

edited by Daniel Frank. As an added bonus, most of the schol-

ars represented derive from Israeli institutions and typically write in Hebrew-making this volume of particular importance to the non-Hebrew-language world.

The book is divided into three sections, following a prologue

by Norman Stillman that discusses the urbanization of most of

the Jewish world of Islam as part of the urbanization of the Is-

lamic world in the wake of the Conquest. Examining the close

proximity of Jews, Muslims, and Christians in urban settings sets the tone for the following three sections.

Part one, "Communities and Their Leaders: Iraq and Spain,"

opens with Menahem Ben-Sasson's examination of inter-com-

munal relations during the Geonic period. Because the Jewish

communities west of Egypt became important only after the ex-

ilarchate and gaonate(s) of Babylonia-Iraq and the Land of

Israel had divided up the Islamic world into its four domains of

Jewish control (rashuyot), they were able to establish a volun-

tary rather than obligatory relationship with the central Jewish

authorities, thereby creating a complicated and dynamic rela-

tionship between the outlying regions and the center and be-

tween the various authorities represented by the center. Moshe

Gil follows by assembling and evaluating the often contradic-

tory accounts of the exilarchate in order to place the names and

dynasties in historical order and relate them to known histori-

cal occasions and political issues of the day. He sorts out the

details, for example, of the exilarch Bustanai's (d. 670) well-

known marriage to a non-Jewish Persian princess, the resulting

controversy regarding the status of her children and their de-

scendants (one descendant of whom became exilarch), and the

marriage's association with other controversies between rival

exilarchs and between the Palestinian and Babylonian com-

munities in general. In "Halakhah and Reality in the Gaonic

Period: Taqqanah, Minhag, Tradition and Consensus," Gideon

Libson examines how the Geonim used legal tools to respond to the challenges posed by the dynamics of history. The Geonim

developed innovative techniques to adapt to new circumstances,

many of them resulting from the Jewish world's absorption into

the Islamic empire, while retaining the formal halakhic frame-

work of rabbinic tradition. David J. Wasserstein's cautious

"Jewish Elites in Al-Andalus" treats methodological and con-

ceptual problems associated with the study of Jewish elites in

Muslim Spain. Noting how little hard data we truly have

regarding the Jewish minority, he cautions that what might

appear as even slight variations in population estimates can

have a profound and deleterious impact on conclusions that may be drawn from them. Part one concludes with Yom Tov Assis'

"Judeo-Arabic Tradition in Christian Spain," in which he treats

the continuation of the Jewish "Golden Age" in the Hispanic

kingdoms. What eventuated culturally in the northern areas, as a

result of greater mobility between Spain and the Frankish king- doms beginning in the mid-twelfth century, was an amalgam of

the Judeo-Arabic cultural traditions with those of Ashkenaz.

The final product of this amalgam was the Sephardi cultural

and religious heritage, a synthesis that dominated the Iberian

Peninsula by the fifteenth century. Part two, "Self-Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Others,"

focuses on identity issues of members of a protected minority

living a highly integrated life within the dominant Arabic-

speaking or Islamicate1 culture. The section opens with Yedida

Stillman's "Costume as Cultural Statement," in which she es-

tablishes the correlation between changes in dress and political

changes in Islamic society. Dress constituted a visual statement

of one's political ideology, socio-economic status, and religious

1 The term is Marshall Hodgson's and refers to the cultural as

opposed to religious impact of Islam on the civilizations orga- nized under the hegemony of the Islamic world.

Jewish control (rashuyot), they were able to establish a volun-

tary rather than obligatory relationship with the central Jewish

authorities, thereby creating a complicated and dynamic rela-

tionship between the outlying regions and the center and be-

tween the various authorities represented by the center. Moshe

Gil follows by assembling and evaluating the often contradic-

tory accounts of the exilarchate in order to place the names and

dynasties in historical order and relate them to known histori-

cal occasions and political issues of the day. He sorts out the

details, for example, of the exilarch Bustanai's (d. 670) well-

known marriage to a non-Jewish Persian princess, the resulting

controversy regarding the status of her children and their de-

scendants (one descendant of whom became exilarch), and the

marriage's association with other controversies between rival

exilarchs and between the Palestinian and Babylonian com-

munities in general. In "Halakhah and Reality in the Gaonic

Period: Taqqanah, Minhag, Tradition and Consensus," Gideon

Libson examines how the Geonim used legal tools to respond to the challenges posed by the dynamics of history. The Geonim

developed innovative techniques to adapt to new circumstances,

many of them resulting from the Jewish world's absorption into

the Islamic empire, while retaining the formal halakhic frame-

work of rabbinic tradition. David J. Wasserstein's cautious

"Jewish Elites in Al-Andalus" treats methodological and con-

ceptual problems associated with the study of Jewish elites in

Muslim Spain. Noting how little hard data we truly have

regarding the Jewish minority, he cautions that what might

appear as even slight variations in population estimates can

have a profound and deleterious impact on conclusions that may be drawn from them. Part one concludes with Yom Tov Assis'

"Judeo-Arabic Tradition in Christian Spain," in which he treats

the continuation of the Jewish "Golden Age" in the Hispanic

kingdoms. What eventuated culturally in the northern areas, as a

result of greater mobility between Spain and the Frankish king- doms beginning in the mid-twelfth century, was an amalgam of

the Judeo-Arabic cultural traditions with those of Ashkenaz.

The final product of this amalgam was the Sephardi cultural

and religious heritage, a synthesis that dominated the Iberian

Peninsula by the fifteenth century. Part two, "Self-Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Others,"

focuses on identity issues of members of a protected minority

living a highly integrated life within the dominant Arabic-

speaking or Islamicate1 culture. The section opens with Yedida

Stillman's "Costume as Cultural Statement," in which she es-

tablishes the correlation between changes in dress and political

changes in Islamic society. Dress constituted a visual statement

of one's political ideology, socio-economic status, and religious

1 The term is Marshall Hodgson's and refers to the cultural as

opposed to religious impact of Islam on the civilizations orga- nized under the hegemony of the Islamic world.

322 322

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