The Gene Revolution: GM Crops and Unequal Development

Sakiko Fukuda-Parr

The New School fukudaps@newschool.edu

Selected tables and graphs

Table 2.1 Commercial production of GM Crops worldwide, 1996-2005: Total areas by country (million ha)

Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005% of Total

USA (soy, maize, cotton, canola, squash, papaya) 1.5 7.2 20.8 28.6 30.3 35.7 39.0 42.8 47.6 49.8 55%Argentina (soy, maize, cotton) <0.1 1.5 3.5 5.8 10.0 11.8 13.5 13.9 16.2 17.1 19%Brazil (soy) 0 0 0 1.2 0 0 0 3.0 5.0 9.4 10%Canada (canola, maize, soy) 0.1 1.7 2.8 4.0 3.0 3.2 3.5 4.4 5.4 5.8 6%China (cotton) 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.3 0.5 1.5 2.1 2.8 3.7 3.3 4%

Paraguay (soy) 0

0

0

0 0 0 0 0 1.2 1.8 2%

India (cotton) 0

0

0

0 0 0 <0.1 0.1 0.5 1.3 1%

South Africa (maize, soy, cotton) 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6%Uruguay (soy, maize)

0

0

0

0 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3%

Australia (cotton) 0 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3%Mexico (cotton, soy) 0 0 0.1 0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1%Romania (soy) 0 0 0 0 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1%

Philippines (maize) 0

0

0

0 0 0 0 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1%

Spain (maize) 0 0 0 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1%* Total 2.57 11.51 28.62 41.49 44.2 52.6 58.7 67.7 81.0 90.0

*Less than 50,000 ha grown in Colombia, Iran, Honduras, Portugal, Germany, France and Czech Republic in 2005, and in Bulgaria, Indonesia, Romania, Mexico and Ukraine in earlier years. Source: James, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops, 2005 and earlier years. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA), Manila, Philippines

2

.

Table 2.2 Commercial production of GM crops worldwide, 1996, 2005: main crops

Total areas (million ha) GM varieties as % of total for crop

1996 2005 % total 2005 1996 2005

Soy .5 54.4 60% <1 60

Maize .3 21.2 24% <1 14

Cotton .8 9.8 11% 2 28

Canola .1 4.6 5% <1 18

Source: James, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops, 2005 and earlier years.

ISAAA, Philippines.

3

Table 2.3 Commercial production of GM crops worldwide, 1996 – 2005: main traits

Traits Crops Area under cultivation (million ha)

Proportion of total area under

cultivation (%)

Herbicide tolerance

Soy, maize, canola, cotton

63 70%

Insect resistance Cotton, maize 18 20%

Stacked Cotton, maize 9 10%

Source: James, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops, 2005 and earlier years. ISAAA, Philippines

4

Table 2.4 Top producing countries of GM and conventional soy, maize, cotton and canola, 2005 (country and million tons produced) Soy Maize Cotton* Canola Global production

209.5

692

202

45

1 U.S. (82.8) U.S. (280) China (50.9)

China (11.3)

2 Brazil (50.2) China (131) U.S. (36.4) Canada (8.4) 3 Argentina

(38.3) Brazil (34.9) India (26.4) India (6.2)

4

China (16.9) Mexico (20.5)

Pakistan (18.9)

Germany (4.7)b

5 India (6)

Argentina (19.5)

Uzbekistan (10.3) France (4.4)

6 India(14.5) Turkey (9.5) U.K. (1.9) 7 France

(13.2) Brazil (8.0) Poland (1.4)

8 Indonesia (12.0)

Australia (5.9)

Australia (1.1)

9 South Africa (12) Greece (3.4) Austria (0.9)

10

Italy (10.6) Egypt (2.8)

Czech Republic (0.8)

11 Romania (10) Syria (2.50) U.S. (0.7)

12 Hungary (9) Mali (2.2) 13

Canada (8.3) Turkmenistan (2.0)

14 Ukraine (7.2)

Côte d’Ivoire (1.7)

15 Egypt (6.8) Benin (1.5) 16 Serbia and

Montenegro (6.3)

Burkina Faso (1.5)

17 Philippines (5.2)

Tajikistan (1.2)

18 Nigeria (4.8) 19 Thailand

(4.2)

20 Spain (4.0) 21 Germany

(3.8)

22 Russian Federation (3.7)

5

23 Viet Nam (3.5)

% of total world production

93% in 5 countries 90% in 23

countries

91% in 17 countries 92% in 11

countries

*data for 2003 Source: FAOSTAT Agricultural Production tables (http://faostat.fao.org); Cotton data from Bulletin of International Cotton Advisory Committee (www.icac.org)

6

Table 12.1 Importance of global maize, cotton and soy markets for Argentina, Brazil, China and India (exports of crop as % of agricultural exports and total exports, average 2002-2004) Maize

Cotton Soy

% ag exports

% total exports

% ag exports

% total exports

% ag exports

% total exports

Argentina 8.5 3.8 0.2 0.1 62.7 28.5 Brazil 2.0 0.6 1.8 0.5 42.4 12.0 China 7.1 0.3 40.0 1.5 2.3 0.1 India 1.8 0.2 22.6 2.2 9.5 0.9 South Africa*

5.7 0.5 1.0 0.1 0.2 <0.1

U.S.A. 9.8 0.8 3.5 0.3 15.4 1.26 *South Africa average 2003-2004

7

Table 12.2. Comparing crop yields, 2004 (Tons per ha)

Country Maize yield Soy yield Canola yield Cotton yield Argentina 6.4 2.2 1.3 0.4 Benin 1.1 0.5 NA 0.4 Brazil 3.4 2.3 1.7 1.0 China 5.1 1.8 1.8 1.0 France 9.0 2.5 3.5 NA Germany 9.1 1.0 4.1 NA Greece 10.1 2.1 NA 1.0 India 2.0 1.1 1.2 0.3 Mali 1.1 NA NA 0.4 South Africa 3.1 1.6 NA 0.4 U.S.A. 10.1 2.8 1.8 0.7

Source: FAOSTAT (http://faostat.fao.org) and Bulletin of the International Cotton Advisory Committee

8

Box 2.2 Institutional approaches to development of GM crop varieties U.S. model Possible alternatives Investing in GM varieties R & D – upstream biotechnology research: finance

Public sector Private corporate sector Venture capital

Public Private corporate Venture capital Global public or non profit (development aid)?*

R & D – GM crop variety development: biotechnology step

Public sector Private corporate sector Biotech start ups

Public NARs? Private multinational? Biotech startups Global public or non profit (CGIAR)? Public private partnerships?

R & D– GM crop variety development: plant breeding step

Large multinationals Joint venture multinational/local National private seed companies Public NARs? Public/private partnerships?

Commercialization – approval process, IPRs

Large multinationals Joint venture PPPs National private seed companies? National NARs

Financing R & D for commercial product development

Patent protection and collection of technology fee

Govt. budget allocation for national priority International budget allocation for global public good?

IPRs Strong IPR protection on genetic resources – license required for use in research and for product development. Costs of licensing reflected in higher costs of seeds.

Breeders’ rights No IPR on genes and plant varieties

Regulated seed market for GM varieties

Seed - Biosafety approval Permissive Range of choice from permissive to precautionary

Enforcement of biosafety approval

No active monitoring by government. But all farmers buy in commercial seed market.

Government monitoring of farms Civil society watch dogs Incentives for informal seed

9

supplies to go through process

Seed supplier – licensed Large seed companies (seed companies merged with agro-chemical companies).

Multinationals in partnership with local seed company. Informal sector suppliers: farmer saved, farmer to farmer, small private entrepreneurs, small state enterprises.

Enforcement No active monitoring by government. Farmers contract not to save seeds. Legal suits by IP owner in case of infringement.

Monitoring by government Farmers contract not to save seeds? Civil society watch dogs

Collecting the technology fee

In price of seed In price of seed At sale of crop? At export of crop? No collection?

*Italicized approaches are not currently implemented and may not be feasible or justifiable.

10

Table 12.3 – Comparing policy approaches

USA Argentina Brazil China India South Africa

Gov’t. support to biotechnology R & D (budget allocations )

Strong (increase)

Weak (decline)

Medium (stable)

Strong (increase)

Medium (increase)

Medium (stable

Locus of R & D: i) upstream biotechnology;

ii)biotech step of commercial product devt iii)plant breeding step of commercial product devt

i) Public and private (universities, research institutes, multinational, biotech start ups) ii)Multinationals (with some exceptions) Multinationals

i) Public national ii) Private multinat iii) Private multinational/local seed companies

i) Public national ii) Public, private, partnerships iii) Private, public, partnerships

i) Public ii) Public iii) Public, private multinat and local

i) Public ii) Public iii) Private multinat and local seed companies

i Public te

ii) Public, private iii) Private

Biosafety legislation – precautionary or permissivei

Non-precautionary,

Non-precautionary

Precautionary Non-precautionary

Precautionary

Non-precautionary

Biosafety legislation – predictable implementation

Strong Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong

Patents – UPOV signatory recognizing farmers right to save seeds

No

Farmers rights

Farmers rights Farmers rights

Farmers rights

Farmers rights

Patents – genes and plants

Yes No No Yes No No

Patents – enforcement

Strong Weak Weak Weak Weak Strong

11

Table 11.2 – Performance advantage of Bt cotton over conventional varieties (%)

Argentina China India Mexico South Africa

Yield 33 19 34 11 65

Revenue 34 23 33 9 65

Pesticide

costs

-47 -67 -41 -77 -58

Seed costs 530 95 17 165 89

Profit 31 340 69 12 299

Source: Raney (2006) ‘Economic impact of transgenic crops in developing countries’ Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2006, 17 pp1-5 www.sciencedirect.com

12

Table 11.3 Varieties approved for commercialization and associated transformation event. Country Crop Year approved for

commercializationEvent Trait Seed

Company Argentina Soy 1996 “40-3-2” Herbicide

tolerance Nidera S. A. (Monsanto?)

Maize 1998 “176” Insect resistance

Ciba-Geigy (Syngenta)

Maize 1998 “T25” Herbicide tolerance

AgrEvo S. A. (Bayer, Aventis)

Cotton 1998 “MON 531” Insect resistance

Monsanto Argentina S.A.I.C.

Maize 1998 “MON 810” Insect resistance

Monsanto Argentina S.A.I.C.

Cotton 2001 “MON 1445”

Herbicide tolerance

Monsanto Argentina S.A.I.C.

Maize 2001 “Bt 11” Insect resistance

Novartis Agrosem S.A. (Syngenta)

Maize 2004 “NK 603” Herbicide tolerance

Monsanto Argentina S.A.I.C.

Maize 2005 “TC 1507” Stacked: insect resistance, herbicide tolerance

Dow Agrosciences Argentina S.A Pioneer Argentina S.A.

Maize 2005 “GA21” Herbicide tolerance

Syngenta

Brazil Soy 1996* "40-3-2" Herbicide

tolerance Monsanto

Cotton 2005 "MON 531" Insect resistance Monsanto

*Subsequently, legal decisions imposed restriction on growing of all GM varieties until 2005 China Cotton 1997 Insect

resistance Monsanto (two joint venture seed companies - with Jidai and Andai )

13

Cotton 1997 Insect resistance

4 varieties CAAS

Cotton* 1998 to present *numerous Insect resistance

Mostly CAAS

Tomato, sweet pepper and petunia*

1998 to present *numerous Mostly CAAS

*China approved 40 events of Bt cotton for Bt cotton commercialization and about 10 or more events for tomato, sweet pepper and petunia in 1997-2003. In 2004, there were about 130 events approved (in that one year), most Bt cotton, and most from CAAS and a few from Monsanto. Total number of varieties approved for commercialization reached about 50 by 2004. India

Cotton 2002 “MON 531” Insect

resistance Bt

Mahyco Monsanto Biotech

Cotton 2004

“MON 531” Bt

Raasi Seeds (Monsanto jv?)

Cotton 2005

“MON 531” Bt

Rasi Seeds (Monsanto jt v?

Cotton 2005

“MON 531” Bt

Mahyco Monsanto Biotech

Cotton 2005 “MON 531” Ankur Seeds Cotton 2005 “MON 531” Bt Nuziveedu

Seeds

Cotton 2005 “MON 531”

Bt Mahyco Monsanto Biotech

Cotton 2005 “MON 531” Bt Nuziveedu Seeds

Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Ganga Kaveri

Cotton 2006 “MON 531”

Bt Ajeet Seeds

Cotton 2006

“MON 15985”

Bt Ajeet Seeds

Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Rasi Seeds Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Emergent

Seeds Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Nuziveedu

Seeds Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Pravardhan

Seeds

14

Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Prabhat Seeds

Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Krishidhan Seeds

Cotton 2006

“MON 15985”

Bt Krishidhan Seeds

Cotton 2006

“MON 15985”

Bt Mahyco Monsanto Biotech

Cotton 2006

(Cry 1 Ab + Cry Ac)’GFM

Bt and RR

Nath Seeds

Cotton 2006

Event 1 (cry 1 AC)

Bt JK Seeds

Cotton 2006 Bt Numerous* *June 2006, 59 Bt hybrids were approved of which 52 use Monsanto genes under license; others use genes from China and India. South Africa

Cotton 1997 “MON 531/757/1076”

Insect resistance

Monsanto (Delta & Pineland)

Maize 1997 (white and yellow)

“MON 810” Insect resistance

Monsanto

Soy 2001 "40-3-2" Herbicide tolerance Monsanto

Cotton 2001 “MON 1445” Herbicide tolerance

Monsanto (Delta & Pineland)

Cotton 2002 Line 531 Insect resistance

Delta & PinelandCommercial release for seed multiplication (but not general commercial release) so maybe it should not be in table

15

Maize 2003 “Bt 11” Insect resistance

Novartis Agrosem S.A. (Syngenta)

Maize 2003 “NK 603” Herbicide tolerance

Monsanto

Maize 2002

“TC 1507”

Stacked: insect resistance, herbicide tolerance

Pioneer Commodity clearance (imports/exports) but not for commercial production yet, so maybe should not be in table

Cotton 2005 Bt, RR stacked

Monsanto (Delta & PineLand)

EU Maize 1997 Bt-176 Insect

resistance Ciba-Geigy (Syngenta)

Canola 1997 MS1, RF2 Stacked: herbicide tolerant & pollination control

Aventis

Maize 1998 T25 Herbicide tolerance

AgrEvo

1998 MON 810 Insect resistance

Monsanto

Maize 2004 Bt11 Insect resistance

Syngenta

Maize 2006 DAS1507 Stacked; insect resistant & herbicide tolerant

Mycogen (Dow, Pioneer)

16

U.S.A. Tomato 1992 FLAVR SAVR Fruit ripening

altered Calgene

Squash 1992 ZW-20 Virus resistant Upjohn Cotton 1993 BXN Herbicide

tolerant Calgene

Soybean 1993 40-3-2 Herbicide tolerant Monsanto

Canola

1994 pCGN3828-212/86- 18 & 23

Oil profile altered Calgene

Tomato 1994 Line N73 1436-111

Fruit ripening altered Calgene

Tomato 1994 1345-4 Fruit ripening altered

DNA Plant Tech

Tomato

1994 9 additional FLAVRSAVR lines

Fruit ripening altered Calgene

Potato

1994 BT6, BT10, BT12, BT16, BT17, BT18, BT23

Insect resistant Monsanto

Tomato 1994 B, Da, F Fruit ripening altered

Zeneca & Petoseed

Cotton 1994 531, 757, 1076 Insect resistant Monsanto

Maize 1994 Event 176 Insect resistant Ciba Seeds

Maize 1994 T14, T25 Herbicide tolerant AgrEvo

Tomato

1995 20 additional FLAVRSAVR lines

Fruit ripening altered Calgene

Cotton 1995 1445, 1698 Herbicide tolerant Monsanto

Tomato 1995 8338 Fruit ripening altered Monsanto

Maize 1995 MON 80100 Insect resistant Monsanto

Maize 1995 B16 Herbicide tolerant DeKalb

Tomato

1995 2 additional FLAVRSAVR lines

Fruit ripening altered Calgene

Maize 1995 Bt11 Insect resistant Northrup King

Maize 1995 MS3 Male sterile Plant Genetic

17

Systems Cotton 1995 19-51a Herbicide

tolerant Du Pont

Tomato 1995 35 1 N Fruit ripening altered Agritope

Potato

1995 SBT02-5 & -7, ATBT04-6 &-27, -30, -31, -36

insect resistant Monsanto

Squash 1995 CZW-3 virus resistant Asgrow Maize 1996 MON809 &

MON810 Insect resistant Monsanto

Papaya 1996 55-1, 63-1 Virus resistant Cornell U

Soybean

1996 W62, W98, A2704- 12, A2704-21, A5547-35

herbicide tolerant AgrEvo

Tomato

1996 1 additional FLAVRSAVR line

Fruit ripening altered Calgene

Maize 1996 DBT418 Insect resistant DeKalb

Maize

1996

MON802

Stacked: herbicide tolerant & insect resistant

Monsanto

Soybean 1997 G94-1, G94-19, G-168

Oil profile altered Du Pont

Cotton

1997

Events 31807 & 31808

Stacked herbicide tolerant & insect resistant

Calgene

Maize 1997 GA21 Herbicide tolerant Monsanto

Cichorium intybus

1997 RM3-3, RM3-4, RM3-6 Male sterile Bejo

Potato

1997 RBMT21-129 & RBMT21-350

Stacked: insect and virus resistant

Monsanto

Canola 1997 T45 Herbicide tolerant AgrEvo

Maize

1997

CBH-351

Stacked: herbicide tolerant & insect resistant

AgrEvo

Tomato 1997 5345 Insect Monsanto

18

resistant Beet 1997 T-120-7 Herbicide

tolerant AgrEvo

Potato

1997 RBMT15-101, SEMT15-02, SEMT15-15

Stacked: insect resistant, virus resistant

Monsanto

Maize

1997

676, 678, 680

Stacked: Male sterile & herbicide tolerant

Pioneer

Soybean 1998 A5547-127 herbicide tolerant AgrEvo

Beet 1998 GTSB77 herbicide tolerant

Novartis Seeds & Monsanto

Canola 1998 RT73 herbicide tolerant Monsanto

Soybean 1998 GU262 herbicide tolerant AgrEvo

Canola

1998

MS8 & RF3

Stacked: herbicide tolerant & Pollination control

AgrEvo

Rice 1998 LLRICE06, LLRICE62

Herbicide tolerant AgrEvo

Flax

1998

CDC Triffid

Tolerant to soil residues of sulfonyl urea herbicide

U. of Saskatchewan

Maize

1998

MS6

Staked: herbicide tolerant and Male sterile

AgrEvo

Potato

1999 RBMT22-82

Stacked: virus and insect resistant

Monsanto

Maize 2000 NK603 Herbicide tolerant Monsanto

Maize

2000

Line 1507

Stacked; insect resistant & herbicide tolerant

Mycogen c/o Dow & Pioneer

Cotton 2000

Cotton Event 15985

Insect resistant Monsanto

Tobacco 2001 Vector 21-41 Reduced nicotine Vector

19

Maize

2001 MON 863 Insect

Resistant Monsanto

Canola

2001

MS1 & RF1/RF2

Stacked: herbicide tolerant & pollination control

Aventis

Canola 2001 Topas 19/2 Herbicide tolerant Aventis

Canola 2001 RT200 Herbicide tolerant Monsanto

Cotton 2002 LLCotton25 Herbicide tolerant Aventis

Cotton 2003 281-24-236 Insect Resistant Mycogen/Dow

Cotton 2003 3006-210-23 Insect Resistant Mycogen/Dow

Cotton 2003 COT 102 Insect Resistant Syngenta

Maize

2003

TC-6275

Stacked: Insect Resistant herbicide Tolerant

Dow

Sugar Beet

2003 H7-1 Glyphosate Tolerant Monsanto

Maize

2003 59122

Maize Rootworm Resistant

Dow

Cotton 2004 MON 88913 Herbicide Tolerant Monsanto

Alfalfa

2004 J101, J163 Herbicide

Tolerant

Monsanto & Forage Genetics

Maize 2004 88017 Insect Resistant Monsanto

Maize 2004 LY038 High Lysine Monsanto

20

Table 11.4 Organization of research, development and commercialization

Public/non profit (research institutes, universities)

Private (Multinational corporations, biotech start ups, local seed companies)

Public-Private Partnerships

Upstream biotechnology research

U.S. Argentina Brazil China India South Africa

U.S. (MNC, BSU) South Africa

Biotechnology step in GM crop development – to ‘event’

Brazil China India

U.S. (MNC)

Brazil

Plant breeding step in GM crop development – to GM variety

China India

U.S. (MNC) Argentina (Local) China (MNC/JV) Brazil (JV/Local) South Africa

Brazil

Seed multiplication and marketing

China (informal sector)

U.S. (MNC) China (Local) Brazil (Local) India (JV/local)

21

Figure 2.1 Leading multinationals – R & D spending in agricultural biotechnology (Euros millions)

Note: Spending on agricultural biotechnology only. Corresponding figures for total R & D spending in 2004, in US $millions were as follows Company R&D 2004 Syngenta $809m Bayer CropScience

$845m

Monsanto $509m DuPont $1333m Dow Chemical

$1,022m

Delta & Pineland

$18.4m

*DuPont acquired Pioneer. Rhone-Poulenc Agro and AgrEvo merged in 2000 to form Aventis CropScience. Bayer acquired Aventis in 2002, creating Bayer CropScience. Ciba-Geigy and Sandoz merged into Novartis in 1996. Novartis Seeds merged with AstraZeneca’s agribusiness section in 2000 to form Syngenta.

22

Monsanto acquired Seminis as subsidiary in 2005. Seminis had earlier acquired Asgrow, Petoseed, Royal Sluis, Horticeres.

23

Transformation event

Genetic Resources

Plant Breeding

Adapted Transgenic

Variety Farmers

Step 2. Plant breeding Research

Step 1: Biotechnology Research

Regulatory/Biosafety Approval

$$$

IP negotiation

Seed Industry(Royalty

collection)

$$$

Figure 2.2. The two step scientific process for producing GMOs

24

Figure 3.4. Number of cotton varieties available in the US, 1996-2004 (Number of non-GM not available for 1996,1997)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Year

Num

ber

of V

arie

ties

GMNon-GMTotal

Source: USDA/AMS "Cotton Varieties Planted"

25

Figure 6.1 Economic liberalisation and agricultural expansion in the 1990s: Grains and soy production

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04

Years

Mill

ions

tons

GrainsSoy

Source: Secretariat for Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Food

26

Figure 6.2 Economic liberalisation and rapid expansion of soy exports

Figure 6.2 Economic liberalisation, GM soy and expansion of exports

0.00

2000.00

4000.00

6000.00

8000.00

10000.00

12000.00

14000.00

16000.00

18000.00

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Year

Mill

ions

tons

SoybeansOilFlour

Source: Data from Secretariat for Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Food, and CIAR

27

Figure 11.1 Commercial production of GM crops 1996-2005

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Mill

ion

Hec

tare

s USAArgentina (soy, maize, cotton)Brazil (soy)China (cotton)India (cotton)South Africa (maize, soy, cotton)

Source: James, 2005

28