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This article was downloaded by: [University of Connecticut] On: 28 October 2014, At: 10:11 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Educational Administration and History Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cjeh20 ’The girls have done very decidedly better than the boys‘: Girls and examinations 18601902 Andrea Jacobs a a King Alfred's College , Winchester Published online: 07 Jul 2006. To cite this article: Andrea Jacobs (2001) ’The girls have done very decidedly better than the boys‘: Girls and examinations 18601902, Journal of Educational Administration and History, 33:2, 120-136, DOI: 10.1080/0022062010330204 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0022062010330204 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied

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This article was downloaded by: [University of Connecticut]On: 28 October 2014, At: 10:11Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number:1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street,London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of EducationalAdministration and HistoryPublication details, including instructions forauthors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cjeh20

’The girls have donevery decidedly betterthan the boys‘: Girls andexaminations 1860‐1902Andrea Jacobs aa King Alfred's College , WinchesterPublished online: 07 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: Andrea Jacobs (2001) ’The girls have done verydecidedly better than the boys‘: Girls and examinations 1860‐1902,Journal of Educational Administration and History, 33:2, 120-136, DOI:10.1080/0022062010330204

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0022062010330204

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of allthe information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on ourplatform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensorsmake no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy,completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Anyopinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinionsand views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed byTaylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied

upon and should be independently verified with primary sources ofinformation. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses,actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages,and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directlyor indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the useof the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private studypurposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution,reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in anyform to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of accessand use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

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Journal of Educational Administration and History 33:2 (2001)

'The girls have done very decidedly better thanthe boys'1: Girls and examinations 1860-1902

Andrea JacobsKing Alfred's College, Winchester

'The lads may not be alright''Perils of ignoring our lost boys'Whatever happened to the likely lads?'

Introduction

Recent headlines in the Times Educational Supplement highlight serious concernat the continuing discrepancy in levels of educational attainment achieved byboys and girls.2 At the summer examinations 2000, for sixteen-year-olds inEngland and Wales the percentage of girls achieving at least five G.C.S.E. passesat A*-C was 54.4 per cent, whereas the percentage for boys was only 43.8 percent.3 Elwood and Comber argue that drawing on aggregates from the percen-tage of A*-C grades awarded in the G.C.S.E. is an oversimplified approach, whichignores the relative proportion of boys and girls not entered for the examina-tions.4 They urge caution in interpreting results that have been aggregated fromnumerous syllabi.5 Furthermore, Arnot, David and Weiner have commentedthat social class remains a key factor in educational success, with ethnicity andracial identity also interacting with gender and social class to produce differentpatterns of participation and performance according to minority groupmembership.6 Similarly, Gipps and Murphy state that because identicalexperiences for all cannot be assumed, there is no such thing as a fair test, norcould there be.7 Murphy and Elwood also stress that studies over time haveconsistently found that the similarities in males' and females' performance faroutweigh any differences observed.8 Despite these caveats, however, Elwoodand Comber maintain that the aggregated G.C.S.E. passes provide a widelyunderstood yardstick for the differential achievement of boys and girls. Thisdifferential has been widening year by year since the introduction of theG.C.S.E.9 Arnot, David and Weiner comment: 'Initially the public's attention wasdrawn to girls' increasing success at G.C.S.E., but gradually the closing of thegender gap came to be associated with boys' failure'.10 As a result, findingexplanations for boys' relative poor performance has become a key concern ofeducationists.

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Cohen argues that boys' educational failures have generally been located asextrinsic to themselves, while their successes have been located as intrinsic,attributed to their innate brilliance, intellect or natural potential. For girls, shemaintains, the opposite has been the case.11 She claims that 'the very terms ofthe discourse on education are organised so that practices have the performanceof boys as their main concern'. Cohen traces how gendered explanations ofextrinsic and intrinsic factors of performance are applied in both contemporaryand historical explanations of boys' achievement. This article explores Cohen'scontention in the specific historic context of middle-class pupils taking theSchools' Examinations of the College of Preceptors during the second half ofthe nineteenth century. The article does not aim to compare the results of theseexaminations and today's G.C.S.E.s for the examinations of the College ofPreceptors were taken by a small fairly homogenous middle-class group,educated mainly in second and third grade schools, unlike the mass entry typicalof the G.C.S.E. Neither does it attempt a detailed examination of subjectdifferences or to address issues of pedagogy, teaching or learning styles, whichclearly impact on educational attainment. Rather, the article focuses on therepresentation of the relative successes of boys and girls by the College ofPreceptors and contemporary educators, and analyses explanations forprevailing views of differential success, highlighting the longevity of the type ofexplanations being employed.

The article begins by outlining the growth of the examinations of theCollege of Preceptors, in relation to the overall development of examinations inthe Victorian period, and highlights the reported success achieved by girls. Thesecond part of the article discusses the explanations produced for this success byexamining first the responses of the Council of the College of Preceptors andsecond the theory prevalent in the late nineteenth century, which Cohen terms'the discourse of overstrain'.12

Tlie development of examinationsExisting literature discussing the development and growth of examinationspoints to the origin of examinations in this country as a nineteenth-centuryphenomenon.13 Examinations resulted from a growth in literacy and were intune with the Victorian ideology of competition in the market-place. Theirdevelopment represented a significant change from the principle of patronageto the principle of proficiency.

The young men in nineteenth century Britain may have come from the houseof the squire or the mill owner rather than from the village itself, but the sameaim held: to select young men for public or professional service by means otherthan family connection or full purse.14

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In contrast, the familiar iconography of dependence and subordinationplaced the middle-class young women of the Victorian age in the private, ratherthan the public or professional sphere referred to above. As Burstyn argues'Victorians believed women acquired their status through men not throughtheir own efforts'.15 The modest Victorian woman was assumed to be bothphysically and intellectually inferior to the Victorian man and suited to asubordinate, dependent role. Unlike her brothers, who were 'to be sent out intothe world to buffet with its temptations, to mingle with bad and good, togovern and direct', the Victorian girl was 'to dwell in quiet homes, amongst afew friends, to exercise a noiseless influence, to be submissive and retiring'.16

Initially, girls did not have access to all selective examinations leading togreater employment opportunities. Existing literature which considers 'girls andexaminations' between 1860 and 1902, usually highlights the campaign to opento girls the University Local Examinations, which were instituted in 1858 byOxford and Cambridge Universities to test the competence of boys in middle-class schools.17 These examinations exerted a great influence on school curriculafrom 1858 until 1911. By 1863 Emily Davies and a group of supporters of thewomen's movement were campaigning for the University Local Examinationsto be opened to girls on exactly the same basis as for boys. Their opponents,grounded in the traditional Victorian 'ideal' of womanhood, could not acceptthat girls might be as intellectually able as boys. Roach comments: 'It must haveseemed to many people in the 1860s that if girls were to sit examinations,cooking and flirting would be the most appropriate subjects of study'.18

Opponents feared that competition and rivalry were not suitable for girls, whoserealm was the private sphere. For boys, examinations would promote rightfulpride in achievement, whereas for girls, they would promote vanity andostentation.19 In spite of opposition, the campaigners were successful and girlswere permitted to take the Cambridge examinations on a trial basis inDecember 1863. Following a further three-year trial period, and considerablehard work by Emily Davies, these examinations were made a permanent featurefor girls as well as boys, although there were to be no class-lists and no names offemale candidates were to be published. Girls were admitted to thecorresponding examinations of Oxford University in 1870. The Schools'Examinations of the College of Preceptors predate the University LocalExaminations. Girls' performance in the College of Preceptors' examinationsillustrates a history of substantial academic achievement.

The College of Preceptors was established in 1846 by a group of privateteachers concerned with middle-class education. According to its RoyalCharter of Incorporation its purposes were those of:

Promoting sound learning and of advancing the interests of education, moreespecially among the middle classes, by providing facilities to the teacher for

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the acquiring of a sound knowledge of his profession and by providing for theperiodical session of a competent Board of Examiners, to ascertain and givecertificates of the acquirements and fitness for their office of persons engagedor desiring to be engaged in the education of youth.20

In spite of this reference to 'his profession', from its earliest days, a Ladies'Department of the College of Preceptors also existed to promote the greaterefficiency of schoolmistresses and governesses and to protect their interests.21

This may be attributed both to the efforts of the 'Ladies' themselves, and to theshared interest of several of the founding male members in improving femaleeducation. Of these, Joseph Payne is worthy of special mention.22 Existingliterature concerning the College of Preceptors refers to the Schools'Examinations and acknowledges the College's efforts to improve femaleeducation.23 However, it concentrates more particularly on the efforts of theCollege to promote the professionalisation of teaching. Willis considers theSchools' Examinations but does not specifically comment on the achievementof the candidates.24 Initially, the College established their examinations forteachers or intending teachers. The first female candidates submitted themselvessuccessfully for these examinations in the summer of 1849. Reporting on themidsummer examinations in August 1851, at which the male and femalecandidates amassed thirty-five and forty certificates respectively, it is interestingto note that the Dean of the College commented:

I am ever careful to avoid throwing an apple of discord, but I would hurl the discof emulation between the lady and gentleman candidates for our various grades;and I can hardly forbear saying on the present occasion, without particularizingnames, that the ladies have done themselves more credit than the gendemen.25

There seemed, however, considerable reluctance by both male and femaleteachers to submit themselves to examination26 and the Council of the College ofPreceptors decided to extend their examinations to schoolchildren.27 The firstexamination of a school under the scheme, which was the first ever publicexamination of school pupils,28 took place at the Standard Hill Academy, a famousUnitarian boys' school near Nottingham, on 23 and 24 December 1850.29

Subsequently, although in very small numbers, and for the sake of their 'modesty'in their own schools, girls were also examined and received appropriatecertificates. In 1851 it was agreed that 'certificates be granted to the seven pupilsof Miss Turk's School, Clapham, recommended by Mr. Freeman, the examiner'.30

The success of Victorian girls

The College of Preceptors Schools' Examinations were formally established in1854. By the end of the decade, although the number of candidates was small,

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girls began to achieve notable successes alongside the boys. During the 1860sthe examinations were established at three levels: third class intended for theyoungest pupils of about fourteen years of age; second class, and first class forolder pupils. The two latter were intended to correspond with the Junior andSenior University Local Examinations. The success of the girls continuedduring the 1860s. However it is important to note that such success wasgenerally in those subjects which, although more 'modern' than the classics ofthe traditional boys' education, were traditionally regarded as 'feminine'. Thesesubjects had been the staples of middle-class female education for many years:English, modern languages, music, drawing and scripture. In accordance withthe 'ideal' of Victorian womanhood such a curriculum sought to promote theattainment of appropriate 'feminine' accomplishments. Such accomplishmentswould be preparation either for a decorative life of subordination in the homeor, if unfavourable circumstances should prevail, for a life of service as agoverness. In the summer of 1862 Miss R. Boxall was the first girl to win oneof the College's prizes, which she was awarded for modern languages. In themidsummer examinations of 1869 there were 953 candidates for the College ofPreceptors' examinations, of whom eighty-eight were girls.31 Significantly,pupils from Frances Mary Buss' famous North London Collegiate Schoolappeared amongst the list of candidates for the first time. Frances Mary Buss wasa firm believer that examinations were an important feature in improvingstandards in education. One of her pupils, Esther Greatbach, had considerablesuccess across a wide range of subjects.

That girls should have achieved such success at the same examinations as boyswas notable in view of the comments of the Schools Inquiry Commission, whichinvestigated middle-class education between 1864 and 1868.32 Nine women,including Frances Mary Buss and Emily Davies, gave evidence in respect of girls'education. The conclusions published in 1868 contained often quoted criticismsof the patchy and inadequate provision of secondary education for girls:

The general deficiency in girls' education is stated with the utmost confidence,and with entire agreement, with whatever difference of words, by many witnes-ses of authority. Want of thoroughness and foundation; want of system; sloven-liness and showy superficiality; inattention to rudiments; undue time given toaccomplishments, and those not taught intelligendy or in any scientific manner;want of organization; - these may sufficiendy indicate the character of the com-plaints. It is needless to observe that the same complaints apply to a great extentto boys' education. But on the whole, evidence is clear that, not as they might bebut as they are, the Girls' Schools are inferior in this view to the Boys' Schools.33

It is relevant to note, however, that against popular perception, theCommissioners affirmed that 'there is weighty evidence to the effect that the

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essential capacity for learning is the same, or nearly the same, in the two sexes'.34

In mixed schools taught by masters, no noticeable difference was found betweenthe attainments of boys and those of girls.35 Furthermore, the Commissionersendorsed the system of examination for girls as well as boys as a powerfulstimulus to the mind.36

During the 1870s steps were taken by schools and by those with a particularinterest in female education to address the problems identified by the TauntonCommission. As a result girls were able to join the tide of candidates for 'thegreat network of examinations, which is now spread over the whole extent ofthe country'.37 The College of Preceptors, as a teachers' organisation, lacked theprestige of the Universities and its examinations were sometimes considered todemand a slightly lower standard of attainment.38 However the number ofcandidates for both the examinations of the College of Preceptors and theUniversity Local Examinations increased at this time. Such was their popularitythat the Reverend Bell, Headmaster of Marlborough College, speaking at theCollege of Preceptors' prize-giving in February 1877 commented. 'I under-stand it is no uncommon thing for principals of schools to make use of ourdifferent certificate examinations alternately with the local examinations in anascending scale of tests for their pupils.'39 By the end of the decade, thenumber of girls entering for the Schools' Examinations of the College ofPreceptors exceeded boys. In 1879 there were 7645 candidates of whom 4428were female and the following year there were 9148 candidates of whom 5121were female. Not only were there more female candidates but their success ratewas often higher. This was first identified following the Christmas examinationsin 1872 when it was reported that, 'the girls have done very decidedly better thanthe boys'.40 Although the percentage of passes was not usually differentiatedbetween the sexes, following the examinations of Christmas 1876, it wasreported that only 24.5 per cent of the girls failed against 27.5 per cent of theboys.41

The increase in the number of female candidates continued until 1883, whenthere were 7263 candidates, but then remained fairly static, while the numberof male candidates increased slightly year on year. By 1890 there were 7142female and 8383 male candidates. Generally the success of the girls at theexaminations continued. In August 1882, following the midsummer examina-tions, the results clearly favoured the girls, other than in the second class. In thefirst class the pass rate for boys was 41.8 per cent, for girls 56.6 per cent; in thesecond class the figures were 49.2 per cent and 43 per cent; in the third class 64per cent and 72.9 per cent.42 Similarly at Christmas 1883 the figures againindicated greater success by the girls, where the gap in first class had stretchedto 16 per cent.43 Many girls achieved individual success including awards foroverall general proficiency.

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From the early 1890s until the end of the Victorian era the number ofcandidates taking the College's examinations decreased but more especially inthe case of girls. In 1893 the numbers were 9039 boys and 7012 girls but by1902 the numbers were 7918 and 4830 respectively. The reason for the declinein the number of female candidates is likely to have been related to a preferenceto take the University Local Examinations, which offered more choice ofsubjects, or the Joint Board Examinations, which had always been the choice ofthe first grade boys' schools. Alternatively some headmistresses may havefollowed the lead of those such as Miss Cooper of Edgbaston High School andMiss Creak of the GPDSC School at Brighton who preferred that girls did nottake examinations until they were sixteen or seventeen.44 There seems nosuggestion that girls were failing to reach the required standards.

As will be discussed later, the format of the College of Preceptors Schools'Examinations was changed during the 1880s, as a result of concern that girls'success in the first class was being achieved because they were not competingon exactly the same basis as boys. Initially, after the change, the girls failed toachieve their previous success but soon recovered. After the Christmasexaminations 1890, the girls were only one per cent behind the boys in the firstclass, while achieving a considerably higher pass rate in the second class and thesame rate in the third class.45 The following year, the girls achieved a highersuccess rate than the boys in all three classes. Elwood and Comber caution thatthe gross bench-marks that are used to report outcome statistics hide complexperformance patterns.46 Such caution must be observed in interpreting theresults in this instance as more boys were prize-winners.47 However the girls'results were impressive: in the first class, boys 51 per cent, girls 54 per cent:second class, boys 50 per cent, girls 62 per cent: third class, boys 76 per cent,girls 80 per cent. Overall, the average pass rate for boys was 59 per cent, whilefor girls it was 65.3 per cent.

There can be no doubt that, between 1860 and 1902, the Council of theCollege of Preceptors and many of the supporters welcomed as guests at theCollege's prize-giving, showed great support for the improvements in middle-class female education that were taking place. The speech made by the guestspeaker, Thomas Hughes, following the midsummer examinations of 1878expresses typical sentiments:48

I feel most strongly that the future of the country to a very great extent dependsupon the efforts which are being made to give women of the country thehighest possible training. I am one of those who do not believe for a momentthat women can be too highly trained in any respect and when one looks uponthe enormous influence which they must always have on the education of thecountry (for during the most impressionable years of life, the moulding of all

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the children of the country, boys as well as girls is necessarily almost exclusivelyin their hands) it does seem astonishing that there should have been so muchhesitation as there has been in placing frankly and freely within the reach ofwomen the highest education that can be got in England.49

With hindsight the College was justly proud of its role in improving standardsin female education and particularly of having provided the first academicexaminations for female candidates in middle-class schools. However, in theearly days of the Schools' Examinations the success of the girls was nevermentioned in any of the speeches at the twice-yearly prize-giving held to awardcertificates to successful candidates. In many instances, all references by theCollege in speeches and correspondence continued to be to boys and theirmasters. While this might have been from a need to protect the 'modesty' of thefemale candidates, it seems more likely that extending examinations to girls atthis stage was permissive, rather than prescriptive and because of thecomparatively small numbers, their performance could be ignored.

Women's representation to the Taunton Commission ensured that middle-class girls and their education would no longer be 'invisible'. After thepublication of the report, the girls' success in the examinations of the Collegeof Preceptors became visible. This visibility was enhanced by the appointmentof Frances Mary Buss, Headmistress of the North London Collegiate School,to the previously male-dominated Council of the College of Preceptors in1870. At the prize-giving in the summer of 1870, when Miss Buss was amongthe guests, the achievements of the female candidates were highlighted and theywere 'enthusiastically applauded'.50

Explaining girls' success: the response of the Council of the College of Preceptors

The response of the Council of the College of Preceptors illustrates Cohen'sarguments that the very terms of the discourse on education have beenorganised so that educational practices have the performance of boys at heart.Following the Christmas examinations of 1872 when the girls had performedparticularly well, the Chairman acknowledged their 'remarkable' success. Heappeared, however, somewhat reluctant in his praise of their performance whichchallenged existing gendered assumptions of intellectual hierarchy:

I am informed by the Secretary to the College of Preceptors that there is oneremarkable characteristic about the examinations of which we now see thevisible results before us, and that is (how shall I express it?) that the girls havedone very decidedly better than the boys. That is to say with a much smallernumber of candidates (for I am afraid I did not express my meaning quiteaccurately, and I do not wish to institute a competitive examination at all

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between the members of the two sexes) with a much smaller number of girlscompeting there is a much larger proportionate number of prize winners.51

This reluctance continued following the examinations of Christmas 1876when, as already indicated, the number of failures by girls was less than that ofboys. The Dean, instead of praising the greater number of passes of the girls,chose to explain that although girls were succeeding in the traditionally 'feminine'subjects of English and languages, generally they still could not compete with theboys in traditionally 'masculine' subjects particularly algebra and Euclid.52 Theirsuccess, therefore, could be ignored. Cohen argues that French has always beenassociated with 'female' accomplishments. As a result it became a metonym forthe frivolous and superficial education girls received. She states: 'The site whereone would expect a celebration of girls' achievement is precisely the site whereit is never spoken of'.53 The insistence by the College of Preceptors that subjectsfavoured by girls and in which they achieved success, were easier than subjectsfavoured by boys, was to continue. No explanation was ever attempted, orseemed to be required, as to why, if English and foreign languages were easierthan algebra and Euclid, the male candidates, whose superior intellectual abilitywas presumed, failed to equal the level of excellence of the girls. Instead, asCohen suggests, 'It is not so much that girls' achievement has been ignored oroverlooked throughout history, it is rather that the often visible evidence of thisachievement has served to construct female minds as inferior'.54

Following the Christmas 1876 examinations the Reverend Bell, theHeadmaster of Marlborough School, presenting the prizes, commented atlength on the performance of the candidates as regards gender. In contrast to theDean, he did choose to comment on the success of the girls but felt it necessaryto offer an explanation for this success. His explanation supports Cohen'sanalysis by locating an external factor to explain boys' underachievement, ratherthan suggesting any intrinsic intellectual superiority on the part of the girls:

It is however, satisfactory to see that girls, probably because they are as yet notso often or so early useful as breadwinners, are allowed to stay longer at school,so that the average age of the girls presented for examination is 15. This partlyaccounts for the fact that in French the failures of the girls are only one-thirdof those of the boys; and yet the latter, notwithstanding the difference of a yearand a half, exactly reverse the proportion in the higher arithmetic in whichsubject three times as many girls fail as boys. Still, on the whole, the girls fairlymaintain their superiority especially in the first class, and gain a much largerproportion of special certificates55

From 1880 the Calendars of the College of Preceptors illustrate thebackground to the Dean's comments.56 While boys and girls sat the same

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examinations and were required to obtain the same number of points for eachaward, the regulations for the sexes were different, other than for a third classcertificate. For a first class certificate boys had to pass in eight obligatory subjectsincluding algebra, Euclid and Latin, and could be examined in five or any lessernumber of additional subjects. Girls had to enter five obligatory subjects, therequirement for algebra, Euclid and Latin being optional. They had to make upthe necessary number of marks by increasing their choice from the list ofoptional subjects. The second class was correspondingly less demanding andgave girls the opportunity to avoid algebra, Euclid and Latin." As has alreadybeen observed, the subjects obligatory for boys, the so-called 'masculine'subjects, were regarded as more difficult. Therefore, an explanation was availablefor any greater female success that could again be devalued.

By 1882 the greater percentage of success by the girls had becomeproblematic. The Council of the College discussed the situation and Councilmembers offered explanations for girls' success. Mr Lowson turned to theexplanation previously put forward, that the girls' success could be attributed tothem having the advantage of being able to substitute other subjects for algebra,geometry and Latin. However, Miss Bailey, the Principal of Doreck College,championed the girls' position and insisted that they were intellectuallyqualified to deal with any of the studies that were 'somewhat arbitrarily'regarded as the special property of boys. Mr Rule suggested that there was verylittle difference in the average results of the boys and girls in the examinations ifall three levels were taken together.58 However the Dean's explanation settledthe matter for the time being:

The Dean considered it desirable to remind the meeting, that there was onepoint which had been overlooked by previous speakers in estimating the relativestanding of the girls and boys at the examination. The average age of the girlswho came up for examination was found to be about two years greater than thatof the boys, and this was a great advantage in their favour, which, in his opinionfully accounted for the differences in the percentage of success and failure whichhad been referred to. The girls were in no way favoured as to the number ofobligatory subjects, of which eight had to be passed as in the case of the boys59

By February 1884 the gap between the performance of the girls and that ofthe boys had widened to such an extent that it could no longer be dismissed.The Dean's explanation on this occasion differed from his explanation of 1882,both regarding the obligatory subjects and the relative ages of the male andfemale candidates.

It will be seen that in the First Class the girls are more successful than the boys,in the proportion of 52 to 36 which is partly explained by the considerationthat according to our scheme, the boys are required to satisfy in a larger number

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of obligatory subjects than the girls, viz. in English Language, History,Geography, Arithmetic, Algebra, Euclid, Latin and a modern foreign language;while in the case of girl candidates only the first four subjects and a foreignlanguage are strictly obligatory, though they are required to pass in the samenumber of subjects as the boys. In the Second Class the proportion is alsoslightly against the boys, whilst in the Third Class the work of the boys is againgreatly inferior to the girls in the proportion of 55 to 67. It should however beborne in mind that the girl candidates are on the average about a year and a halfolder than the boys60

Evidence given to the Bryce Commission about the age of the candidatesillustrates that previous explanations were not applicable, except at the level offirst class. The Commissioners noted that by 1895 the average age of entry forthe College's examinations had been: third class, boys 13.9, and girls 14.4;second class, boys 15.5, girls 15.8; first class, boys 16, girls 17.6.61

There was evident concern that the boys were not doing as well as the girls,particularly in the first class. The focus for discussion therefore turned to thecurriculum. One assumption was that girls had an advantage because of theirwider choice of obligatory subjects. The only option was to ensure that the twosexes were competing on an equal basis. At the meeting of the ExaminationCommittee in November 1885, it was proposed that, 'In the Pupils' examina-tions the same standard be required of all First Class Candidates.' In due coursethe Committee decided that for the award of a first class certificate only two ofthe three English subjects (English language, English history and geography)should be obligatory and that any second foreign language might be substitutedfor Latin.62 The following month, further amendments were made and it wasresolved that with effect from the midsummer examinations 1887, two levels offirst class certificate be instituted: 'honours' and 'pass'. In order to obtain'honours', in contrast to earlier requirements, it would be necessary for allcandidates, male and female, to take algebra and or Euclid alongside the otherobligatory subjects, or to take at least one of these subjects and a second foreignlanguage. To obtain a 'pass', it would be possible to avoid the requirement ofalgebra and or Euclid as long as candidates substituted as many other subjects aswould make up the required number to pass at that level.63 Unsurprisingly,following the change in regulations fewer girls were awarded first classcertificates at the midsummer examinations of 1887, although the Deananticipated that the girls would soon make up the difference.64 By the followingsummer his faith in the female candidates had been rewarded and he was ableto report that there was a considerable increase in the number of girls beingawarded first class certificates.65

In spite of the action taken in 1887 to ensure that boys and girls werecompeting on the same basis in the first class, the 'problem' regarding their

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relative levels of success continued into the next decade. As a result, the Collegecontinued not only to take steps to equalise the conditions under which boysand girls took the examinations but also more especially to ensure that undersuch conditions the boys would be certain to succeed. As already noted,following the Christmas examinations 1894 the number of boys failing theexaminations was higher than the number of girls, particularly in the secondclass. The percentage of failures was also higher than that of the JuniorUniversity Local Examinations.66 Various schemes were therefore considered tovary the requirements, this time of the second class examinations. The object ofthe schemes was to ensure that they were the same for both sexes, in no wayfavoured the female candidates and were in line with the options available tocandidates taking the Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations. The Collegeof Preceptors tried to project results of the different models in terms of the likelyrelative success of the male and female candidates. It is interesting to observe thatthe Examination Committee was happy with the models, which if theirprojections were correct would result in greater success for the boys. Forexample, in response to a 'scheme B', the Committee stated.

By removing the difference between the boys and the girls (the latter not beingrequired to pass in a mathematical subject, which is obligatory for the former),the position of the boys would be improved by 3 per cent, a comparativelytrifling matter to the existing disproportion.67

In February 1895 the Examination Committee formally considered thequestion of the advisability of modifying the existing requirements for thesecond class certificates by the substitution of alternative subjects for certain ofthe present obligatory subjects. It was agreed that in future no distinction shouldbe made between boys and girls with regard to obligatory subjects.68 Thestatistics after this date until the end of the period under review do not indicatethe level of success by gender but there is no evidence to suggest that this changein the regulations for the second class certificates was in any way problematic forfemale candidates.

The two main reasons suggested for boys' failing to equal the success of thegirls at the College of Preceptors Examinations were: first, that they were onaverage younger at the date of examination; and second, that they were obligedto take more difficult obligatory subjects. Evidence of the College of Preceptorsitself to the Bryce Commission, as to the age of the candidates, illustrates thatthe first reason was largely untenable other than in the first class, as noted.Neither did the second reason carry weight, as is borne out by the continuedsuccess of girls after the examinations were altered to ensure they werecompeting on the exactly the same basis as boys. As explanations their claims to

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'truth' were grounded in the gendered discourses of differential achievement,which placed boys' underachievenient as extrinsic to themselves, an explana-tion, that as Cohen illustrates, stretched back to Locke.69

Explaining girls' success: the discourse of 'overstrain'

Cohen has identified the 1880s discourse of 'overstrain' as an importantcontinuing factor in explaining boys' underachievement. She traces this back tothe findings of the Taunton Commission. Comparing girls and boys, theAssistant Commissioners found again and again evidence that girls out-performed boys and exhibited a greater eagerness to learn. This soon became aground for concern; not about how boys would keep up with girls; but aboutthe danger of'overstrain' for girls.70 In May 1880 the system of competitiveexaminations was blamed for imposing unacceptable strain on girls in a 'Letterfrom Harley St', published in the Educational Times, the organ of the College ofPreceptors.71 Girls might be succeeding, but, it was claimed, 'they are weakerthan their brothers - more sensitive - more finely organised, and highly-strung,and more reticent'.72 Therefore such success was at the expense of their health.This argument built on contemporary views such as those of Henry Maudsley,published in 1873 in the Fortnightly Review, that there was 'Sex in Mind andEducation' and that 'when Nature spends in one direction, she must economisein another direction'.73 Too much work involving the brain would result indamage to other organs and, in the case of girls, their important reproductiveorgans.74 As Gipps and Murphy comment: 'Evolutionary theory considered themale to have been shaped for thought and creativity, the female forreproduction.'75 Cohen notes: 'Girls high performance as pathology became anintegral part of the educational discourse'.

In the next issue of the Educational Times an article entitled 'EducationalPressure' echoed the findings of the Taunton Commission in suggesting whyproblems of'mental overwork' were more likely to apply to girls. Not only wasthe Victorian girl frailer than her brother but she was more conscientious.

The reason of this exclusion of boys seems to us chiefly - that it is difficult toget the British boy to endure mental pressure of more than a certain amount.He is not generally too enthusiastic about learning; and his teachers thoughthey may carry zeal to a height quite inconsistent with the requirements ofhealth, do not carry boys with them — simply because they will not be pushedbeyond a certain rate of speed and because they will play. This stubbornness,this dogged resolution, or instinct, not to put too much upon the brain, has itsuses, though sometimes it bears hard upon the teacher ... And in the case ofgirls we have a natural eagerness, far greater than is to be found in boys. Theyare more easily roused to enthusiasm, they are more careless of their own

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pleasures; they have less interests in sports, they have greater faith, and they arepossessed by greater emulation. Therefore, if there is any educational pressureat all, it must be looked for, first of all, among schoolgirls.76

In the Educational Times it was argued that girls were succeeding inexaminations not because of any intrinsic greater intellectual ability but becausethey were working too hard.77 This explanation, in common with otherspreviously discussed, did not consider any possible intrinsic deficiency in boys.Any deficiency rested with the girls. The attitude of boys was healthy, protectedthem from overwork, and was to be commended. The attitude of girls wasunhealthy, detrimental to the future of the race and needed to be changed.Cohen states, '"Overstrain" is thus a crucial construct for a history of boys'underachievement, because it contributed to producing the underperformanceof boys as an index of their mental health'.78

Conclusion

The decisions of the Council of the College of Preceptors should not beinterpreted as a deliberate attempt to favour boys and discriminate against girls.The College of Preceptors was an undoubted force in improving standards offemale education in the late nineteenth century. Many members of the College,particularly Joseph Payne, were at the forefront of enlightened thoughtregarding girls and achievement. At the midsummer prize-giving in 1870,Payne told those present:

I see no reason why ladies should not receive the best prizes, and I am alsoperfectly satisfied of this point, that although we often settle questions "apriori" by speculation which when brought to the test, defeat thosespeculations. I am convinced that the intellectual capacity of the female mindhas not yet been fairly tried. In times past no opportunity was given, or at thattime it was contended that because she had no opportunity afforded her to dothese things, she had not been able to do them. Let them now show by practiceand by effect that the mind of woman is equal to the mind of man, and that weought not to take the supremacy of the latter as established until their title isproved.79

Changes in society affecting the status of, and opportunities open to, womenmake it impossible to compare directly the success of the Victorian girls at theCollege's Examinations with that of today's schoolgirls who, have enjoyed an'extraordinary chronicle of gains' since the mid-1980s.80 Because of societalchange, some arguments put forward today to explain boys' performancecannot be directly compared with arguments put forward in the last century.

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The argument that boys' underachievement is a result of the challenge to therole of the male as breadwinner, leading to male despondency, and a lack ofappropriate role models for boys is a relevant example. It is, however, striking tonote that this too provides an example of an explanation, which cites reasonsextrinsic to the boys themselves. However other current explanations for boys'comparative underachievement at G.C.S.E. draw on arguments which resonatestrongly with those of the College of Preceptors. The view that it is theinclusion of coursework in the syllabus, which has made the examinations more'girl friendly'81 re-echoes the earlier concern of the College of Preceptors thatthe requirements of their examinations favoured girls. While we no longersupport the Victorian idea of feminine fragility, the 'discourse of overstrain'described in the article, which attributes success to hard work and enthusiasm,corresponds with Elwood and Comber's suggestion that it is not untypical forteachers to attribute girls' achievement to diligence rather than ability.82 Thearticle from the Educational Times of June 1880 described the British schoolboyas 'generally not too enthusiastic about learning', who 'will not be pushedbeyond a certain rate of speed' and 'will play'. This description is only a stepaway from the 'boys will be boys' discourse described by Epstein, Ellwood, Heyand Maw as having achieved a 'globalized common-sense status', over a centurylater.83 As Cohen observes, one major consequence of such explanations is thatthe concern for the underachievement of boys, and the attempts to excuse it,undermines the success of girls.84

Acknowledgements

The assistance of the Archivist at the Archives of the Institute of Education,University of London, is gratefully acknowledged.

References

1. From the Chairman's address at the presentation of prizes following the Christmasexaminations, 1872. Educational Times, February 1873, 265.

2 'The lads may not be alright' and 'Perils of ignoring our lost boys' Times Educational Supplement,28 June 1996; 'Whatever happened to the likely lads?' Times Educational Supplement, 9 June1998.

3. Daily Telegraph, 13 October 2000.4. J. Elwood and C. Comber, Gender Difference in Examinations at 18 Final Report (1996), 9.5. ibid., 11.6. M. Arnot, M. David, G. Weiner, Closing the Gender Gap (Polity Press,1999), 29.7. C. Gipps and P. Murphy, A Fair Test? Assessment, Achievement and Equity (Buckingham, Open

University Press, 1994), 273.8. P. Murphy and J. Elwood, 'Gendered learning outside and inside school: influences on

achievement', in D. Epstein, J. Elwood, V. Hey and J. Maw, (eds.), Failing Boys? Issues in Genderand Achievement (Buckingham, Open University Press, 1998), 163.

9. J. Elwood and C. Comber op. cit., 9.

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10. M. Arnot, M. David and G. Weiner, op. cit., 7.11. M. Cohen, 'Is there a space for the achieving girl?' in P.F. Murphy and C.V. Gipps, (eds.),

Towards Effective Pedagogy for Girls and Boys (Falmer Press, 1996), 126.12. M. Cohen, 'A habit of healthy idleness': boys' underachievement in historical perspective,' in

D. Epstein, J. Elwood, V. Hey, and J. Maw, (eds.), op. cit., 26.13. J.L. Brereton, The Case for Examinations (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1944); R.J.

Montgomery, Examinations, an account of their evolution as adminstrative devices in England(London, Longman, Green & Co., 1965) and A New Examination of Examinations (London,Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1978); J. Roach, Public Examinations in England, 1850-1900(Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971); J.C. Mathews, Examinations -- A Commentary(London, George Allen & Unwin 1985).

14. J.C. Mathews, op. cit., 4, quoting A.H. Halsey, A.F. Heath and J.M. Ridge, Origins anddestinations: family, class and education in modern Britain (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1980). Theemphasis is mine.

15. J.N. Burstyn, Victorian Education and the Ideal of Womanhood (London, Croom Helm, 1980), 18.16. E. Sewell, 'Reverence for home life'(1865) in D. Spender (ed), The Education Papers (London,

Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987), 144.17. J. Roach, op. cit., 103-135; B. Stephen, Emily Davies and Girton College (London, Constable &

Co. Ltd., 1927), 82-105; J. Kamm, Hope Deferred (London, Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1965), 185-195; J.S. Pedersen, The Reform of Girls' Secondary and Higher Education in Victorian England (NewYork and London, Garland Publishing Inc., 1987), 51-54, M.P. Gallant, 'Against the odds:Anne Jemima Clough and women's education in England' History of Education, 1997, 26, (2),145-164

18. J. Roach, op. cit., 103.19. ibid., 117.20. The College of Preceptors Royal Charter of Incorporation, 28 March 1849. (All records for

the College of Preceptors were consulted at the Institute of Education, University of London.)21. Educational Times, October 1847, 5.22. R. Aldrich, School and Society in Victorian Britain (Theydon Bois, College of Preceptors, 1995),

161-174.23. J.V. Chapman, Professional Roots -- The College of Preceptors in British Society (Epping, Theydon

Bois Publications, 1985); R. Aldrich, op. cit.24. R. Willis, The Contribution of the College of Preceptors to Education in England from 1846 to 1911

(unpublished MPhil thesis, University of Leeds, 1993), 93-149 and 'Professional Roots: theRoyal Incorporated College of Preceptors and private teachers from 1846-1850' History ofEducation Society Bulletin, November 1999, 64, 91-101.

25. Educational Times, August 1851, 246.26. Educational Times, February 1849, 100.27. Minutes of the Council of the College of Preceptors, November 1849, 116.28. H. Dent, 'Introduction' in J.V.Chapman, op. cit., xi.29. J.V Chapman, op. cit., 41.30. Minutes of the Council of the College of Preceptors, December 1851, 161.31. Educational Times, August 1869, 79.32. The Commission sat under the chairmanship of Lord Taunton and is often referred to as the

'Taunton Commission'33. Report of Schools Inquiry Commission, Report, Volume 1, 548-549.34. ibid., 553.35. ibid.36. ibid., 556.37. Educational Times, January 1875, 223.38. J. Kamm, Indicative Past (London, George Allen and Unwin, 1971), 50.39. Educational Times, February 1877, 250.

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40. ibid., February 1873, 265.41. ibid., February 1877, 253.42. ibid., August 1882, 212.43. ibid., February 1884, 36.44. R. Watts, 'From lady-teacher to professional: a case study of some of the first headteachers of

girls secondary schools in England' Educational Management and Administration, 1998, 26, (4),339-351.

45. Educational Times, February 1891, 67.46. J. Elwood and C. Comber, op. cit., 77.47. Educational Times, February 1892, 58.48. Thomas Hughes, author of Tom Brown's Schooldays.49. Educational Times, August 1878, 195-196.50. ibid., August 1870, 100.51. ibid., February 1873, 265.52. ibid., February 1879, 249.53. M. Cohen, (1996), 125.54. ibid., 124.55. Educational Times, February 1877, 250.56. The Calendars survive from this date and provide, in accessible form, more background

information about the examinations.57. Calendar of College of Preceptors, 1880, 51-54.58. In reality the averages work out at more than a 'little difference' being 51 per cent for boys and

57.5 per cent for girls.59. Calendar of College of Preceptors, 1880, 51-54.60. Educational Times, February 1884, 36.61. ibid., November 1895, 492.62. College of Preceptors Examination Committee Minutes 24, 26 May 1886.63. ibid., 25, 30 June 1886.64. Educational Times, August 1887, 291.65. ibid., August 1888, 274.66. College of Preceptors Examination Committee Minutes, 1894/1895 (The precise date is

unclear).67. ibid.68. ibid., 96, 16 February 1895.69. M. Cohen, (1998) 22.70. ibid., 26.71. The full title of the newspaper was the Educational Times and the Journal of the College of Preceptors

indicating the close association of the two organisations.72. Educational Times, May 1880, 136.73. H. Maudsley, 'Sex in mind and in education', The Fortnightly Review, 15, reprinted in K.

Rowold (ed.), Gender and Science (Bristol, Thoemmes Press, 1996), 33.74. M. Cohen, (1996), 132.75. C. Gipps and P. Murphy, op. cit., 32.76. Educational Times, June 1880, 160-161.77. Similar concerns about girls' health were expressed in The Journal of Education, May 1880, 113-115.78. M. Cohen, (1998), 27.79. Educational Times, August 1870,100.80. M. Arnot, M. David, G. Weiner, op. cit., 15.81. ibid., 127.82. J. Elwood and C. Comber, op. cit., 59.83. D. Epstein, J. Ellwood, V. Hey and J. Maw, op. cit., 9.84. M. Cohen, (1996), 125.

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