8
The role of homework needs to be considered within the context of the broader developmental needs of children. This article focuses on how children spend their time after school and how homework, as well as other activities, can contribute to school suc- cess. Children differ in their after-school experi- ences, from “latchkey” children who lack supervision and structure, to the overextended child engaged in multiple extracurricular activities with little time for unstructured play. The authors sum- marize research on the impact of after-school ac- tivities—including homework programs—on school performance and make recommendations with re- gard to best practices for children who differ in their resources, abilities, and interests. Balancing homework with other aspects of the child’s home life to promote positive developmental outcomes is recommended. N ATIONAL CONCERNS HAVE BEEN raised about the number of children who do not have su- pervised activities after school. The U.S. Depart- ment of Justice (1999) reported that the peak time for juvenile crime is between 3:00 and 7:00 p.m. on school days, the period after school until par- ents typically return from work. The results of the Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Re- port suggest that after-school programs have greater potential for reducing juvenile crime than imposi- tion of a juvenile curfew. Structured after-school activities have also been associated with higher educational outcomes. Jordan and Nettles (2000), in their analysis of data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988, found that student participation in struc- tured activities, religious activities, and time with adults during 10th grade had a significant positive impact on educational outcomes for those same stu- dents in 12th grade. Conversely, students who spent more unstructured time (e.g., hanging out with peers) were at greater risk of negative educational outcomes. The authors provide a model reflecting that in addition to student characteristics and fac- tors inherent in the school context, the investments students make during their off hours in themselves and in their community affects their investment in schooling and, consequently, their performance in school. It is important to note that the extracurric- ular activities examined in the study were broad- based, and did not specifically include homework assistance programs. Clearly, how children and adolescents spend their time after school is a critical determinant of Merith Cosden Gale Morrison Lisa Gutierrez Megan Brown The Effects of Homework Programs and After-School Activities on School Success THEORY INTO PRACTICE, Volume 43, Number 3, Summer 2004 Copyright © 2004 College of Education, The Ohio State University Merith Cosden and Gale Morrison are professors, and Lisa Gutierrez and Megan Brown are graduate stu- dents, all at the Gevirtz Graduate School of Educa- tion, University of California, Santa Barbara.

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THEORY INTO PRACTICE / Summer 2004Homework

The role of homework needs to be considered withinthe context of the broader developmental needs ofchildren. This article focuses on how children spendtheir time after school and how homework, as wellas other activities, can contribute to school suc-cess. Children differ in their after-school experi-ences, from “latchkey” children who lacksupervision and structure, to the overextended childengaged in multiple extracurricular activities withlittle time for unstructured play. The authors sum-marize research on the impact of after-school ac-tivities—including homework programs—on schoolperformance and make recommendations with re-gard to best practices for children who differ intheir resources, abilities, and interests. Balancinghomework with other aspects of the child’s homelife to promote positive developmental outcomes isrecommended.

NATIONAL CONCERNS HAVE BEEN raised about the number of children who do not have su-

pervised activities after school. The U.S. Depart-ment of Justice (1999) reported that the peak time

for juvenile crime is between 3:00 and 7:00 p.m.on school days, the period after school until par-ents typically return from work. The results of theJuvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Re-port suggest that after-school programs have greaterpotential for reducing juvenile crime than imposi-tion of a juvenile curfew.

Structured after-school activities have alsobeen associated with higher educational outcomes.Jordan and Nettles (2000), in their analysis of datafrom the National Educational Longitudinal Studyof 1988, found that student participation in struc-tured activities, religious activities, and time withadults during 10th grade had a significant positiveimpact on educational outcomes for those same stu-dents in 12th grade. Conversely, students who spentmore unstructured time (e.g., hanging out withpeers) were at greater risk of negative educationaloutcomes. The authors provide a model reflectingthat in addition to student characteristics and fac-tors inherent in the school context, the investmentsstudents make during their off hours in themselvesand in their community affects their investment inschooling and, consequently, their performance inschool. It is important to note that the extracurric-ular activities examined in the study were broad-based, and did not specifically include homeworkassistance programs.

Clearly, how children and adolescents spendtheir time after school is a critical determinant of

Merith CosdenGale MorrisonLisa GutierrezMegan Brown

The Effects of Homework Programs andAfter-School Activities on School Success

THEORY INTO PRACTICE, Volume 43, Number 3, Summer 2004Copyright © 2004 College of Education, The Ohio State University

Merith Cosden and Gale Morrison are professors, andLisa Gutierrez and Megan Brown are graduate stu-dents, all at the Gevirtz Graduate School of Educa-tion, University of California, Santa Barbara.

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both school and societal outcomes. The impact ofafter-school homework assistance programs will beexamined next. The strengths and weaknesses ofthese types of programs relative to alternative af-ter-school activities will also be considered.

Review of Research on After-SchoolAcademic Assistance Programs

Cosden, Morrison, Albanese, and Macias(2001a) summarized the outcomes of 10 studies onstructured after-school programs that offered stu-dents assistance with homework and other academicneeds. Nearly all of the studies focused on chil-dren considered at risk for school failure as a re-sult of low income, limited familial resources, and/or poor grades. Further, these after-school programsoffered a broad range of activities in addition toacademic support (Beck, 1999; Halpern, 1992; Pos-ner & Vandell, 1999). While the nature of the aca-demic support varied, each program providedchildren with structure and adult contact. The fullimpact of these programs on the student’s academ-ic performance appeared to be mediated by otherchild and teacher factors, such as increases in thechild’s self-esteem and school bonding and chang-es in teacher perceptions regarding the effort andcapabilities of the student.

Both Beck (1999) and Halpern (1992) con-ducted qualitative evaluations of the dynamics oflarge, urban after-school programs. Beck studied aprogram that served youth from kindergartenthough 12th grade. The author reported that thefactors integral to the program’s success were theprovision of a structured time and location for do-ing homework and instructional support. Beck sug-gested that academic outcomes of this programwere mediated by changes in the student’s self-confidence as well as changes in teacher percep-tions of the student’s efforts. Halpern conducted aqualitative evaluation of a program that providedafter-school homework assistance to younger chil-dren (5-12 years old). Similar to Beck, Halpernfound that participation gave students greater con-fidence in their abilities and provided an opportu-nity to develop positive, school-related, adultattachments. Although the findings of these twostudies are descriptive and do not identify causalrelationships between homework completion and

academic performance, they suggest that homeworkcompletion can affect students’ perceptions ofthemselves and teachers’ expectations of studentsin meaningful ways.

In their study of 400 elementary school chil-dren in several different after-school programs,Ross, Saavedra, Shur, Winters, and Felner (1992)provide support for using these programs to buildself-esteem, while also finding that self-esteem canbe a mediator of academic performance. Participa-tion in an after-school program designed to buildself-esteem had positive effects on standardized testscores in math and reading, while receiving ex-tended school time to complete homework did nothave the same positive effects on self-esteem orachievement. These findings strengthen the ideathat after-school academic support does the great-est good when it enhances the students’ percep-tions that they can be successful at school.

Several other studies (e.g., Morrison, Storino,Robertson, Weissglass, & Dondero, 2000; Tuckeret al., 1995) have found that after-school academictutoring or homework assistance may not result inan improvement in academic performance, but,rather, prevent a decline in performance that isevidenced by many at-risk youth. Morrison et al.(2000) studied 350 at-risk students, half of whomparticipated in an after-school program that pro-vided homework assistance, tutoring, and culturalenrichment activities. They found after 1 year thatstudents in the program maintained their initial lev-els of school bonding and teacher ratings of stu-dent behavior, while a matched cohort of studentswho did not participate in the program showeddecreases on these measures over the same periodof time. Tucker et al. (1995) evaluated an after-school tutoring program serving low-income Afri-can American students. After 2 years, participantsdid not show significant increases in grades, butstudents who were not in the program showed asignificant grade decrease. Together, these studiesindicate that after-school academic support mayplay a protective role by helping to prevent a lossof school engagement even if it doesn’t result inhigher levels of functioning.

In summary, most of the evaluated after-schoolprograms that addressed academic needs were de-signed to serve at-risk youth. These programs served

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a protective role by helping students maintain theiracademic standing while some of their peers be-gan to fail. Further, these programs were typicallybroad-based, designed to promote self-esteem andenhance school bonding and motivation. The GevirtzHomework Project, reviewed next, was designed toassess the impact of after-school homework assis-tance on a wider population of students.

The Gevirtz Homework ProjectThe Gevirtz Homework Project (Cosden,

Morrison, Albanese, & Macias, 2001b) differedfrom other previously reviewed after-school assis-tance programs in that it included students whowere not at risk for school failure. All fourth-gradestudents in three participating schools were engagedin the project, with students randomly assigned totreatment (Homework Project) and non-treatmentafter their stratification into high, medium, and lowachievement groups at school. Students were alsostratified on the basis of ethnicity and English pro-ficiency, with equal numbers assigned to the home-work project and to the non-treatment controlgroup. The program was designed to provide stu-dents with homework assistance and to help themlearn study skills. Students attended the program2-3 times a week over a period of 3 years (Grades4-6), although attrition and partial attendance yield-ed a range in the “dosage” of treatment actuallyreceived. All students in the Homework Projectand the non-treatment control group were assessedat the beginning and end of each grade. Measuresincluded students’ ratings of their perceptions ofschool belonging, teacher ratings of student be-havior, student grades, and standardized test scoresfrom the Stanford Achievement Test (SAT-9).

There were no overall differences betweenthe treatment and control groups at the end of thestudy. However, the project had a positive impacton students who were English language learners.At the end of sixth grade, teachers rated Englishlanguage learner participants in the homeworkproject higher in academic effort and study skillsthan English language learners in the control group.This was not the case for students who were profi-cient in English. That is, students with English pro-ficiency in the treatment and control groups hadsimilar teacher ratings and academic outcomes at

the end of the 3-year project. Further, there washigher overall attrition from the treatment groupfor English proficient students.

These findings were interpreted in terms ofthe resources available to students to help themwith their work. For example, families who didnot speak English were less able to help their chil-dren with their homework and had fewer outsideresources available to them. While this was thecase for a majority of the children lacking Englishproficiency in the program, there are other instancesand reasons that parents do not provide the home-work assistance their children need. Thus, after-school homework programs may help childrenwhose parents cannot or will not help. However,as discussed later, separating parents from theirchildren’s homework may have adverse outcomesin the long term.

This study also attempted to identify thoseaspects of the program specifically associated withacademic achievement. The final analysis indicat-ed that the level of students’ program attendancein the fourth grade was a significant predictor oftheir academic outcomes in sixth grade, more sothan was total attendance over the course of theHomework Project. Path analysis found a signifi-cant relationship between homework attendance infourth grade and study skills, which in turn affect-ed homework completion and reading and mathachievement in sixth grade. It appears that regularattendance in the Homework Project in fourth gradehelped students develop study skills, which theywere able to utilize in later years. This was sup-ported by student interviews conducted as part ofthe process evaluation (Brown & Herrity, 2001).In particular, the investigators found that studentswho benefited the most from the Project were thosewho learned to do homework right after cominghome from school, while children who benefitedleast did not. For example, one child stated, “Mostof the time I start my homework right away (afterschool). I didn’t do this in third grade. I guess I gotin the habit from the Homework Project” (p. 8).

After-School Activities andSchool Achievement

Although after-school homework programsappear to benefit children who are at risk for school

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failure, there are several other factors that need tobe considered in evaluating their impact. As noted,children spend their time after school in many differ-ent ways and with a significant range in supervision.While after-school homework programs providestructure and supervision, as well as academic as-sistance, there are other types of extracurricularactivities that may benefit children and that maybe unavailable if they attend homework programs.

Studies have shown that involvement in ex-tracurricular activities is associated with schoolengagement and achievement (Cooper, Valentine,Nye, & Lindsey, 1999; Gerber, 1996; Jordan, 2000;Mahoney & Cairns, 1997). These studies typicallyassess involvement in non-academic activities, mostof which occur after school hours. Rather than di-vert students from meeting their academic goals,studies find that students engaged in extracurricu-lar activities—including sports, service clubs, andart activities—are less likely to drop out (Mahoney& Cairns, 1997) and more likely to have higheracademic achievement (Gerber, 1996). Of particu-lar importance, students at risk for school failureappear to benefit even more from participation inextracurricular activities than do children who arenormal achievers. Most researchers believe that in-volvement in extracurricular activities has an indi-rect impact on achievement by increasingconnectedness to the school and by helping to buildstudent strengths, thereby increasing self-esteemand positive social networks. Mahoney and Cairns(1997) note that while remedial academic programs“focus on the deficits of students,” involvement inhigh interest, non-academic activities “provides agateway into conventional social networks . . .through the maintenance and enhancement of pos-itive characteristics of the individual that strength-en the student-school connection” (p. 248). Onecaveat is that school-based activities tend to bemore associated with school connectedness thanare community-based activities or employment.Further, there is a curvilinear relationship betweenextracurricular activities, such that levels of out-side activity can be too high to allow students toalso focus on their schoolwork.

These findings suggest that extracurricularactivities can benefit student achievement, althoughthis is not a black and white issue. For example,

while “no play” rules that prohibit students withlow GPAs from participating in extracurricular ac-tivities may provide a needed incentive to somestudents, in other instances this rule may increasethe student’s risk for school failure. Educators needto be concerned that after-school homework pro-grams do not replace other non-academic extracur-ricular activities because these activities may alsopromote student resilience. Activities should en-hance student engagement to the school while al-lowing time for homework to occur.

The following vignette describes how an af-ter-school sports program played a positive influ-ence in the life of a student who was experiencingdistress at home and starting to fail at school.

Stephanie was a 14-year-old eighth grader. Through-out her early school years, her teachers describedher as a good student. During fourth grade,Stephanie’s parents separated and she witnessed alot of conflict in the home. Stephanie’s grades beganto slip and her teacher commented that Stephaniewas preoccupied with the events occurring in herhome life. In sixth grade her grades continued to plummet.In seventh grade, her brother suggested she becomeinvolved in sports. Stephanie enjoyed basketball, andshe became the captain of the seventh-grade basket-ball team. At the same time her grades began toimprove. When Stephanie was asked what made sev-enth grade different from sixth grade, she answered,“playing basketball and being the team captain.” Sheindicated that she plans to continue to play basket-ball because it has been a positive influence in herlife and it gives her an outlet in which to channelsome of the negative energy she was experiencingwithin her home life. As a result of her desire toengage in this sport, she made a conscious effort notto let her family life interfere with her schoolwork.

Parental InvolvementAnother concern about after-school home-

work programs is that they are likely to reduceparental involvement in the homework process.This has been viewed as both an asset and a deficitto this model. On the positive side, parents whoare poorly educated, do not speak English, or arenot familiar with the American educational systemmay find it difficult to assist their children withtheir schoolwork. Further, parents with limited re-sources (e.g., low-income single parents) may find iteasier to have the schools supervise their children’s

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after-school work. In their analysis of a nationalsurvey, Shumow and Miller (2001) found that par-ents who were high school graduates were more like-ly than parents who were not graduates to help theirchildren with homework. In a review of more than50 studies on parent involvement (Hoover-Dempseyet al., 2001), parents who were higher in their per-ceptions of self-efficacy were more likely to helptheir children with homework. It is clear that parentsof children with fewer at-risk factors were more like-ly to be involved in their children’s homework.

Studies find that parents of all educationalbackgrounds may be stressed by their children’shomework demands. Several examples of this werenoted in parent interviews conducted for the Gev-irtz Homework Project (Cosden et al., 2001b). Asone parent stated, “We have not had argumentsabout homework since he started the project . . . itbrought peace of mind to our evenings” (p. 11).Similarly, another parent noted, “The project wasa wonderful asset . . . because it gave a clear timeand place for our son to do homework, (then) hehad more time to play and participate in familyrelated things” (p. 11).

However, studies also show that parental in-volvement in homework is important, not just be-cause it provides immediate assistance to students,but because this involvement models positive atti-tudes and study skills needed to succeed in school(Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001). Parents make par-ticularly strong models because children see theirparents as both competent and similar to them.Morrison et al. (2000) found that parent attendanceat required parent meetings for one after-schoolhomework program was positively related to stu-dent bonding to their school and to perceptionsthat their parents were actively involved in theirsupervision. The results demonstrated that paren-tal involvement at school was seen as an importantsymbol for students about the importance of schoolactivities and educational achievement. The fol-lowing vignette from that program describes a sit-uation that is indicative of the complex give andtake between after-school activity programs thatassist with homework and parents’ struggle in sup-porting their child’s education.

H.P. is a sixth grader at an elementary school. Helives with his parents and two younger sisters. His

parents, both immigrants from Mexico, are monolin-gual Spanish-speaking and have limited formal edu-cation; each completed only 4 years of schooling. H.P. participates in an after-school activity pro-gram that offers homework assistance. His motherreports that it has become almost impossible to pro-vide her son with homework assistance since theschool discontinued their bilingual education programand homework assignments were no longer sent homewith instructions in both Spanish and English. How-ever, his parents have established a home environ-ment that fosters a commitment to education. Theydesignated a time and space for H.P. to do his home-work, and they often talked to him about the bene-fits of obtaining an education and the importance oftaking personal responsibility for that education.

Can working with other adults in an after-school program help children the same ways asworking with their parents? Future studies will needto explore the relationships between adults whowork in after-school programs and their students,and the impact this may have on program outcomes.

After-school activities, including those thatsupport homework assistance, can have a positiveor negative impact on students, depending on thecontext in which they are experienced. One way ofviewing the impact of after-school activities is toapply a risk and resilience framework to them.Under certain circumstances after-school programsmay present risks (detract from positive growthand development), while under others they mayprovide protective influences (prevent students whoare at risk for negative outcomes from experienc-ing those outcomes). Table 1 provides examples ofthe risk and protective influences of after-schoolactivity programs in general, and of homework pro-grams specifically.

ConclusionAfter-school homework programs can provide

students with structure, supervision, academic as-sistance, and the opportunity to learn study skills.At their best, participation in after-school homeworkprograms can help students maintain their academ-ic standing, feel more bonded to their school, re-duce family stress, and develop attitudes and skillsthat would facilitate their success in school afterthe program is over. However, after-school home-work programs can also interfere with other, non-academic activities that promote student bonding

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to the school and the community and run the riskof reducing parental involvement in the schoolingprocess. Finally, as is always the case, the helpprovided by these programs will be limited by thequality of the homework students receive, as wellas the integration of these programs with the regu-lar teachers.

As Gatto (2001) wrote in his book on teach-ing in America, “schooling is not education” (p.49). After-school homework programs can providestudents with the support they need to do well inschool, but they should do so in ways that do notdetract from the students’ opportunities to becomeinvolved in family and community activities.

ReferencesBeck, E.L. (1999). Prevention and intervention pro-

gramming: Lessons from an after-school program.Urban Review, 31, 107-124.

Brown, J.H., & Herrity, V.A. (2001). Gevirtz Home-work Project process evaluation report. Santa Bar-bara: Gevirtz Research Center, University ofCalifornia.

Cooper, H., Valentine, J.C., Nye, B., & Lindsay, J.J.(1999). Relationships between five after-schoolactivities and academic achievement. Journal ofEducational Psychology, 91, 369-378.

Cosden, M., Morrison, G., Albanese, A.L., & Macias,S. (2001a). When homework is not homework:After-school programs for homework assistance.Educational Psychologist, 36, 211-221.

Table 1

Risk and Protective Factors Associated with Participation inAfter-School Extracurricular Activities and Homework Programs

After-School Activities

Risk Protective

• Extracurricular activities can interfere with • Some after-school activities provide opportunitieshomework completion. for parent involvement.

• Participation in too many extracurricular • After-school activities support student talents inactivities detracts from academic work. nonacademic arenas.

• Student is connected to positive peer groupthrough school-sponsored activities.

• Academic minimum requirements to participate innonacademic activities can motivate students toachieve.

• After-school activities provide supervision whenparents are working.

After-School Homework Programs

Risk Protective

• Taking parents out of the homework “loop” • Homework assistance may not be available atmay reduce parental opportunities to com- home.municate with child about school. • Homework support at school relieves stress at

• Homework support may not be coordinated home.with classroom teachers. • Students in homework programs see other students

• Required participation in homework activities studying; norm of academic achievement isafter school may prevent participation in other reinforced.activities that would benefit student bonding to • Early training in after-school homework programspeers and school. may establish good study habits.

• Student is better able to participate in classwith homework support.

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Cosden, M., Morrison, G., Albanese, A.L., & Macias,S. (2001b). Evaluation of the Gevirtz HomeworkProject: Final report. Santa Barbara: Gevirtz Re-search Center, University of California.

Gatto, J.T. (2001). A different kind of teacher. Berke-ley, CA: Berkeley Hills Books.

Gerber, S.B. (1996). Extracurricular activities and aca-demic achievement. Journal of Research and De-velopment in Education, 30, 42-50.

Halpern, R. (1992). The role of after-school programsin the lives of inner-city children. A study of the“Urban Youth Network.” Child Welfare, 71, 215-230.

Hoover-Dempsey, K.V., Battiato, A.C., Walker, J.M.T.,Reed, R.P., Delong, J.M., & Jones, K.P. (2001).Parental involvement in homework. EducationalPsychologist, 36, 195-209.

Jordan, W.J. (2000). Black high school students’ par-ticipation in school-sponsored sports activities:Effects on school engagement and achievement.Journal of Negro Education, 68, 54-71.

Jordan, W.J., & Nettles, S.M. (2000). How studentsinvest their time outside of school: Effects onschool-related outcomes. Social Psychology ofEducation, 3, 217-243.

Mahoney, J.L., & Cairns, R.B. (1997). Do extracurric-ular activities protect against early school drop-out? Developmental Psychology, 33, 241-253.

Morrison, G.M., Storino, M.H., Robertson, L.M.,Weissglass, T., & Dondero, A. (2000). The pro-tective function of after-school programming andparent education and support for students at riskfor substance abuse. Evaluation and Program Plan-ning, 23, 365-371.

Posner, J.K., & Vandell, D.L. (1999). After-school ac-tivities and the development of low-income urbanchildren: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psy-chology, 35, 868-879.

Ross, J.G., Saavedra, P.J., Schur, G.H., Winters, F., &Felner, R.D. (1992). The effectiveness of an after-school program for primary grade latchkey studentson precursors of substance abuse. Journal of Com-munity Psychology (OSAP Special Issue), 22-38.

Shumow, L., & Miller, J.D. (2001). Parents’ at-home andat-school academic involvement with young adoles-cents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21, 68-91.

Tucker, C.M., Chennault, S.A., Brady, B.A., Fraser,K.P., Gaskin, V.T., Dunn, C., et al. (1995). A par-ent, community, public schools and university in-volved partnership educational program to examineand boost academic achievement and adaptivefunctioning skills of African-American students.Journal of Research and Development in Educa-tion, 28, 174-185.

U.S. Dept. of Justice. (1999). Juvenile Offenders and Vic-tims: 1999 National Report. Washington, DC: Author.

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