The Gui River, - Boone County Schools handbook.pdf · The Gui River, Guilin, China The Amazon, Brazil ... Another imaginary line runs from north to south. It helps divide the earth

Geography Handbook 1

Saharan sanddunes, Morocco

The Gui River,Guilin, China

▼

▼

The Amazon, Brazil ▼

The story of the world begins with geog-raphy—the study of the earth in all of itsvariety. Geography describes the earth’sland, water, and plant and animal life. It isthe study of places and the complex relationships between people and theirenvironment.

The resources in this handbook will helpyou get the most out of your textbook—andprovide you with skills you will use for therest of your life.

01-15 GEO HNBK TWIP-860976 4/8/04 12:36 AM Page 1

To understand how our world is connected, somegeographers have broken down the study of

geography into five themes. The Five Themes ofGeography are (1) location, (2) place, (3) human/environment interaction, (4) movement, and(5) regions. You will see these themes highlightedin the Section and Chapter Assessments in TheWorld and Its People.

Six Essential ElementsRecently, geographers have broken down the

study of geography into Six Essential Elements,which are explained here. Being aware of theseelements will help you sort out what you arelearning about geography.

The World in Spatial TermsGeographers first take a look at

where a place is located. Locationserves as a starting point by asking“Where is it?” Knowing the loca-tion of places helps youdevelop an awareness ofthe world around you.

Physical SystemsWhen studying places

and regions, geographersanalyze how physicalsystems—such as hurri-canes, volcanoes, andglaciers—shape theearth’s surface. They alsolook at communities ofplants and animals thatdepend upon one anotherand their surroundingsfor survival.

2 Geography Handbook

Places and RegionsPlace has a special mean-

ing in geography. It is notjust a geographic location. Italso describes characteristics.It might describe physicalcharacteristics such as land-forms, climate, and plant oranimal life. Or it mightdescribe human characteris-tics, including language andway of life.

To help organize theirstudy, geographers oftengroup places into regions.Regions are united by one or more common characteristics.


Environment and SocietyHow does the relation-

ship between people andtheir natural surroundingsinfluence the way peoplelive? Geographers study howpeople use the environmentand how their actions affectthe environment.

Human SystemsGeographers also examine

human systems, or howpeople have shaped ourworld. They look at howboundary lines are deter-mined and analyze whypeople settle in certainplaces and not in others. Akey theme in geography isthe continual movement ofpeople, ideas, and goods.

The Uses of GeographyKnowledge of geography

helps us understand therelationships among people,places, and environmentsover time. Applying geo-graphic skills helps youunderstand the past andprepare for the future.


Geography Handbook



Northern Hemisphere

North Pole South Pole

Asia

Asia

NorthAmerica

NorthAmerica

SouthAmerica

SouthAmerica

PacificOcean

PacificOcean

PacificOcean

IndianOcean

IndianOcean

Antarctica

AtlanticOcean

AtlanticOcean

AtlanticOcean

Australia

Australia

Europe

Europe

Africa

Africa

Africa

Southern Hemisphere

Western Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere

Hemispheres

HemispheresTo locate places on the earth, geographers use

a system of imaginary lines that crisscross theglobe. One of these lines, the Equator, circlesthe middle of the earth like a belt. It dividesthe earth into “half spheres,” or hemispheres.Everything north of the Equator is in theNorthern Hemisphere. Everything south of theEquator is in the Southern Hemisphere.

Another imaginary line runs from north tosouth. It helps divide the earth into halfspheres in the other direction. Find this line—called the Prime Meridian—on a globe.Everything east of the Prime Meridian for 180 degrees is in the Eastern Hemisphere.Everything west of the Prime Meridian for 180 degrees is in the Western Hemisphere.


LatitudeLines of latitude, or parallels, circle the

earth parallel to the Equator and measurethe distance north or south of the Equatorin degrees. The Equator is at 0° latitude,while the North Pole lies at latitude 90°N(north).

LongitudeLines of longitude, or meridians, circle the earth

from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distances eastor west of the starting line, which is at 0° longitudeand is called the Prime Meridian. The PrimeMeridian runs through the Royal Observatory inGreenwich, England.

Absolute LocationThe grid system formed by lines of latitude

and longitude makes it possible to find theabsolute location of a place. Only one place canbe found at the point where a specific line oflatitude crosses a specific line of longitude. Byusing degrees (°) and minutes (′) (points betweendegrees), people can pinpoint the precise spotwhere one line of latitude crosses one line of longitude—an absolute location.


L ines on globes and maps provide informationthat can help you easily locate places on the

earth. These lines—called latitude and longi-tude—cross one another, forming a pattern calleda grid system.



60°N

30°N

30°S

0°

120°E 180° 120°W

PACIFICOCEAN

Map A

LosAngelesTokyo

EW

N

S

True Direction Distance5,795 mi. (9,324 km)

Great Circle Distance5,450 mi. (8,769 km)

Mercator projection3,000

3,0000 mi.

0 km

Map B

PACIFICOCEAN

60°N

40°N

180°

120°W

60°W

0°

60°E

120°E

Great Circle RouteLosAngeles

Tokyo

North Pole

EW

N

S

Polar Gnomonic projection3,000

3,0000 mi.

0 km

True Direction Route

Great Circle Route

The most accurate way to depict the earth is as aglobe, a round scale model of the earth. A globe

gives a true picture of the continents’ relative sizesand the shapes of landmasses and bodies of water.Globes accurately represent distance and direction.

A map is a flat drawing of all or part of theearth’s surface. Unlike globes, maps can show smallareas in great detail. Maps can also display politicalboundaries, population densities, or even votingreturns.

From Globes to MapsMaps, however, do have their limitations. As

you can imagine, drawing a round object on aflat surface is very difficult. Cartographers, ormapmakers, use mathematical formulas totransfer information from the round globe to a flat map. However, when the curves of aglobe become straight lines on a map, the size, shape, distance, or area can change or be distorted.

Great Circle RoutesMapmakers have solved some problems of

going from a globe to a map. A great circle isan imaginary line that follows the curve of theearth. A line drawn along the Equator is anexample of a great circle. Traveling along agreat circle is called following a great circleroute. Airplane pilots use great circle routesbecause they represent the shortest distancesfrom one city to another.

The idea of a great circle shows one impor-tant difference between a globe and a map.Because a globe is round, it accurately showsgreat circles. On a flat map, however, the greatcircle route between two points may not appearto be the shortest distance. See the maps to theright.

Mapmaking with TechnologyTechnology has changed the way maps are

made. Most cartographers use software pro-grams called geographic information systems(GIS). This software layers map data fromsatellite images, printed text, and statistics. AGlobal Positioning System (GPS) helps map-makers and consumers locate places based oncoordinates broadcast by satellites.



0°

0°60°W 60°E 120°E120°W

30°N

30°S

60°S

60°N

TROPIC OF CANCER

ARCTIC CIRCLE

MER

IDIA

N O

F G

REE

NW

ICH

(LO

ND

ON

)

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

EQUATOR

EQUATOR

TROPIC OF CANCER

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

ARCTIC CIRCLE

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

MER

IDIA

N O

F G

REE

NW

ICH

(LO

ND

ON

)

0°

60°E60°W 120°E120°W 0°

30°N

30°S

60°N

60°S

0°

30°N

60°S

30°S

60°N

60°W 60°E90°W90°E 120°W120°E 150°W150°E 180° 30°W 30°E0°

ARCTIC CIRCLE

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

EQUATOR

TROPIC OF CANCER

MER

IDIA

N O

F G

REE

NW

ICH

(LO

ND

ON

)

A map using the Robinson projection has minor distortions. Landon the western and eastern sides of the Robinson map appearsmuch as it does on a globe. The areas most distorted on this projection are near the North and South Poles.

▼

The Winkel Tripel projection gives a good overall view of the continents’ shapes and sizes. Land areas in a Winkel Tripelprojection are not as distorted near the Poles as they are in theRobinson projection.

The Mercator projection shows true direction and land shapesfairly accurately, but not size or distance. Areas that are locatedfar from the Equator are quite distorted on this projection. Alaska,for example, appears much larger on a Mercator map than it doeson a globe.

▼

Take a second look at your peeled, flattened orange. You mighthave something that looks like a map based on Goode’sInterrupted Equal-Area projection. A map with this projectionshows continents close to their true shapes and sizes. This projec-tion is helpful to compare land areas among continents.

0°

30°N

30°S

60°S

60°N

EQUATOR

ANTARCTICCIRCLE

TROPIC OF CANCER

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

ARCTIC CIRCLE

▼

▼

Mercator Projection

Winkel Tripel Projection

Robinson Projection

Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection

Imagine taking the whole peel from an orange andtrying to flatten it on a table. You would either

have to cut it or stretch parts of it. Mapmakers facea similar problem in showing the surface of theround earth on a flat map. When the earth’s surfaceis flattened, big gaps open up. To fill in the gaps,mapmakers stretch parts of the earth. They chooseto show either the correct shapes of places or theircorrect sizes. It is impossible to show both. As aresult, mapmakers have developed different projec-tions, or ways of showing the earth on a flat piece of paper.



DesertHighlandHumid continentalHumid subtropicalMarine

MediterraneanSteppeSubarcticTropicalTundra

Climate Regions of the United States

Map Key An important first step in reading a map is to note the mapkey. The map key explains the lines, symbols, and colors used on amap. For example, the map on this page shows the various climateregions of the United States and the different colors representing them.Cities are usually symbolized by a solid circle (•) and capitals by a star (�). On this map, you can see the capital of Texas and the cities ofLos Angeles, Seattle, New Orleans, and Chicago.

Scale Bar A measuring line, often calleda scale bar, helps you figure distance onthe map. The map scale tells you whatdistance on the earth is represented bythe measurement on the scale bar.

Compass Rose A map has a symbolthat tells you where the cardinal direc-tions—north, south, east, and west—arepositioned. This symbol is called acompass rose.


General Purpose MapsMaps are amazingly useful tools. You

can use them to preserve information, todisplay data, and to make connectionsbetween seemingly unrelated things.Geographers use many different types ofmaps. Maps that show a wide range ofgeneral information about an area arecalled general purpose maps. Two of themost common general purpose maps arephysical and political maps.

Physical Maps ▼Physical maps call out landforms and

water features. The physical map of SriLanka below shows rivers and moun-tains. The colors used on physical mapsinclude brown or green for land, and bluefor water. These colors and shadings

may show relief—or how flat or rugged the land surface is. In addition,physical maps may use colors to showelevation—the height of an area abovesea level. A key explains what eachcolor and symbol stands for.

Political Maps ▲Political maps show the names and

boundaries of countries, the location ofcities and other human-made featuresof a place, and often identify majorphysical features. The political map ofSpain above, for example, shows theboundaries between Spain and othercountries. It also shows cities and riverswithin Spain and bodies of water sur-rounding Spain.

8°S

Bayof

Bengal

INDIANOCEAN

Gulf of

Mannar

Pidurutalagala8,281 ft.

(2,524 m)

Point Pedro

Trincomalee

Matara

Matale

KattankudiChilaw

Colombo

Jaffna

SRI LANKA

100

1000

0

mi.

km

EW

N

S

80°E

Sri Lanka: Physical

Mountain peakNational capitalMajor city

Feet3,2801,640

650380

0

Meters1,0005002001000

Elevations

10°W

40°N

0°

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Strait of Gibraltar

Bay of Biscay

ATLANTICOCEAN

Ebro R.

Tagus R.

Guadalquivir R.

Douro R.

BalearicIslands

SevilleM´alaga

Valencia

Madrid

ZaragozaBarcelona

U.K.

S P A I N

PORTUGAL

F R A N C E

ANDORRA

GIBRALTAR

A F R I C ALambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection

200

2000 mi.

0 km

EW

N

S

Spain: Political


Contour Maps ▼One kind of physical map, called a

contour map, also shows elevation. Acontour map has contour lines—oneline for each major level of elevation.All the land at the same elevation isconnected by a line. These lines usuallyform circles or ovals—one inside theother. If contour lines come very closetogether, the surface is steep. If the lines are spread apart, the land is flat or rises very gradually. Compare thecontour map of Sri Lanka below to itsphysical map on page 9.

Special Purpose Maps Some maps are made to present spe-

cific kinds of information. These arecalled thematic or special purposemaps. They usually show specific topicsin detail. Special purpose maps might

present climate, natural resources, or popu-lation density. They might also display his-torical information, such as battle sites orterritorial expansions. The map’s title tellswhat kind of special information it shows.Colors and symbols in the map key areespecially important on these types of maps.

One type of special purpose map uses colors to show population density, or theaverage number of people living in a squaremile or square kilometer. As with othermaps, it is important to first read the titleand the key. The population density map ofEgypt above shows that the Nile River val-ley and delta are very densely populated.

▲


Boundary claimedby Sudan

TROPIC OF CANCER

Re d

Se a

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Nile R.

SuezCanalCairo

Alexandria

El Giza30°N

30°E

20°N

E G Y P T

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Areaprojection

300

3000 mi.

0 km

EW

N

S

Egypt: Population Density

CitiesCity with more than5,000,000 people

City with 1,000,000 to5,000,000 people

sq. kmsq. mi.Persons per

Uninhabited

Under 2

2–60

60–125

125–250

Over 250

Uninhabited

Under 1

1–25

25–50

50–100

Over 100

8°S

100

100

1,000

500

1,000

100

100

200

200

200

200

500

500

500

Bayof

Bengal

INDIANOCEAN

Gulf of

Mannar

80°E Transverse Mercator projection

100

1000

0

mi.

km

EW

N

S

Sri Lanka: Contour

Contour intervals in meters100

Types of Maps



GraphsA graph is a way of sum-

marizing and presentinginformation visually. Eachpart of a graph gives usefulinformation. First read thegraph’s title to find out itssubject. Then read the labelsalong the graph’s axes—thevertical line along the leftside of the graph and thehorizontal line along the bot-tom. One axis will tell youwhat is being measured. Theother axis tells what units ofmeasurement are being used.

Bar and Line GraphsGraphs that use bars or wide

lines to compare data visually are called bargraphs. Look carefully at the bar graph above,which compares world languages. The verticalaxis lists the languages. The horizontal axismeasures the number of speakers of the lan-

guage in millions. By comparing the lengths ofthe bars, you can quickly tell which language isspoken by the most people. Bar graphs areespecially useful for comparing quantities.

A line graph is a useful tool for showingchanges over aperiod of time.The amountsbeing measuredare plotted on thegrid above eachyear, and then areconnected by aline. Line graphssometimes havetwo or more linesplotted on them.The line graph toyour left showsthat the numberof farms in theUnited States hasdecreased since1940.

Number of Native Speakers (in millions)Source: The World Almanac, 2003.

Lang

uages

Chinese (Mandarin) 874

Hindi 366

English 341

Spanish 322

Bengali 207

Portuguese 176

Russian 167

Japanese 125

German 100

Korean 78

Comparing World Languages

Source: The World Almanac, 2003.

1940 1950 1960 1970 1990 20001980

1

0

7

6

5

4

3

2

Nu

mb

er

of

farm

s (i

n m

illi

on

s)

Year

U.S. Farms, 1940–2000


Circle Graphs ▼You can use circle graphs

when you want to showhow the whole of somethingis divided into its parts.Because of their shape, cir-cle graphs are often calledpie graphs. Each “slice”represents a part or per-centage of the whole “pie.”On the circle graph below,the whole circle (100 per-cent) represents the world’spopulation in 2002. Theslices show how this popu-lation is divided among the world’s five largest continents.

ChartsCharts present facts and numbers in an

organized way. They arrange data, especiallynumbers, in rows and columns for easy

reference. Look at the chart called “PopulationGrowth” on page 88. To interpret the chart,first read the title. It tells you what information

the chart contains. Next, read the labels atthe top of each column and on the leftside of the chart. They explain what thenumbers or data on the chart aremeasuring.

Pictographs ▲Like bar and circle graphs, pictographs

are good for making comparisons.Pictographs use rows of small pictures or symbols, with each picture or symbolrepresenting an amount. Look at the pictograph showing the number of auto-mobiles produced in the world’s fivemajor automobile-producing countriesabove. The key tells you that one car symbol stands for 1 million automobiles.The total number of car symbols in a rowadds up to the auto production in eachselected country.


Source: The World Almanac, 2003.

Pro

du

cti

on

fig

ure

s fo

r fi

vem

ajo

r a

uto

-pro

du

cin

g c

ou

ntr

ies Japan

UnitedStates

France

South Korea

Germany

= 1,000,000 passenger cars

Major Automobile-Producing Countries, 2001

Asia 61%Africa 13%

Europe12%

Source: World Population Data Sheet, 2003. *Excluding Australia

Latin America 9% North America 5%

World Population*

Using Graphs, Charts, and Diagrams



ClimographsA climograph, or climate

graph, combines a line graphand a bar graph. It gives anoverall picture of the long-termweather patterns in a specificplace. Climographs includeseveral kinds of information.The green vertical bars on theclimograph of Moscow to yourright show average monthlyamounts of precipitation (rain,snow, or sleet). These bars aremeasured against the axis onthe right side of the graph. Thered line plotted above the barsrepresents changes in the aver-age monthly temperature. Youmeasure this line against theaxis on the left side.

Diagrams ▼

Diagrams are drawings that show steps in aprocess, point out the parts of an object, orexplain how something works. An elevationprofile is a type of diagram that can be helpful

when comparing the elevations—or heights—of an area. It shows an exaggerated side viewof the land as if it were sliced and you wereviewing it from the side. The elevation profileof Africa below clearly shows sea level, lowareas, and mountains.

▲

Source: World Weather Guide.

°F

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Ave

rag

e m

on

thly

te

mp

era

ture

Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

°C

37.8

32.2

26.7

21.1

15.6

10.0

4.4

–1.1

–6.7

–12.2

–17.8

in.

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Ave

rag

e m

on

thly p

rec

ipita

tion

mm

508

457.2

406.4

355.6

304.8

254

203.2

152.4

101.6

50.8

0

Climograph: Moscow, Russia

5,000 m

4,000 m

3,000 m

2,000 m

1,000 m

16,404 ft.

13,123 ft.

9,842 ft.

6,562 ft.

3,281 ft.

Sea level

Atlantic OceanCongo River

Margherita Peak16,763 ft.(5,109 m)

Mt. Kenya17,058 ft.(5,199 m)

LakeVictoria

IndianOcean

0 mi.

0 km

300

300

0˚ latitude (Equator)

Africa: Elevation Profile

Geography Handbook


Island

Strait

Isthmus

Cape

Seacoast

Gulf

Bay

Ocean

Volcano Mountain peak

Sound

Peninsula

Mouth of river

Delta

Harbor

Cliff

ValleyIsland

Strait

Isthmus

Cape

Seacoast

Gulf

Bay

Ocean

Volcano Mountain peak

Sound

Peninsula

Mouth of river

Delta

Harbor

Cliff

Valley


absolute location exact location of a place on the earthdescribed by global coordinates

basin area of land drained by a given river and its branches;area of land surrounded by lands of higher elevation

bay part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline,generally smaller than a gulf

canyon deep and narrow valley with steep wallscape point of land that extends into a river, lake, or oceanchannel wide strait or waterway between two landmasses that

lie close to each other; deep part of a river or other waterwaycliff steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice continent one of the seven large landmasses on the earthcultural feature characteristic that humans have created in a

place, such as language, religion, housing, and settlementpattern

delta flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried downstreamby a river and deposited at its mouth

divide stretch of high land that separates river systems downstream direction in which a river or stream flows from its

source to its mouthelevation height of land above sea levelEquator imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway be-

tween the North and South Poles; used as the starting pointto measure degrees of north and south latitude

glacier large, thick body of slowly moving icegulf part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline,

generally larger and more deeply indented than a bayharbor a sheltered place along a shoreline where ships can

anchor safelyhighland elevated land area such as a hill, mountain, or plateauhill elevated land with sloping sides and rounded summit; gen-

erally smaller than a mountainisland land area, smaller than a continent, completely sur-

rounded by wateristhmus narrow stretch of land connecting two larger land

areaslake a sizable inland body of waterlatitude distance north or south of the Equator, measured in

degreeslongitude distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, meas-

ured in degreeslowland land, usually level, at a low elevationmap drawing of the earth shown on a flat surfacemeridian one of many lines on the global grid running from

the North Pole to the South Pole; used to measure degreesof longitude

mesa broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides; smaller thana plateau

As you read about world culturesand geography, you will encounterthe terms listed below. Many of the terms are pictured in thediagram.


Canyon

Tributary

Source of river

Lowland

UpstreamDownstream

Highland

Glacier

Basin

Mountain range

Hills

LakePlateau

River

Plain

Channel

Desert

Canyon

Tributary

Source of river

Lowland

UpstreamDownstream

Highland

Glacier

Basin

Mountain range

Hills

LakePlateau

River

Plain

Channel

Desert


mountain land with steep sides that rises sharply (1,000 feet[305 m] or more) from surrounding land; generally largerand more rugged than a hill

mountain peak pointed top of a mountainmountain range a series of connected mountainsmouth (of a river) place where a stream or river flows into a

larger body of waterocean one of the four major bodies of salt water that surround

the continentsocean current stream of either cold or warm water that moves

in a definite direction through an oceanparallel one of many lines on the global grid that circle the

earth north or south of the Equator; used to measuredegrees of latitude

peninsula body of land jutting into a lake or ocean, surroundedon three sides by water

physical feature characteristic of a place occurring naturally,such as a landform, body of water, climate pattern, orresource

plain area of level land, usually at a low elevation and oftencovered with grasses

plateau area of flat or rolling land at a high elevation, about300–3,000 feet (91–914 m) high

Prime Meridian line of the global grid running from the NorthPole to the South Pole through Greenwich, England; startingpoint for measuring degrees of east and west longitude

relief changes in elevation over a given area of landriver large natural stream of water that runs through the landsea large body of water completely or partly surrounded

by landseacoast land lying next to a sea or oceansea level position on land level with the surface of a nearby

ocean or seasound body of water between a coastline and one or more

islands off the coastsource (of a river) place where a river or stream begins, often

in highlandsstrait narrow stretch of water joining two larger bodies of watertributary small river or stream that flows into a larger river or

stream; a branch of the riverupstream direction opposite the flow of a river; toward the

source of a river or streamvalley area of low land between hills or mountainsvolcano mountain created as liquid rock or ash erupts from

inside the earth

Geography Handbook


Documents

The Gui River, - Boone County Schools handbook.pdf · The Gui River, Guilin, China The Amazon, Brazil ... Another imaginary line runs from north to south. It helps divide the earth