The Effect of Demographic Variables on Ethnic Experience

The Effect of Demographic Variables on Ethnic Experience

KAMALA S. THO MAS^ WAYNE A. BARDWELL San Diego State University

and University of California, San Diego

Department of Psychiatty University of California, San Diego

VANESSA MALCARNE JOEL E. DIMSDALE San Diego State University Department of Psychiatry

University of California, San Diego

Research on ethnicity and health has increased recently, but there is still comparatively little known about the nuances of ethnicity and how they might influence health and health behaviors. Using the Scale of Ethnic Experience, this study revealed ethnic differences on perceived discrimination, ethnic identity, and mainstream comfort. Within the African American sample, socioeconomic status (SES), age, and gender influenced these factors. However, Caucasian Americans reported less perceived discrimination and ethnic identity than did African Americans regardless of age, gender, or SES. They also perceived more control over their ability to succeed in mainstream society than did African Americans. These findings suggest that ethnicity consists of multiple components, which may be influenced by demographic factors in African Americans. It is possible that each aspect of ethnicity differentially relates to health outcomes.

In the last decade, considerable research has been conducted in an effort to understand ethnic disparities in health. In spite of these efforts, there is still comparatively little known about the nuances of ethnicity that may influence mental and physical health. Although factors such as perceived discrimination and ethnic identity may be related to differential health outcomes in ethnic minorities, it is not clear whether age, gender, and socioeconomic status (SES) influence these factors. This study examined ethnic differences in ethnic identity, social functioning, and perceived discrimination. It also investigated how demographic variables are related to these factors.

'Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to KaMala Thomas, SDSUIUCSD, Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, UCSD Mail Code 0804,9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804.

Journal of Appfied Biobehavioral Research, 2004, 9, 2, pp. 65-79. Copyright 0 2004 by Bellwether Publishing, Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Ethnic discrimination is a common experience for African Americans (Broman, Mavaddat, & Hsu, 2000; Dressler, Bindon, & Neggers, 1998; Fisher & Hartmann, 1995; Gary, 1995; Landrine & Klonoff, 1996; Nelson, 2003; Schulz et al., 2000; Sigelman & Welch, 1991; Thompson, 1996; Weitzer & Tuch, 1999). Recent reports from the Institute of Medicine reveal that African Americans and other ethnic minorities receive lower quality healthcare than do Caucasian Americans (Nelson, 2003). Furthermore, African Americans have higher unemployment rates and a longer mean duration of unemployment than do Caucasian Americans (Darity, 2003). Perceptions of racism may be a risk factor for poor health in African Americans (Harrell, Hall, & Taliaferro, 2003). Recent findings indicate that such perceptions may partially explain the high prevalence of hyper- tension (Dressler et al., 1998; Guyll, Matthews, & Bromberger, 2001; Harrell et al., 2003; Krieger & Sidney, 1996; Williams & Neighbors, 2001) in African Americans and may be related to depression in this group (Simons et al., 2002).

A variable closely related to perceived discrimination is the perception of one’s position in mainstream society. In a study examining perceptions of ethnic relations in America, individuals were asked to rank their ethnic group’s position in the economic and social structures of America (Barlow, Taylor, & Lambert, 2000). African Americans perceived themselves as being economically and socially excluded from mainstream society more often than did Caucasian Americans and Cubans, This may be due to the history of mistreatment of African Americans in America. It is possible that previous exposure to discrimination leads to a lowered sense of mastery and control over the economic and social outcomes in life (Branscornbe, Schmitt, & Harvey, 1999).

African Americans who report a strong sense of ethnic identity have more positive self-esteem than do those who hold anti-African American attitudes (Collins & Lightsey, 2001; Goldstein & Ponterotto, 1997; Nelville & Lily, 2000; Phelps, Taylor, & Gerard, 2001; Thornton, Tran, & Taylor, 1997; Wilson & Constantine, 1999). Ethnic identity refers to the extent to which an individual feels connected to a social category based on ethnicity, skin color, or a common history of oppression because of skin color (Phinney, 1996; Thompson, 1996). Several studies have found that, for marginalized groups who perceive that they are the victims of prejudice and discrimination, having a strong sense of ethnic identity enhances psychological well being (Branscombe et al., 1999; Mossakowski, 2003; Noh & Kaspar, 2003). It is also possible that individuals with a strong sense of ethnic identity are more likely to perceive discrimination. Being more connected to one’s ethnic group may contribute to individuals being more sensitive to racism.

Another variable that may be associated with ethnic differences in health relates to the preference for developing close relationships with members of one’s ethnic group. Although research in this area is relatively new, studies suggest that the tendency to associate with individuals who have the same ethnic

DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES AND ETHNIC EXPERIENCE 67

background and to rely on them for social support is common among African Americans (Allen & Bagozzi, 2001; Fisher & Hartmann, 1995; Stephan & Stephan, 1989). Thus, social affiliation preferences may be a component of ethnicity that has an impact on psychological well being and health.

Perceived discrimination and ethnic identity may be influenced by demographic factors (Broman et al., 2000; Dressler et al., 1998; Gary, 1995; Weitzer & Tuch, 1999). Several studies have found differences in the report of ethnic identity and perceived discrimination among African Americans based on age, gender, and education level (Broman et al., 2000; Gary, 1995; Thornton et al., 1997). The results of these studies suggest that African Americans who are younger, male, and have more education are more likely to perceive discrimination and to have a stronger sense of ethnic identity (Broman et al., 2000; Gary, 1995; Thomton et al., 1997; Weitzer & Tuch, 1999). Variables assessing the extent to which individuals feel as if they are a part of mainstream society and prefer to develop close relationships with their own ethnic group have only recently been recognized as possible indicators of health outcomes. Consequently, no studies have been conducted examining how these variables relate to demographic factors.

Malcarne, Chavira, Fernandez, and Liu (2003) recently developed the Scale of Ethnic Experience (SEE), which is a measure that examines four separate constructs related to the experience of ethnicity: perceived discrimination, ethnic identity, mainstream comfort, and social affiliation. These constructs have been conceptualized as being relatively independent because each construct assesses unique dimensions related to an individual’s perception of how his or her ethnicity influences his or her social functioning in society. The constructs have been combined into a single multidimensional scale to provide a more complete depic- tion of this functioning. This scale was designed to be used across all ethnic groups, and it enables researchers to conduct ethnic-group comparisons of subscale scores. Using this measure, we examined ethnic differences on social- affiliation preferences, ethnic identity, and discrimination. We expected that African Americans would report more perceived discrimination and ethnic identity and that they would have a greater preference for associating with their own ethnic group. We also expected that African Americans would report less mainstream comfort than would Caucasian Americans.

A primary objective of this study was to examine whether demographic factors influence the report of ethnic identity and discrimination. We expected that there would be an interaction between ethnicity and gender on SEE subscales and that social class would predict subscale scores. To examine age differences in the report of ethnic identity and discrimination, we compared data collected from our sample of middle-aged African Americans and Caucasian Americans with normative data from a younger, college sample of African Americans and Caucasian Americans. Based on findings from existing literature (Broman et al., 2000; Dressler et al., 1998; Gary, 1995; Weitzer & Tuch, 1999), we expected that

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younger African Americans, and to a lesser degree Caucasian Americans, would report more perceived discrimination, ethnic identity, and social affiliation than their older counterparts. It was also expected that younger individuals would report less mainstream comfort than would their older counterparts.

Method

Participants

Participants for the current study consisted of 85 individuals recruited from San Diego and surrounding communities. Of these, 37 (45.1%) were African American (20 men and 17 women) and 45 (54.9%) were Caucasian American (31 men and 14 women). Participants were between 25 and 52 years old. The mean age of the African Americans was 39.5 (SEM = 1.14), and the mean age of the Caucasian Americans was 36.24 @EM= 1.24). Participants were recruited to partake in a study of stress, blood pressure, and ethnicity through word of mouth referrals and through public advertisements. Prior to participation, informed con- sent was obtained in accordance with an institutional review board protocol that was approved by the University of California, San Diego, Institutional Review Board.

Questionnaires

Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. The Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MC; Crowne & Marlowe, 1960) is a self-report scale com- posed of 33 True/False items representing behaviors that are considered to be socially desirable but that also have a low probability of occurrence in the general population. A high score on this measure is interpreted as reflecting a respondent’s attempt to present himself or herself in a socially desirable light. The MC has been found to have good psychometric properties, with internal consistency coefficients above .80.

Scale of Ethnic Experience. The Scale of Ethnic Experience (SEE; Malcarne et al., 2003) is a 32-item, 5-point Likert-type self-report questionnaire that measures the experience of ethnicity across several dimensions. Its four subscales assess ethnic identity, social affiliation/intimacy, mainstream comfort, and perceived discrimination. High scores on each subscale indicate greater endorsement of the construct being assessed. Ethnic identity assesses an individual’s sense of belonging to an ethnic group and the value attached to one’s ethnicity. A sample item is, “I have a strong sense of myself as a member of my ethnic group.” Social affiliatiodintimacy assesses an individual’s preference for associating with members of his or her own ethnic group. A sample item is, “I feel most comfortable talking about personal things with people from my own ethnic group.” Main- stream comfort assesses whether an individual feels as if he or she is a part of


mainstream society. A sample item is, “I understand how to get along well in mainstream America.” Perceived discrimination assesses whether an individual believes that members of his or her ethnic group have been discriminated against in society. A sample item is, “In my life, I have experienced prejudice because of my ethnicity.” The SEE was initially validated on a college sample from diverse ethnic groups and has been found to have sound psychometric properties, with internal consistency coefficients ranging from .82 to .89 for the subscales. It also has been found to have concurrent validity, which is demonstrated through corre- lations with existing group-specific instruments in predicted directions.

Two Factor Index of Social Position. The Two Factor Index of Social Position (Hollingshead, 1958) measures an individual’s social status. The two factors that determine social position are Occupation and Education. Each factor has a 1 to 7 range, with lower scores representing a higher social status. Scores on the Educa- tion and Occupation factors can be combined to obtain an index of social class. Social Class is scaled in five categories, with lower scores representing a higher social class.

Statistical Analysis

A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine differences between African Americans and Caucasian Americans and to examine the interaction between ethnicity and gender on SEE subscales. Ethnicity and gender were both entered as independent variables, and SEE subscales were entered as outcome variables. To determine whether social desirability influences subscale scores, a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was conducted with social desirability entered as the covariate. To examine the relation of social class to SEE subscale scores, we conducted regression analyses with education and occupation entered as predictors and SEE subscales entered as outcome variables. Finally, to examine age differences in SEE subscale scores, we conducted an unpaired t test comparing data from our sample with normative data from a younger sample of college students. The mean age of the validation sample was 20.1 years (SD = 4.35). There were 209 African Americans and 867 Caucasian Americans in the student validation sample.

Results

Sample Characteristics

Most of the participants had at least a partial college education (78%) and were in the middle-class bracket (59%). All participants were between 90% and 130% of ideal body weight based on Metropolitan standards. There were no significant differences between African Americans and Caucasian Americans on age, education, or social class (see Table 1 for sample characteristics).

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Table 1

Sample Characteristics

African Caucasian Americans Americans

( n = 37) (n=48) p

Education Bachelor of Arts and above Partial college High school Less than high school

Upper class Middle class Lower class

Hypertensive

Social class-Hollingsheada

Age ( M + SEM)

Social desirability ( M + SEM)

10 (27.0%) 19 (51.4%) 5 (13.5%) 3 (8.1%)

5 (13.5%) 17 (47.2%) 15 (41.7%)

12 (32.4%)

39.50 2 1.14

19.73 2 1.09

21 (46.7%) 14 (29.2%) 9 (18.8%) 1 (2.1%) .18

9 (20.0%) 16 (35.6%) 20 (44.4%) .70

6 (12.5%) .029

36.24 2 1.24 .057

15.50 2 0.84 .002

class categories based on Hollingshead criteria: Upper class = Groups I and 11; Middle class = Group 111; Lower class = Groups IV and V.

Ethnic D8ereences

As the following paragraphs will demonstrate, there were substantial differences in the African American sample on perceived discrimination and ethnic identity based on gender, social class, and age. In contrast, scores in the Caucasian American sample were not demonstrably different among the subgroups.

As shown in Table 2, African Americans had higher scores on ethnic identity ( F = 3 7 . 1 7 , ~ < .0001) and perceived discrimination ( F = 117.17 ,~ < .0001) than did Caucasian Americans, and they had lower scores on mainstream comfort ( F = 5.72, p < .05) than did Caucasian Americans. There was no difference between African Americans and Caucasian Americans on social affiliation. African Americans had higher social desirability scores than did Caucasian Americans ( F = 9 . 9 2 , ~ < .01, ~ - 2 = .12). Furthermore, higher social desirability scores predicted greater ethnic identity in the total sample, r2 = .12, p < .01. Because previous studies have shown that social desirability affects scores on psychoso- cia1 measures in African Americans (Bardwell & Dimsdale, 2001), a


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72 THOMAS ET AL.

Black 0 White c (D

Men Women Gender

Figure 1. Interaction between gender and ethnicity on discrimination. African American women report more perceived discrimination than do African American men

< .05).

MANCOVA was conducted controlling for social desirability. After controlling for social desirability, the results remained the same. The adjusted means on SEE subscales are listed in Table 2.

Effects of Gender

There was a significant interaction between gender and ethnicity on perceived discrimination (F= 4 . 4 9 , ~ < .05) and social affiliation (F= 4.98, p < .05) but not on ethnic identity and mainstream comfort. Specifically, there were significant gender differences on the subscales for African Americans, but not on the subscales for Caucasian Americans. As can be seen in Figures 1 and 2, African American women reported more perceived discrimination (F = 4 . 9 5 , ~ < .OS) and social affiliation (F = 6.835, p < .05) than did African American men. Although the gender differences were not significant within the Caucasian American sample, it is noteworthy that the pattern of results was opposite to that found in the African American sample, with men reporting more perceived discrimination and social affiliation than women.

Effects of SES

Regression analyses revealed that SES was unrelated to the SEE subscale scores in the total sample. However, we wondered if SES would explain the observed differences between African American men and women on perceived


1 Black 0 White I

Men Gender

Women

Figure 2. Interaction between gender and ethnicity on social affiliation. African American women have higher social affiliation scores than do African American men (p < .05).

discrimination and social affiliation. Therefore, regression analyses were conducted to examine how education and occupation were related to perceived discrimination and social affiliation in African American men and women, separately. SES did not predict social affiliation in African American women. However, African American men with less education were more likely to report preferring to associate with their own ethnic group, r2 = .30, p < .05. There was no relationship between social class and perceived discrimination in African American men. However, African American women with more skilled occupations were more likely to report experiencing discrimination, r2 = .26, p < .05. Within the Caucasian American sample, SES was not related to perceived discrimination or social affiliation scores.

Effects of Age

Unpaired t tests revealed no differences in SEE subscale scores between younger and older Caucasian Americans. However, the following differences were found between younger and older African Americans. Younger African Americans from the normative sample had higher social affiliation (2.95 vs. 2.64; t = - 2 . 6 5 , ~ < .05) and perceived discrimination (3.94 vs. 3.77; t = - 2 . 0 7 , ~ .05) scores than did our sample of older African Americans. Younger African Americans also reported less mainstream comfort (3.15 vs. 3.63; t = 4.79, p < .0001) than did older African Americans. There was no difference in ethnic identity between younger and older African Americans.

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Discussion

Behavioral medicine researchers have shown increasing interest in understanding links between ethnicity and health disparities. Based on SEE subscale scores, we found ethnic differences in predicted directions on perceived discrimination, ethnic identity, and mainstream comfort. However, it is especially noteworthy that, within the African American sample, gender, SES, and age influenced these factors.

Within the current study, African Americans reported more perceived discrimination than did Caucasian Americans. This supports previous findings that perceived discrimination is common among African Americans (Broman et al., 2000; Fisher & Hartmann, 1995; Gary, 1995; Sigelman & Welch, 1991). As expected, African Americans reported stronger ethnic identity than did Caucasian Americans in the study. African Americans also had lower scores on mainstream comfort than did Caucasian Americans. This is consistent with research stating that individuals who believe that they are the targets of discrimination often report a lowered sense of mastery and feelings of exclusion from mainstream society (Barlow et al., 2000; Branscombe et al., 1999).

The social affiliation subscale assesses the extent to which individuals prefer to associate with members of their own ethnic group. We expected that African Americans would have higher social affiliation scores than would Caucasian Americans. Surprisingly, the results of the analyses did not support this hypothe- sis. There was no difference in scores on the social affiliation subscale between African American and Caucasian American participants. This provides some support for the assertion that the preference for associating with one’s own ethnic group is a phenomenon that is common among individuals of all ethnic back- grounds (Gudykunst & Hall, 1994).

There was a significant interaction between ethnicity and gender on social affiliation and perceived discrimination. Specifically, African American women were more likely to prefer associating with other African Americans and reported more discrimination than did their male counterparts. Curiously, the pattern of results was different in Caucasian Americans. Although these differences were not significant, Caucasian American men had higher perceived discrimination and social affiliation scores than did Caucasian American women. This may reflect feelings of reverse discrimination among Caucasian American men in the sample as a result of programs seeking to increase representation of women and ethnic minorities.

Our results differ from those reported by Broman et al. (2000) in which Black men perceived more discrimination than did Black women. This may be due to differences in the methodology. Broman et al. (2000) asked participants five questions about discrimination, with each question assessing discrimination in a different setting. Men had higher scores on questions related to getting a job and


interacting with the police. In the current study, participants received a single score representing their general beliefs about discrimination against their ethnic group in this country. Although Black men may perceive more discrimination by the police and in the workforce than do Black women, we did not assess these specific experiences.

SES was unrelated to ethnic identity and discrimination in Caucasian Americans. However, African American men with less education were more likely to report preferring to associate with their own ethnic group. It is interest- ing that, regardless of their education level, African American women reported a strong preference for associating with their own ethnic group. Furthermore, African American women in more skilled occupations perceived more discrimination against their ethnic group than did any other group in the sample. It is possible that African American women are more conscious of discrimination when they obtain higher status occupations because they are then more likely to experience double jeopardy by being discriminated against as a result of their ethnicity and their gender.

To determine whether age influenced the aspects of ethnicity examined in this study, we compared normative data (A4 age = 20.12) on SEE subscales with data from our middle-aged sample ( M age = 37.69). There were no differences between younger and older Caucasian Americans on the subscales. However, similar to previous findings (Gary, 1995), younger African Americans reported more perceived discrimination than did their older counterparts. Younger African Americans also reported feeling less a part of mainstream society than did older African Americans and reported a greater preference for associating with their own ethnic group. Since normative data was collected from students at a university in which only 4% of the student population was African American, these findings may reflect the unique challenges of African American students at predominantly Caucasian American colleges (Biasco, Goodwin, & Vitale, 200 1 ; Phelps, Tranakos-Howe, Dagley, & Lyn, 2001; Spaights, Kenner, & Dixon, 1986).

The current study examined several factors that may be related to differential health outcomes in African Americans and Caucasian Americans. Among African Americans in the study, age, gender, and SES influenced these factors. However, this was not the case in Caucasian Americans. Regardless of age, gender, or SES, Caucasian Americans reported less perceived discrimination and ethnic identity than did African Americans. They also perceived more control over their ability to succeed in mainstream society than did African Americans. These findings are preliminary and should be replicated in larger samples. None- theless, they are important. This study is among the first to conduct between- and within-ethnic group comparisons on cultural factors that have been recognized as possible indicators of health. Most previous studies have only examined these factors in a single ethnic group. Furthermore, many of these studies have not

76 THOMAS ET AL.

examined how demographic variables influence these factors. The current results suggest that cultural variables may differentially relate to demographics in different ethnic groups, underscoring the complexity of understanding the role of ethnicity as it relates to health outcomes.

Generalizability of these results may be limited because of the recruitment strategy used to enroll participants in the study. Participants were recruited via advertisements for a study of stress and blood pressure. It is possible that this led to an over sampling of individuals who had high levels of stress and were more likely to perceive discrimination. Furthermore, the high SES nature of this sample may have obscured the relationship between SES and the cultural factors examined. Over 50% of the current sample had at least some college education, and less than 10% did not graduate from high school. To extend these findings to the general population, this study should be replicated in larger community samples with broader sampling of individuals from all SES groups. However, these findings have important implications for future research on ethnicity and health. They suggest that ethnic identity and discrimination are important aspects of ethnicity (Phinney, 1996), which may be influenced by age, gender, and SES. It is possible that each aspect of ethnicity differentially relates to health outcomes as well as to demographic characteristics within each ethnic group. Ignoring these factors might cause researchers to overlook subtle differences in the impact of ethnicity on health.

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The Effect of Demographic Variables on Ethnic Experience