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International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117 www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedudev The inset strategies model: an effective inset model for unqualified and underqualified primary teachers in Namibia Margo C. O’Sullivan * 29 Munster Avenue, Galway, Ireland Abstract The problem of significant numbers of unqualified and underqualified primary teachers is critical in some African countries. As INSET (In-service Education and Training) is the only training these teachers receive, effective INSET practice is of concern to INSET planners seeking to address this problem. This article explores effective INSET stra- tegies: the criteria for effectiveness being implementation of the training in the classroom. It presents an effective cyclical INSET model, entitled the INSET Strategies Model, which was used to guide a three-year (1995–1997) INSET programme for 145 unqualified and underqualified primary teachers in Namibia. The programme sought to develop teachers’ basic teaching, English Language Teaching (ELT) and learner-centred skills, in order to support their efforts to implement reforms related to ELT introduced in Namibia in the early 1990s. The article discusses the stages of the model, each of which corresponds to an INSET strategy: needs assessment, organisation, determination of content, training process, follow-up and evaluation. The underlying change framework of the model, particularly the extent to which it takes micro-implementation factors into account, is offered as one explanation for its success. These factors are the objective and subjective realities within which teachers work. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: International Education; INSET; Primary Education; Unqualified teachers; Implementation 1. Introduction In only a few decades the prosperity and qual- ity of life of all nations will be determined by today’s children and their ability to solve prob- lems that face them, their families, their com- munities, and their countries. Education unlocks their ability (Lockheed and Verspoor, 1991, p. xii). * Tel.: + 44-1705-730368. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.C. O’Sullivan). 0738-0593/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII:S0738-0593(00)00026-2 This quote illustrates the perspective which inspired and drove the research study upon which this article is based. The author considers the pro- fessional development of teachers in developing countries critical to the “Education” that “unlocks” children’s ability. In many developing countries with emerging education systems, such as Nami- bia, a significant number of teachers are unquali- fied and underqualified. INSET is critical to these teachers’ professional development. However, in spite of the significant growth since the 1980s in the professional literature on INSET in developing country contexts, INSET for unqualified and underqualified teachers continues to receive little attention (Dove, 1986; Rust and Dalin, 1990). As

The inset strategies model: an effective inset model for unqualified and underqualified primary teachers in Namibia

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International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedudev

The inset strategies model: an effective inset model forunqualified and underqualified primary teachers in Namibia

Margo C. O’Sullivan*

29 Munster Avenue, Galway, Ireland

Abstract

The problem of significant numbers of unqualified and underqualified primary teachers is critical in some Africancountries. As INSET (In-service Education and Training) is the only training these teachers receive, effective INSETpractice is of concern to INSET planners seeking to address this problem. This article explores effective INSET stra-tegies: the criteria for effectiveness being implementation of the training in the classroom. It presents an effectivecyclical INSET model, entitled the INSET Strategies Model, which was used to guide a three-year (1995–1997) INSETprogramme for 145 unqualified and underqualified primary teachers in Namibia. The programme sought to developteachers’ basic teaching, English Language Teaching (ELT) and learner-centred skills, in order to support their effortsto implement reforms related to ELT introduced in Namibia in the early 1990s. The article discusses the stages of themodel, each of which corresponds to an INSET strategy: needs assessment, organisation, determination of content,training process, follow-up and evaluation. The underlying change framework of the model, particularly the extent towhich it takes micro-implementation factors into account, is offered as one explanation for its success. These factorsare the objective and subjective realities within which teachers work. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:International Education; INSET; Primary Education; Unqualified teachers; Implementation

1. Introduction

In only a few decades the prosperity and qual-ity of life of all nations will be determined bytoday’s children and their ability to solve prob-lems that face them, their families, their com-munities, and their countries. Education unlockstheir ability (Lockheed and Verspoor, 1991, p.xii).

* Tel.: +44-1705-730368.E-mail address: [email protected] (M.C.

O’Sullivan).

0738-0593/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.PII: S0738 -0593(00 )00026-2

This quote illustrates the perspective whichinspired and drove the research study upon whichthis article is based. The author considers the pro-fessional development of teachers in developingcountries critical to the “Education” that “unlocks”children’s ability. In many developing countrieswith emerging education systems, such as Nami-bia, a significant number of teachers are unquali-fied and underqualified. INSET is critical to theseteachers’ professional development. However, inspite of the significant growth since the 1980s inthe professional literature on INSET in developingcountry contexts, INSET for unqualified andunderqualified teachers continues to receive littleattention (Dove, 1986; Rust and Dalin, 1990). As

94 M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

INSET is the only training these teachers receive(Hawes and Stephens, 1990), addressing this lackof attention is critical. Identifying the most effec-tive INSET strategies for unqualified teachers is animportant question for developing countries.

This article presents a model of INSET, here-after referred to as the INSET Strategies Model,which begins to address this question. Its use ledto the effective training of unqualified andunderqualified Namibian primary teachers, ifimplementation in the classroom is considered acriterion of effectiveness. The model emerged froma three-year (1995–1997) action research study inNamibia. The article begins with a summary of theresearch background. It then explores the INSETstrategies model, discussing the literature whichinfluenced its development. Change theory is parti-cularly relevant to the model and is examined. Thisleads into a presentation of the main findings con-cerning the six stages of the model. The articleconcludes with a discussion of the main issueswhich emerged from the study and highlights itsimplications for INSET providers who are con-cerned with addressing the significant problem ofunqualified and underqualified primary teachers.

2. Background

Prior to Independence from South Africa in1990, Namibian Education was “… a tale of twoworlds: one black, bleak and deprived; the otherwhite, rich and comfortable” (Angula, cited in Har-lech-Jones, 1992, p. 1). Until that time, Namibianshad lived under German colonial rule (1894–1915)and South African rule (1915–1989). Both powerssought to deprive the indigenous population oftheir land, basic human rights and dignity. TheBantu Education system, formally introduced intoNamibia in the 1960s led to a situation at Indepen-dence in 1990 in which “… it would be hard tofind a country anywhere in which education (andteacher) standards were lower for the majority ofthe population” (Chamberlain, 1990, p. 12). “Thesalient feature of Namibia’s Education system hasbeen that between 30 to 40% of school-age chil-dren do not attend classes, and that 60% of theteachers are unqualified with a further 30% under-

qualified” (MEC [ministry of Education], 1990, p.23). The term “underqualified” refers to those tea-chers who were trained within the Namibian pre-Independence (1990) segregated system of edu-cation (MEC, 1990). The teacher training theyreceived was inadequate (UNESCO/UNDP, 1991),and they were considered unqualified by the Minis-try of Education (MEC, 1991).

Educational reform was at the top of the newlyelected government’s agenda and vast reforms toall aspects of the system were introduced withinthe first few years of Independence. For example,English was introduced as the medium of instruc-tion from senior primary; a Basic Education Cur-riculum was devised; and learner-centredapproaches to learning were introduced (MEC,1993). All of the reforms, most notably the curricu-lum ones, had significant implications for INSET.Teachers would have to be trained to enable themto effectively implement reforms. In the light ofthe large number of unqualified and underqualifiedteachers, this was a substantial challenge(Andersson et al., 1991). The Namibian MEC com-missioned a number of surveys to inform theINSET they devised (Andersson et al., 1991;UNESCO/UNDP, 1991). They published a fiveyear plan in 1991 which outlined plans to addressthis challenge (MEC, 1991). The MEC also soughtthe support of donor agencies to support theirINSET efforts. One of the donor funded projects,the English Language Teacher Development Pro-ject (ELTDP), set up to support teachers’ effortsto implement reforms related to ELT, was fundedby the Overseas Development Administration(ODA) and was managed by the Centre for BritishTeachers (CfBT). The author was employed as atrainer on the ELTDP. She designed andimplemented a three-year (1995–1997) INSET pro-gramme for 145 unqualified and underqualified pri-mary teachers, and used her position to conductresearch into the development of effectiveINSET strategies.

3. The INSET strategies model

A trawl through the literature reveals the breadthand complexity of INSET. It appears to have

95M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

numerous functions and draws upon many modelsand approaches. The function of INSET for theINSET programme under study was to developNamibian primary teachers’ skills in order to sup-port their efforts to implement reforms related toELT. Initial efforts to bring this about focused ona literature review which the trainer/author hopedwould inform her efforts to develop effectiveINSET strategies. The review did not offer muchguidance. The literature tends to focus on organis-ation, support and structure “… whilst seriousstudy of the curriculum and process of training hasbeen neglected” (Rust and Dalin, 1990, p. 24).Consequently, the author drew from the strategiesof effective INSET which emerged from an exten-sive literature review to devise the INSET stra-tegies model which guided the INSET programme(See Fig. 1). In summary, these are:

O School-based and school-focused programmes(Greenland, 1983; Verspoor, 1989; Rust andDalin, 1990).

O Based on teachers’ needs (Beeby, 1966; Hend-erson, 1979; Monroe and Neel, 1988; Robinsonand Thompson, 1989; Esu, 1991; Hofmeyr etal., 1994; Steadman et al., 1995).

O Related to classroom realities (Greenland, 1983;Avalos, 1986; Stephens, 1997).

O Series of courses rather than one-shot courses(Joyce and Showers 1980, 1988; Fullan, 1991;Steadman et al., 1995).

Fig. 1. INSET Strategies Model for the INSET programme.

O Opportunities to try out new skills (Avalos,1985; Joyce and Showers, 1988).

O Adequate supervision and follow-up(Greenland, 1983; Hopkins, 1986; Verspoor,1989; Rust and Dalin, 1990; Fullan, 1991;Heneveld and Craig, 1996).

O Planned and formal in nature (Greenland, 1983;Rust and Dalin, 1990).

The INSET strategies model also drew from theauthor’s previous teacher training experiencewhich explored the usefulness of models of phasedintervention, particularly Henderson’s (1979)school-focused model of INSET and Avalos’(1985) procedural model. These models tend totake a number of the strategies of effective INSEThighlighted above, into account. Henderson’s(1979)model encompasses three stages: “…identi-fication and definition of needs, development andexecution of appropriate INSET activities to meetthese needs, and evaluation” (Henderson, 1979, p.21). Avalos’ (1985)model was an adaptation of thenotable Joyce and Showers (1980) theory-demo-practice-feedback-coaching procedural model. Theimplementation of these models however, have notbeen adequately evaluated in either industrialisedor developing country contexts. There are somenotable exceptions which suggest their potentialusefulness. They mainly highlight the effectivenessof the coaching stage. In a study conducted in 1982(Joyce and Showers, 1988) in which coached (thisinvolves intense tutor lesson observation andfeedback) and uncoached teachers received 30hours of training, the coached teachers experi-mented and implemented the training, while theuncoached did not practise the new strategies.1

Similar findings emerged from a study of the Pri-mary Science Programme (PSP) in South Africa(Harvey, 1999). Harvey’s study found that coachedteachers improved more than uncoached teachers.Rogan and McDonald (1985) highlight the success

1 In an earlier study, Joyce and Showers (1980) found thatl0–15 practices with feedback of a new skill are needed by tea-chers to enable them to use it effectively and creatively. Huber-man and Miles (1984) support their claim and found that it maytake 6–l8 months of practice under supervision before masteryof a new skill is achieved by a teacher.

96 M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

of an earlier INSET programme for science teach-ers in South Africa entitled the Science EducationProgramme (SEP). It used a model involvingcycles of workshops for teachers and follow-upsupport in the classrooms. This model was success-ful in improving teacher performance in the class-room. A critical feature of the phased models istheir cyclical nature. Each cycle of the model feedsinto the next over a long period of time, usually anumber of years. Four circuits of the INSET stra-tegies model were completed during the author’sresearch study.

The stages of the INSET strategies model corre-spond to strategies, hence the name of the model.The author subscribes to Zaltman et al.’s (1977)definition of strategy: a generic grouping of tactics.It also refers to the course of action or methodneeded to facilitate an optimum level of adoptionof an innovation (Hurst, 1983). In the context ofthe INSET programme under study, INSET stra-tegies refer to training strategies which ultimatelylead to teachers implementing the training in theirclassroom. The programme sought to develop theseINSET strategies, for example, needs assessmentor follow-up strategies. The literature endorsesmost of the strategies but presents little evidence tosupport their use. For example, needs assessment iswidely supported in the literature. However, thereare few examples of programmes in which INSETproviders assessed teachers’ training needs.Lubben (1994) is alarmed that this is particularlyso in developing countries. One of the reasons forthis could be attributed to the lack of empiricalresearch and knowledge about the actual processof needs assessment.

There is also a dearth of knowledge concerningthe determination of content, effective training pro-cesses and follow-up strategies. The availableliterature on content for INSET is mainly con-cerned with whether the content should be more orless theoretical, rather than pedagogical(Greenland, 1983; Lo, 1984; Hawes and Stephens,1990; Rust and Dalin, 1990; Dalin et al., 1992,cited in Heneveld and Craig, 1996). The literatureon training processes tends to be dominated by aconcern to promote reflective approaches to train-ing, rather than focus on specific practices andtechnical competence. Questions are beginning to

be asked in the literature however, about the extentto which these approaches are useful fordeveloping country contexts (Stuart and Kunje,1998). Similarly, very little empirical research hasbeen conducted which supports the critical role offollow-up, throws light on the processes used ordemonstrates the effectiveness of particular follow-up strategies (Lockheed and Verspoor, 1991; Ful-lan, 1991Sparks, 1983, cited in Esu, 1991). Indeed,the lack of follow-up is highlighted as the reasonfor the limited implementation of INSET inclassrooms in industrialised (Yogev, 1997) anddeveloping countries (Lamb, 1995).

The literature on evaluation was also found toprovide inadequate guidance for practice. Avalos(1985) laments the failure of many INSET pro-grammes to adequately evaluate their effective-ness. Fuller’s (1987) review reports the evaluationof only six studies. Greenland’s (1983) notablestudy of INSET in Africa pointed out that of the60 separate INSET activities researched, approxi-mately half included a formally conducted evalu-ation, but in “only six cases was there actual fol-low-up at the school level to judge effectiveness”(p.107). Useful evaluation has not improved inrecent years. Yogev (1997, p. 143) points out thatevaluations do not usually “…provide systematicinformation on the effects of SBI [school-basedINSET] on classroom behaviour or on actualchanges in teaching practices, nor on the impact ofSBI on students”. This is a cause for concern. Iteffectively means that no sound judgements canbe made between one type of training and another(Dove, 1986).

The literature explains this apparent gap in theresearch. Greenland (1983) asks: what counts asevaluation evidence — pupil achievement, teacherperformance, teacher opinion or all three? Evalu-ation of effective INSET presents extremely diffi-cult methodological problems (Henderson, 1979).Consequently, researchers and INSET trainershave shied away from addressing these difficulties.Little et al. (1994) point out that evaluation mainlygathers quantitative data, concentrating on num-bers of seminars and workshops conducted, teach-ers trained, materials delivered, and so on. Suchdata fails to indicate the effectiveness of a pro-gramme, if implementation in the classroom is

97M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

taken as the indicator of effectiveness. Joyce andShowers (1980) and Esu (1991) suggest a usefulmethod of evaluation: the collection of baselineclassroom data at the beginning of a programmeand its comparison with evaluation data collectedupon completion of the programme.

4. Rationale for the model

Change theory, notably change implementationtheory, formed the main theoretical frameworkunderlying the INSET Strategies Model. As INSETseeks to promote change in the classroom, gener-ally by bringing about change in teacher practice,any INSET activity is underpinned by certainassumptions and views, whether practitionersrecognise it or not, of the nature of change andhow it might be brought about (Van den Berg,1987). The view that effective INSET must followsome sort of change strategy has been receivingincreasing attention in the literature (Fullan, 1991).Hofmeyr et al. (1994) in their efforts to use theliterature to devise policies for effective INSET inSouth Africa, highlighted the extent to which mostof the elements of INSET have an underlyingchange framework. They found that most of theinsights from the change literature support “…thecore elements identified in the INSET literature,thus strengthening the case of using them to deviseeffective INSET” (Hofmeyr et al., 1994, p. 5).

A diverse range of change models, theories andapproaches have evolved to guide and explainpractice. The models most widely quoted in theliterature are those related to the work of Havelock(1969, cited in Van den Berg, 1987) and Chin andBenne (1969). They are linear models and includethe following stages: planning, development,implementation and evaluation. The failures ofeducational reforms which drew upon those linearcentrally determined blue-print models are widelynoted in the literature (Havelock and Huberman,1977; Bishop, 1986; Hawes and Stephens, 1990;Fullan, 1991). Since the early 1970s theorists havebegun to consider why reforms failed. This led toa focus on the process of change, particularly theimplementation of change. It became increasinglyaccepted that innovations cannot be accurately pre-

planned as it is impossible to predict people’s reac-tions to them. A centrally determined blue-printmodel cannot be considered appropriate in all situ-ations and contexts (Lewin, 1991).

The literature now seems to be in agreement thatinnovations need to be adaptable to the context(Fullan, 1991; Lewin, 1991; Verspoor, 1992).Flexibility appears to be the key word in thisdebate (Bishop, 1986; Hawes and Stephens, 1990).This has led to the development of models whichfacilitate this concept. They can respond to “localconditions” and focus more on implementation.Craig (1990, cited in Whitehead, 1991) labels them“mutual adaptation” models.

The last two decades has witnessed a growingliterature on the subject of educational implemen-tation, which has become an accepted area of aca-demic enquiry. The process of implementation iscomplex and this complexity has led researchers tosearch for different ways to characterise implemen-tation. Some researchers have drawn up models(Harlech-Jones, 1990), whilst others identify listsof key factors associated with implementation suc-cess, such as the nature of the innovation, the rolesof the principal, the district and so on (Havelockand Huberman, 1977; Hurst, 1983; Hawes and Ste-phens, 1990; Fullan, 1991; Lockheed and Ver-spoor, 1991). A third method is to attempt to depictthe main themes, such as vision, subjective realitiesof change and empowerment (Bishop, 1986; Ful-lan, 1991).

The author drew on the last two methods to cre-ate a list of implementation factors which can beusefully placed within a three-fold typology ofmacro- meso- and micro-implementation factors.2

(See Fig. 2). A number of themes were found tobe common to the macro, meso and micro factorsand these are placed in the centre of Fig. 2. Themicro-implementation factors are particularly rel-

2 The terms macro-, meso- and micro- have been borrowedfrom Harber and Davies (1997). They use them to refer to levelsof analysis for explaining school effectiveness and managementin developing countries. For the purposes of this study, themacro-, meso- and micro- factors refer to the broad/national,regional and local contextual factors, which have implicationsfor implementation.

98 M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

Fig. 2. Implementation factors.

evant for the INSET Strategies Model. They arerooted in the realities within which teachers work.

The literature abounds with references to thecentrality of the influence of the teacher for thesuccess or failure of reforms in both industrialised(Fullan, 1991) and developing countries (Bishop,1986; Verspoor, 1989; Hawes and Stephens, 1990;Heneveld and Craig, 1996; Reimers and Villegas-Reimers, 1996). Success will ultimately depend onthe extent to which innovators take the realities at“classroots level”, to borrow an apt phrase from

Hawes and Stephens (1990), into account(Lockheed and Verspoor, 1991; Heneveld andCraig, 1996). These “classroots” realities can beequated with the micro-implementation factors,both objective and subjective reality factors. Inpractice, as noted by Reimers and Villegas-Reim-ers (1996), it is surprising how consistently one canfind examples across decades and countries ofreforms which ignore the real conditions in whichteachers have to work. As Torres (1996, p. 469)succinctly points out: “…the usual approach of

99M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

adapting the teachers to the reform proposal (ratherthan adapting the reform proposals to teachers) isstill dominant”.

5. Research design and methodology

Between 1995 and 1997 the author designed andimplemented an INSET programme for 99 lowerprimary teachers and 46 senior primary Englishteachers in 31 primary schools. The schools wereBNAE model.located in one of the seven educationregions in Namibia. 76% of the teachers wereunqualified and 24% were underqualified. Theschools were similar to the typical developingcountry schools described in various studies: tem-porary stick buildings, poor resources, learnershaving to share textbooks and having nothing towrite with, ineffective headteachers, little supportand in-service training provided to teachers,reliance on rote methods and generally poor class-room teaching (Avalos, 1986; Hawes and Ste-phens, 1990; Rust and Dalin, 1990; Lockheed andVerspoor, 1991). Communication with and accessto the isolated and rural schools was problematic:roads were generally little more than dirt tracks andthere was no postal or telephone system at most ofthe schools.

An action research approach was chosen for thestudy as it seemed to best enable the answering ofthe research questions, which were concerned withthe development of INSET strategies which soughtto improve teacher practice. Elliot’s (1991, p. 69)definition of action research summarises the ration-ale for its use in the study: “…the study of a socialsituation with a view to improving the quality ofaction within it”. Action research seeks to improveeducational practice as well as contribute to pro-fessional knowledge (McNiff et al., 1996). Actionresearch, it was felt, would enable the researcherto take a critical stance towards Western modelsof educational practice and ensure that the researchwas useful to the Namibian participants. Elliotsaction research cycle was drawn upon to developa cycle appropriate to the research study. Itincluded the following stages: reconnaissance,hypotheses, planning, action, monitoring andreflection. Various INSET strategies were planned,

tried out to see how effective they were in practice,and results monitored and analysed (O’Sullivan,1999). The study involved the development ofmany INSET strategies, each developed within dif-ferent action research cycles. Consequently, therewere numerous action research cycles, of varyingshapes and sizes, going on throughout the research(Stuart, 1987).

The INSET programme had three main parts: aBaseline Needs Assessment Exercise (BNAE) con-ducted at the beginning of the programme; fourtraining circuits; and an evaluation exercise at theend of the programme. Each training circuit fol-lowed the stages of the INSET Strategies Model.Table 1 provides an outline of the INSET pro-gramme and research methods used. Table 2presents an outline of what took place within eachof the training circuits.

A number of data collection methods were usedto collect data which informed the action researchcycles: interviews, semi-structured and unstruc-tured observations, lesson observations, assessmentof learners’ work, and an examination of docu-ments. The researcher’s position as the INSETtrainer allowed her to adopt a participant observerrole. This role provided significant access to theresearch participants over the three-year period ofthe study, and enabled the collection of vastamounts of data. The methods were mostly usedduring numerous school visits, though interviewswith teachers were also conducted during work-shops. The interviews sought to access teachers’needs, their views on various INSET strategies andthe effectiveness of the INSET programme. Theywere mainly unstructured: they involved open-ended questioning, suggesting and probing(Altricher et al., 1993). Unstructured and semi-structured observation data provided a deeperinsight into the research context, and also formeda useful validation and corroboration tool. Forexample, the observation of dust covered textbooksscattered haphazardly in many school stroreroomssuggested that these books had not been used.These observations refuted interviews with teach-ers who indicated that they had no textbooks avail-able to them. Similarly documentary data was usedfor corroboration purposes. Observations indicatedthat the numbers of learners in classrooms were

100 M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

Table 1Outline of the research process

Stage and time Activities Data

A. Baseline Needs 31 project schools were visited by the author. Activities InterviewsAssessment Exercise included:meetings with principals and teachers, to explain the 87 lesson observation forms(BNAE) Jan–May project and assess needs; 75 lesson observations; interviews Research diary1995 MBEC officials and expatriate advisers were interviewed. Documents

Documentary data, such as reform documents, syllabuses and School profile forms (semi-textbooks, were examined. structured observations)204 learners were heard reading, conversations were held with Unstructured observationsthem, and their exercise books were examined. Photographs

Student assessments (reading,writing, oral)

B. Training circuits Each training circuit followed the stages of the INSET Strategies Lesson observation forms1. June–Dec 1995 Model (see Fig. 1), involving the author in: Research diary2. Jan–June 1996 a. Workshops Documents3. July–Dec 1996 3–5 day workshops (centrally-based or school-based) were planned, Interviews4. Jan–June 1997 organised, facilitated and evaluated, for grade 1, 2, 3, 4–7 teachers; Photographs

principals; and for facilitators during the final two circuits. Videosb. Follow-up school visits Unstructured and semi-structuredAll participants teaching a lesson based on the previous workshop observationswere observed. Student assessmentsTeachers were provided with some feedback on the lesson, their Checklistsprogress and any problems they had with the implementation of Workshop evaluation formsskills was discussed with them. Progress formsThe implementation of items listed on a checklist based on the Reflection sheetsprevious workshop were checked and discussed. DiariesLessons were demonstrated Self-evaluation formsPeer-coaching was supervised.Learners were heard reading, conversations were held with themand their exercise books were examined.Meetings were conducted with principals and staff.c. EvaluationThe effectiveness of the training circuit was evaluated. This fedinto the further identified needs for the next training circuit.

C. Evaluation 75 of the 87 teachers observed during the BNAE stage (see A InterviewsJuly–Sep 1997 above) were observed. The same lesson observation form as used Lesson observation forms

for the BNAE was used. School profile formsSchool profile forms were completed. Photographs and videosTeachers were interviewed to ascertain their views on the INSET Students assessmentsprogramme and their progress. Evaluation formsMeetings were held with principals and staff. Interviews204 learners were heard reading, conversations were heard with Documentsthem and their exercise books were examined.Teachers who had not participated in the INSET programme wereobserved teaching a lesson.Documentary data such as evaluation forms was examined.

less than those noted in the school statistic forms.Lesson observations and learner assessment datawas used to provide a realistic picture of the teach-ing and learning taking place in the classroom. Thelatter were particularly useful in assessing training

needs and exploring the implementation of specifictraining content. Approximately 450 lessons wereobserved throughout the study.

Lesson observations invariably raise the issue ofobserver bias and subjectivity and sincere efforts

101M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

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102 M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

were made to address these throughout the researchstudy. Lesson observation forms and observationnotes were used to record the lesson observationdata. The latter were comments noted on a separatesheet of paper or on the form, which were notrelated to the items listed on the form itself. Theformer were used to record pre-determined indi-cators. These were noted on the forms in the formatof a rating scale and a series of questions, forexample, “what materials are displayed?”, “do thechildren work in pairs or groups?”. The rating scalewas used to grade teachers’ use of basic teachingskills, for example: classroom movement, askingquestions, continuity, lesson structure, and so on(see Table 4). The skills were identified from anELTDP lesson observation form, the literature andthe author’s previous teaching and training experi-ence. Reflexivity was used to explore the extent towhich the skills were biased towards the trainer’sconsideration of what constitutes effective teachingskills. The choice of skills raises epistemologicalissues which will be discussed in Section 7.

Grading the skills raised concerns about subjec-tivity and efforts were made to ensure that thedescriptors were low-inference rather than high-inference descriptors. The views of other externalobservers informed the criteria which were used toassign a particular grade for each skill. Forexample, for the skill “appropriateness of content”,grade E was assigned to lessons in which the con-tent was significantly too difficult or too easy forthe learners and a grade A was assigned if the con-tent was pitched at the learners’ level. Learner par-ticipation in the lesson and learner assessment datawere used to assess this: at the end of a lesson, theobserver discussed the lesson with a selection oflearners and/or heard them reading, and used thisto assess the extent to which the content was attheir level. The external observers included: col-leagues, Ministry officials, friends working in edu-cation, and teachers participating in the study.They were also used as a reliability check on grad-ing (Brophy and Good, 1994). On occasion(generally 10 lessons per training circuit) theywould observe a lesson with the trainer/authorusing the same form to record their observations.The grades assigned by both observers were com-pared and usually were identical.

Subjective issues also arise from the effect ofthe observer on classroom activities. Samph (1976)planted microphones in classrooms and then sentobservers unexpected some weeks later. He foundthat teachers made more use of questions and pra-ise, and were more likely to accept pupils’ ideaswhen an observer was present. This issue wasaddressed in the study by using other data collec-tion methods for corroboration purposes. Forexample, one of the participant teachers effectivelyused phonics within a reading lesson based on whatshe had learned during the previous training work-shop. This seemed to indicate effective implemen-tation of the workshop content. By hearing learnersread at the end of the lesson it became immediatelyobvious however, that her efforts were “once-off”and only used in the presence of the researcher.Very few of the learners could use phonics to readwords not encountered in the lesson. The teacherhad clearly not made any effort in other lessons touse phonics. This indicated that the lesson wasrehearsed.

6. Research findings

The main findings of the study concern thedevelopment of effective strategies: the broadINSET strategies which correspond to the stages ofthe INSET strategies model, and micro-strategieswithin them. The model will be used as an organis-ing framework for this section.

6.1. Needs assessment strategies

Needs assessment forms the first stage of theINSET Strategies Model. Within the INSET pro-gramme under study the needs assessment exerciseconducted for the first circuit of the model, theBNAE, was extensive. For subsequent circuits theneeds assessment stage was less extensive. Aframework was designed to guide the BNAE whichdrew from Roth’s (1978, cited in Witkin, 1984)needs assessment discrepancy formula:X2A=N,where X is the target state,A is the actual state,andN is the need. (See Fig. 3.) Roth’s actual stateis similar to the micro-implementation factors

103M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

Fig. 3. BNAE model.

referred to earlier, the micro-realities within whichteachers work.

Table 1 outlines the activities and methods usedto access actual and target state data. The actualstate encompassed poor methods of teaching andlearning, lack of resources, and so on. The targetstate was noted in Namibian Ministry reform docu-ments: teachers using learner-centred approachesand communicative approaches to teachingEnglish; teachers teaching the four language skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) as out-lined in the English syllabus; and teaching at alevel which enables the learners to achieve thebasic competencies outlined in the syllabus.

Three main findings concerning the process ofdata collection for needs assessment emerged fromthe study. Firstly, data collected in the classroom,assessing learners’ work and observing lessons,was found to be critical to the collection of usefulactual state data. It provided a more realistic pic-ture of teachers’ micro-realities, which was notaccessible using interviews, documentary evidenceand semi-structured/unstructured observations. Forexample, hearing learners read highlighted thatreading standards were poor. 88% of the 204 lear-ners could read less than five words of an unknown20 word text one grade below their level. Only 2%of learners could read more than 10 words. (SeeTable 7 later). Lesson observations provided anexplanation for this. Teachers used rote methods

of teaching reading, they read a line and learnersrepeated it numerous times, often without actuallylooking at the text. This supports the second find-ing: an eclectic approach to data collection wasuseful. It allowed the corroboration of data andprovided a broader picture of teachers’ micro-realities. Thirdly, the use of interview data seemedto be the least useful method of accessing actualstate data. The reliability of the data whichemerged was questionable. Some of it was invali-dated by data collected using other methods. Forexample, teachers informed the researcher that theywere using learner-centred methods, whereas les-son observations indicated that rote was the mainmethod used. Similarly, an interview questionwhich sought to access teachers’ perceptions oftheir training needs did not elicit them. The mostcommon answers were broad: “we need every-thing”, “we need training”.

Once the actual and target state data had beengathered, the next step, in view of the BNAEmodel and Roth’s (1978, cited in Witkin, 1984)formula: X2A=N, was to use this information toassess the gaps between them. The application ofthis formula highlighted the enormity of the mis-match between the actual and target states. Teach-ers’ needs were substantial. The huge gap betweenthe states highlighted that meeting the resultantneeds would be difficult. This difficulty was furtherexacerbated by the limited means, particularlyINSET personnel, available to meet the needs. Thishad significant implications for the next stage ofthe BNAE, determining needs which could beresolved within the means available.

It was decided to initially attempt to meet teach-ers’ most basic training needs, developing theirbasic teaching and classroom management skills,in an effort to bridge the gap between the targetand actual states. The target state also had to bereduced. Consequently, the English syllabus wassimplified to a level which was within teachers’capacity to implement, but which did not lose criti-cal elements of it, namely the teaching of the fourlanguage skills. Later in the INSET programme, itwas hoped that the development of teachers’ pro-fessional capacity would enable them to implementthe actual English syllabus. Ultimately, determin-ing the needs to be met, led to the emergence of

104 M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

a realistic goal: to reduce the gap between theactual and target states as much as possible, ratherthan attempt to reach the target state, an impossibletask. This led to the emergence of broad trainingneeds, for example: interpreting the syllabus (asimplified version), writing lesson plans, exploitingtextbooks, experimenting with elements of learner-centred education, and the development of basicskills which would enable them to teach the fourlanguage skills.

During the first training circuit efforts weremade to meet some of these needs. Others infor-med the needs assessment stage of subsequenttraining circuits. At the end of each training circuit,data emerged which further indicated trainingneeds, many of which did not emerge during theBNAE. For example, teachers needed training inwriting schemes of work. The data mainly, how-ever, reinforced the BNAE training needs. It alsooften indicated that teachers had more problemsimplementing some of the training than had beenanticipated. For example, teachers had significantproblems implementing pairwork. Lesson obser-vation highlighted that teachers misunderstood theconcept explored at the workshop. Pairworkinvariably consisted of a pair of learners engagedin pairwork at the front of the classroom with theother learners observing passively. This obser-vation data informed the needs assessment stage ofthe next training circuit. The main point to be madehere is that a once-off needs assessment exerciseis not as effective as a series of needs assessmentexercises conducted throughout an INSET pro-gramme.

6.2. Organisation strategies

The study found that the consideration of a num-ber of organisation factors were critical to effectiveINSET. These included: venue, number of parti-cipants, grades teachers teach, food, notification,resources, transport and accommodation. Thesehave implications for the amount and type of train-ing content, follow-up support and attendance rate.The most significant organisation factor was thelocation of the workshops. For the first training cir-cuit they were conducted at schools. Teachers’expressed wish during BNAE interviews to attend

workshops at their own schools led to this strategy.It was found to be a useful strategy as it enabledthe trainer to experience teachers’ living and work-ing conditions and provided her with an opport-unity to develop professional and personal relation-ships with them. She generally camped atschool/village sites for the duration of the work-shop and follow-up stage (five days). It also pro-vided the trainer with a useful understanding of thelocal culture which had implications for training.For example, conversations with locals provided anexplanation for teachers’ failure to develop theskill of praising learners: “we do not thank peopleor praise them, to do this is to insult the person.If my child helps with the cattle, it is his duty, hedoes not expect praise” (6 February 1996).

The school-based organisation strategy workedreasonably well for the first training circuit as thecontent was not grade specific. It mainly focusedon basic teaching skills and methods of teachingreading which were appropriate to all grades. Forfuture training circuits much of the content wouldhave to be grade specific, for example, teachingphonics in grades 1 and grades 7, and consequentlythe completion of one training circuit would takeapproximately eighteen months. In the light of tea-chers’ significant training needs, they needed asmuch input and implementation support as possibleduring the INSET programme; this was a cause forconcern. Therefore, it was decided to base futureworkshops at a central location and to follow-upthe workshops with school visits. This enabled thetrainer to conduct four training circuits during theINSET programme. The follow-up stage ensuredthat the trainer continued to experience, albeit ona lesser scale, the teachers’ micro-realities, effec-tively one of the strengths of the school-basedorganisation strategy. Teachers’ comments at theend of the first training circuit workshops alsoplayed a role in choosing a central location. “It istoo uncomfortable for us to workshop here, we arecramped and there is no food. Cork [fictitious nameof central town] is better for us next time” (7October 1995). Some teachers informed me thatthey tend to “come in for pay day and could attendworkshops then” (22 October 1995). This is anexample of the usefulness of the cyclical nature ofthe INSET Strategies Model. The central location

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strategy also provided teachers with a much neededopportunity to meet teachers working in otherschools. Eaves dropping on a conversation duringa workshop break provided some comments whichillustrated the usefulness of teachers meeting eachother at centrally based workshops. “So you gotthe books. I thought everybody didn’t get them. Itis only our school. We must go the inspector toask for the books and solve this problem” (27 Feb-ruary 1996).

6.3. Determination of content strategies

The BNAE highlighted the broad content areasin which teachers needed training in order to bridgethe gap between the actual and target states. Theywere: basic teaching and classroom managementskills, ELT skills and learner-centred skills. Effec-tively, the determination of content stage of eachtraining circuit involved breaking down these threebroad content areas into specific content areaswhich were within teachers’ capacity toimplement, for example, the use of phonics toteach the skill of reading in ELT. As the pro-gramme was skills-based, the content involved spe-cific skills. They formed the content of the work-shops which were conducted within the next stageof the training circuit, the training process(workshop).

A number of strategies were used to determinethe appropriateness of specific content. Let us usethe basic teaching skills (see Table 4) to illustratethe use of these strategies. These skills can beequated with Hargreaves (1993) Professional Com-mon Sense Knowledge (PCSK). His PCSK isdirected at pre-service teachers but it is also rel-evant to unqualified teachers who have never hadpre-service training. Hargreaves argues that it isimportant for teachers to develop basic teachingand classroom management skills to enable themto survive in the classroom and to provide a usefulfoundation upon which other skills, methods andapproaches can be built. The BNAE involved theobservation of 87 lesson observation forms. Analy-sis of the basic teaching skills noted on the formswas quantitative. The grades assigned to each basicteaching skill were counted. See Table 4. Fig. 4illustrates the average grade assigned to teachers

Fig. 4. Average % grade awarded for all skills

for the skills. It highlights that teachers had mas-tered few basic teaching skills. Consequently, theseskills were considered teachers’ most urgent andbasic training needs.

Decisions regarding the choice of PCSK skillswere informed by the needs assessment and actionresearch data, the author’s own teaching andteacher training experience in both industrialisedand developing country contexts, and a perusal ofteacher and school effectiveness literature (Jansen,1995; Heneveld and Craig, 1996) and literaturedealing with an array of classroom teaching(Perrot, 1994; Borich, 1996). The criticisms of thisvast body of literature, particularly the extent towhich “…there is not adequate agreement aboutthe knowledge, skills and understanding that ateacher should have” (Hargreaves, 1993, p. 87),was a cause for concern. Teaching and lessonobservations were used to address this. The trainertaught lessons in the teachers’ classrooms and usedthis to try out the effectiveness of the skills. All ofthe skills, with the exception of praise, were effec-tive. The trainer’s observation of teachers’ efforts,during the follow-up stage, to implement particularskills also usefully indicated their appropriatenessor otherwise. These methods bring to mind Reyn-olds (1998) “context specificity”. He suggests thatthe school effectiveness literature can be useful ifnot blindly applied to all situations. “…certain fac-tors apply only in certain environments”(Reynolds, 1998, p. 157). The main message hereis the need to adapt rather than adopt skills,methods and approaches. For example, the authorencouraged teachers to use sand as a writing toolin view of the shortage of textbooks and paper.

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Lesson observation indicated the effectiveness ofthis approach.

The cyclical nature of the INSET StrategiesModel emerged as critical to the determination ofappropriate content. It ensured that content whichwas found to be inappropriate during one trainingcircuit could be adapted for subsequent circuits.For example, teachers’ efforts to implement a com-municative approach to teaching speaking and list-ening skills, indicated that the approach had to sim-plified for the next training circuit.

6.4. Training process (workshop) strategies

The training process stage of the INSET Stra-tegies Model refers to workshops within which thetrainer presents the training content to the teachersparticipating in the INSET programme. During theprogramme the effectiveness of various trainingprocess strategies was explored. For example:brainstorming, lecturing, demonstration, askingquestions, role-play, task-based training, tips, dis-cussion, reflection, micro-teaching, diaries,revision, making materials and true/false ticksheets(see O’Sullivan, 1999). These methods were ulti-mately implemented within a mixture of structuredreflective and prescriptive approaches.

Efforts during the first training circuit toimplement a reflective approach to training raisedthe transfer issue. Western reflective approaches(Zeichner, 1981, cited in Adler, 1991) were foundto be inappropriate. They were simply beyond theprofessional capacity of the teachers. During thesecond training circuit a structured reflectionapproach was developed and found to be useful.This involves the trainer closely guiding teachers’efforts to reflect. The study found however, thatteachers’ reflection using this approach was belowWestern levels of reflection, if Zeichner’s (1981,cited in Adler, 1991) levels of reflection, are usedas a representation of Western levels.3 He dividesreflection into three levels: technical–rational, situ-ational–institutional and moral–ethical levels. The

3 These levels are drawn from Van Muren’s (1977) threelevels: technical reflection, practical reflection and criticalreflection, which he derived from Habermas (1973).

latter two levels seek to reflect beyond techniquesand the immediate situation. They were signifi-cantly beyond the capacity of teachers. The techni-cal rationality level however, was reached by a fewteachers towards the end of the INSET programme.Most teachers reached a level below this which theauthor termed basic technical awareness. Thisrefers to teachers’ awareness of their problems ina general sense: “the lesson was good, but I forgotto ask questions”, “there were too many newwords”. This was a huge leap from the beginningof the INSET programme when teachers did notseem to be aware of the effectiveness of their les-sons, “I don’t know” being a typical answer to thetrainer’s question: “what did you think of your les-son?” Very few teachers were able to point outmore than one or two aspects of the lesson whichneeded to be improved. Stuart and Kunje’s (1998,p. 390) work in Malawi yielded a similar finding:“While all the teachers we worked with reflectedat some level about their own work, not all man-aged to affect some improvement”.

Prescriptive approaches were found to be trans-ferable to the research context, in that they led toeffective training. A definition of direct instructionteaching approaches can usefully illustrate pre-scriptive training approaches:

Direct instruction refers to academicallyfocused, teacher–directed classrooms usingsequenced and structured materials. …In directinstruction the teacher controls the instructionalgoals, chooses materials appropriate for the stu-dents’ ability and paces the instructional epi-sode. Interaction is characterised as structured,but not authoritarian’ (Rosenshine, 1979, p. 38).

The main methods used within this approachwere giving tips, lecturing and demonstration.These approaches were within teachers’ capacity.Interviews with teachers led to a number of com-ments indicating teachers’ support for prescription:“we need the guidelines [referring to a list of ”tips“for asking questions], otherwise how can we learnto get better at teaching” (9 October, 1995).

107M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

6.5. Follow-up strategies

At the end of the training process (workshop)stage of the INSET Strategies Model, a number offollow-up strategies were found to be particularlyuseful. They were divided into two categories: fol-low-up provided by the trainer and follow-up pro-vided by the teachers and principals. The strategiesused by the trainer included: lesson observation,progress meetings with individual teachers, staffmeetings, demonstration lessons, video and check-lists. They took place during school visits. At theend of each workshop stage, all schools were vis-ited and all teachers observed. The strategies whichenabled the teachers to support their efforts toimplement the training in their classroomsincluded: workshop handouts, diaries, self-evalu-ation forms and peer coaching.

The follow-up strategies supported teachers’efforts to implement the training. Comments fromteachers indicate this: “we know you will come tosee us and help us and this encourages us to tryout the workshop things” (9 July 1996); “you knowus and how we teach and can help us with our ownproblems” (12 November 1996). Lesson obser-vation was found to be a particularly effectivestrategy. It highlighted implementation problemsteachers were having. The trainer subsequentlyattempted to address these problems, both duringthe post-lesson observation meeting with theteacher, and during future workshops, if the prob-lem was common to a number of teachers. The fol-low-up strategies also had formative and summ-ative evaluative functions, both of which had anunderlying supportive goal. Formative evaluationwas used to indicate further training needs andsummative evaluation indicated the extent to whichteachers implemented what they had learned at theworkshops, effectively an evaluation of the effec-tiveness of the training circuit.

The main finding about follow-up concernsimplementation and emerged from summativeevaluation. Follow-up lesson observations withinthe first two training circuits indicated that teachersdid not implement what they learned at the work-shops. This was a cause for concern. However, bythe third training circuit, there was a dramaticimprovement in implementation and by the fourth

training circuit, teachers were effectivelyimplementing most of what they learned at theworkshops. Reasons for this will be explored inSection 7.

6.6. Evaluation strategies

The final stage of the INSET Strategies Modelis evaluation. It mainly took place within the fol-low-up stage. Some of the follow-up methods wereused to collect formative and summative evalu-ation data. The more common questionnairemethod of evaluation was also used. This involvedteachers completing evaluation forms at the end ofeach workshop. Such forms are the main methodof evaluating INSET highlighted in the literature.The forms used for the INSET programme had twosections: a graded tick section in which teachersgraded the usefulness of various sessions, andsome open questions attempting to elicit more gen-eral opinions concerning the effectiveness of theworkshop and suggestions for future workshops.Analysis of the forms indicated that the workshopsand particular strategies were effective. Teachersgenerally awarded high grades for the sessions.They rarely however, wrote answers to the generalquestions. Follow-up school visits during the firsttwo training circuits however, did not reflect teach-ers’ reported effectiveness of the workshops. Mostteachers did not successfully implement what theyhad learned during the workshops. Dove (1986)and Joyce and Showers (1988) also found theseforms ineffective. Dove (1986) terms this question-naire method ritualistic evaluation. It merelychecks which parts of a course teachers found valu-able or interesting.

The evaluation stage of the fourth training cir-cuit was summative and involved a comprehensiveevaluation of the entire INSET programme, in aneffort to assess the effectiveness of the INSET stra-tegies model. Implementation of the training in theclassroom was used as the criteria for effective-ness. This involved the following steps:

1. During the Baseline Needs Assessment Exercise(BNAE) actual state data was collected and ana-lysed qualitatively and quantitatively. (SeeTable 1).

108 M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

2. The same methods and tools were used to col-lect final evaluation data from the originalcohort. It was only possible, however, to collectdata from 75 of the original 87 teachers whoparticipated in the BNAE. (See Table 3).

3. The BNAE data was compared with the finalevaluation data to evaluate the effectiveness ofthe INSET programme. (See Tables 4–7).

4. Qualitatively analysed evaluative data collectedthroughout the INSET programme, mainly atthe end of each training circuit, was used to pro-vide deeper insights.

Evaluation data indicated that the INSET pro-

Table 3Process of the final summative evaluation

Location Date Method Tool Evaluative data

Workshop Jan–June 97 Distributed evaluation Questionnaire Teachers’ opinions ofquestionnaire at the the INSETend of the fourth programme’straining circuit effectiveness andworkshops. views of their own

progress.Workshop Jan 95–Sep 97 Counted attendance at Registers To ascertain %

all workshops. attendance atworkshops.

Classroom July–Sep 97 Observed 75 lessons Lesson observation Level of teachers’forms basic teaching,

classroom managementand ELT skills.

School July–Sep 97 Interviewed 75 School profile forms Data concerningteachers higher–order skills not

observable in theclassroom, such aswriting schemes ofwork.

School and classroom July–Sep 97 Listened to 204 Record notebook To assess learners’learners read, observed level of reading, oraltheir writing books and and writing skills.held a conversationwith them.

School and classroom July–Sep 97 Conducted semi- School profile form To support datastructured and gathered using otherunstructured methods.observations.

School July-Sep 97 Took photos and video Cameras Data to support theshots. observation data.

Classroom Aug 96–Sep 97 Observed new teachers Lesson observation To assess the skills ofand teachers in other form teachers who had notregions. participated in the

INSET programme.

gramme was effective. It met teachers’ trainingneeds by significantly bridging the huge gapbetween the actual and target states as highlightedby the BNAE. It led to significant improvementsin teachers’ professional skills and children’slearning.

7. Discussion

The evaluation data in Tables 4–7 indicate theeffectiveness of the INSET Strategies Model fortraining unqualified primary teachers in Namibia,if implementation in the classroom is used as an

109M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

Table 4Grades awarded for basic teaching skills in 1995 and in 1997

Skill Percentage of teachers per gradea

A B C D E

1995 1997 1995 1997 1995 1997 1995 1997 1995 1997

Preparation 0 20 2 40 5 38 11 10 82 2Enthusiasm in classroom 0 10 2 47 5 35 31 9 62 4Appropriateness of content 1 10 1 52 9 23 43 9 46 6Variety 1 21 2 38 14 31 37 19 46 3Classroom management 1 29 2 51 17 11 46 7 32 2Presentation of new

0 15 1 43 15 29 13 10 71 3languageCorrection of mistakes 0 10 0 12 0 56 3 18 97 4Praise 0 0 0 7 0 15 3 43 97 35Use of text 0 8 0 39 5 41 23 9 72 3Use of chalkboard 0 21 1 45 3 18 28 14 69 2Classroom movement 0 21 1 45 3 18 28 14 69 2Use of gestures and facial

2 18 8 37 23 34 38 9 29 2movementsDiscipline 2 29 5 38 21 28 39 3 33 2Introduction 1 10 2 22 8 35 15 16 74 9Closure 1 9 3 58 8 23 39 7 49 3Linking/Continuity 1 9 3 58 8 23 39 7 49 3Teaching aids 0 20 5 47 5 21 17 7 73 5Audibility 4 47 12 46 23 8 41 8 20 1Questioning 0 2 3 31 4 46 12 19 81 4Use of repetition 0 20 0 51 0 18 11 8 89 3Revision 0 0 0 7 0 9 0 57 100 27Written work – 11 – 45 – 33 – 11 – 0Use of voice 2 20 8 53 13 17 41 4 36 6Lesson structure 0 11 2 54 3 31 5 0 90 4

a A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; E=inadequate

indicator of effectiveness. The degree to which themodel takes the process of change into account isone explanation for its success. The model incor-porates the characteristics of effective change, suchas flexibility, relevance, feasibility and desirability(see Fig. 3). The extent to which it is cognisantof micro-implementation factors, the objective andsubjective realities within which teachers work, isparticularly significant. The teacher is central to themodel. As successful INSET ultimately comesabout through teacher change, this is critical.

Firstly, the needs assessment stage facilitated therealistic assessment of teachers’ training needs.This enabled the planning of feasible INSET, thusincreasing the likelihood of its implementation in

the classroom. Secondly, the determination of thetraining content was based on teachers’ micro-realities. This is particularly important for unquali-fied teachers: if the content is too complex, irrel-evant, undesirable or not within teachers’ capacity,it is unlikely to be implemented. Verspoor (1989)supports this stage and proposes that the adjust-ment of training content to the teachers’ level ofknowledge and experience leads to successfulchange. This stage was critical to effectiveimplementation, yet is not discussed much in theliterature.

Thirdly, the cyclical nature of the model ensuredthat teachers’ micro-realities continued to be takeninto account throughout the INSET programme.

110 M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

Table 5Quantitative analysis of non-graded lesson observation data

Observation item Term 1 1995 Term 2 1997

State of classrooms Mainly dusty and untidy. Mainly clean, tidy and orderly52% of classrooms had displays, but All classrooms had displays. Mostthey were shoddy and consisted mainly classrooms had attractive displays.

Displaysof commercial posters. No displays of Many teacher — made materials. 5%learners’ work. displayed learners’ work.19 classrooms had desks in rows. 56 20 classrooms had desks in rows, 25 in

Desk layout classrooms had the desks scattered rectangular format and 5 had desksthroughout. scattered.76% 10 minutes or less; 16% between

Length of lesson 10 and 20 minutes; 8% more than 20 All lessons at least 30 minutes.minutes.Approximately 20% of the lessons gave 5% of the lessons gave me the

Lesson rehearsed me the impression that they had been impression that they had beenrehearsed. rehearsed.

85% of lessons used a teaching aid18% of lessons used a teaching aid

Teaching aids (generally pictures and a few physical(generally a picture).

objects).40% of teachers used a textbook during

55% used a textbook during the lesson.the lesson. 74% of those did not have

85% of those did not have textbooks.Textbook used enough texts. Different textbooks used:

84% using NAMPEP. Others still usingOur own reader, Day by Day, New Day

textbooks used in 1995.by Day, Go for English, English alive.

7% Poor, apathetic and dull; 8%95% Poor, apathetic and dull; 3%

Classroom atmosphere Average; 85% Positive andAverage; 2% Positive and hardworking.

hardworking.7% Poor; 13% Average; 80% Very

Teacher-pupil relationship 90% Poor; 7% Average; 3% Very good.good.

Long periods when teachers talked and94% of lessons. None.

learners sat quietly?Learner concentration Mainly very good. Mainly very good.Did learners understand the lesson? 90% did not understand it. 90% did understand it.

Learners seemed highly motivated in Learners seemed motivated in 100% ofLearner interest/motivation

69% of lessons. lessons.How many children:a. answered a question a. 2% a. 88%b. Participated in drill b. 81% b. 85%a

c. Asked a question c. none c. noned. Participated in pair/groupwork d. none d. 55%

a The drill observed in 1995 was monotonous and boring and used constantly. The INSET programme taught teachers techniquesto make drill more interesting and pointed out the importance of only using it when it is the most effective method.

Table 6Analysis of hearing learners read for the BNAE (1995)

Read more than 10 Read more than 5 and Read less than 5Read all 20 words

words less than 10 words

Known text 50% 35% 10% 5%Unknown text 0% 2% 10% 88%

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Table 7Analysis of hearing learners read for the evaluation (1997)

Read more than 10 Read more than 5 and Read less than 5Read all 20 words

words less than 10 words

Known text 83% 11% 4% 2%Unknown text 33% 58% 5% 4%

The follow-up school visits at the end of each cir-cuit enabled a useful evaluation of the training andhighlighted other training needs. The use of lessonobservations within the follow-up (and needsassessment and evaluation) stages, were crucial.These observations provided invaluable support tothe teachers, highlighted needs, and enabled anassessment of implementation, which were notaccessible using any other methods.

The cyclical nature of the model suggest itscomparison to the adaptive change models dis-cussed earlier (Craig, 1990, cited in Whitehead,1991). The model is flexible and can adapt toemerging data concerning teachers’ micro-realities.INSET strategies were evaluated at the end of onecircuit, and adapted if necessary, for subsequentcircuits. The circuits also facilitated Bruner’s(1983) spiral curriculum approach, with skillsbuilding on the foundations laid during previouscircuits. They suggest an underlying evolutionaryapproach to change (Beeby, 1966; Lewin, 1991).The cyclical nature of the model also highlights animportant feature of the model: the inter-relatedness of each of the stages, each stage feed-ing into another or a few other stages. For example,needs assessment clearly feeds into the determi-nation of content and training process stage, andfollow-up feeds into the needs assessment stage.Each stage is critical to the overall effectiveness ofthe model.

The cyclical nature of the model is important forimplementation and is based on a particular viewof implementation. The study found that threetraining circuits were necessary to effectiveimplementation. Fullan’s (1991, p.4) phenomen-ology of change, “…that is how people actuallyexperience change as distinct from how it mighthave been intended”, offers an explanation for this.Implementing change is a complex, difficult and

often painful process. Even if the change is withinteachers’ capacity to implement, as the INSET pro-gramme in this study sought to ensure, it inevitablyinvolves loss, anxiety and struggle (Havelock andHuberman, 1977). Schon (1971, p. 12) points outthat “…all real change involves…passing throughthe zones of uncertainty…. the situation of beingat sea, of being lost, of confronting more infor-mation than you can handle”. The process ofimplementing change can be very deep, striking atthe core of learned skills, philosophy, beliefs andconceptions of education, and creating doubtsabout self purpose, sense of competence, and self-concept. Consequently, teacher change requiresadequate time and support. The INSET strategiesmodel facilitates this process by providing for on-going training and support as teachers grapple withimplementing the training in their classrooms. Thephenomenology of change can be used to explainthe significant improvement in implementationwithin the third training circuit. Teachersimplemented very little of the training during thefirst two training circuits: they were busy grapplingwith the changes (the new skills) they wereattempting to implement. It is reasonable to assumethat by the third training circuit they had come toterms with the new skills and could successfullyimplement them. This indicates that a series ofworkshops and follow-up support over a long per-iod is more effective than one-off workshops withno follow-up. This notion is not new. Beeby high-lighted it in 1966. In 1980, he added: “Withoutcontinuing encouragement and support, the aver-age teacher has a remarkable capacity for revertingback to old practices under a new name” (Beeby,1980 p. 466). Yet, this continues to be ignored byINSET providers in developing countries. If we areserious about the professional development ofunqualified teachers, the phenomenology of change

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must be given serious consideration when plan-ning INSET.

Social constructivism provides an alternativeexplanation for the success of the INSET strategiesmodel. The model, it could be argued, has anunderlying social constructivist view of learning.This is the notion that adult learning best takesplace when support and guidance is provided(Vygotsky, 1978). Skills which are beyond the tea-chers’ normal repertoire are “…within their capa-bilities with assistance” (Harvey, 1999, p. 195).The follow-up stage of the model facilitates suchassistance. The extent to which the model enabledthe trainer to get to know teachers professionallyand personally is important here. This led to moreuseful support than can be provided by a trainerwho only knows teachers in a workshop or coursecontext. A comments from a teacher illustratesthis: “she knows us and how we teach” (8October 1996).

The literature uses a number of terms to refer tofollow-up for INSET. Harvey (1999) compares thePrimary Science Programme’s term “classroomsupport” with the Joyce and Showers’ term “coach-ing”. Dove (1986) uses the term “teacher support”.These terms however, only suggest a supportivefunction, whereas the term “follow-up” alsoencompasses a formative and summative evalu-ation function, all three of which feed into eachother and are critical to the effectiveness of theINSET strategies model. Consequently, the termfollow-up was used for the INSET strategiesmodel. The functions of the follow-up stage haveconsiderable implications for implementation, bothsupporting and evaluating the implementation ofthe training in the classroom.

The extent to which the summative evaluationof implementation relied on determining theimplementation of pre-determined teaching skillsraises epistemological issues underlying INSET.The use of the model in the research study suggestsan underlying technical–rational view of knowl-edge. Specific skills which were within teachers’capacity to implement, and which would lead toimprovements in learning, were developed. Theprogramme sought to develop teachers’ capacity touse these skills in their classroom. This skills-based, technical approach to INSET is questioned

in the literature (Avalos, 1991; Hatton and Smith,1995). It is considered reductionist and is criticisedfor its failure to view teachers as active agents inthe development of their own practice, and asdecision-makers using their own specialist knowl-edge to guide their actions in particular situations.It is claimed to dismiss philosophies of knowledgeunderlying interpretative teaching practices:phenomenology, hermeneutics, analytic philo-sophy, ethnomethodology, aesthetics and thehumanities (Van Muren, 1977), which informedthe reflective approaches to teaching as emerged inthe 1980s.

Efforts however, to implement reflectiveapproaches in the INSET programme raised theissue of transfer. The study found them to bebeyond the teachers’ capacity. A number ofreasons can be used to explain this. Firstly, teach-ers were not familiar with reflective approaches,they had long been educated in a Bantu educationsystem which did not encourage them to ask ques-tions, to criticise or to develop and express theirown ideas. They were not familiar with an innov-ative culture which reflective approaches assume.Secondly, teachers did not have an adequate pro-fessional foundation upon which to reflect. Thisfinding has received some attention in the literature(Hargreaves, 1993; Stuart and Kunje, 1998).Thirdly, teachers’ impoverished education had notsufficiently empowered them to reflect. It did notprovide them with the tools of reflection whichinclude the higher-order reflective skills, such ascomparing, analysing and synthesising, which arenecessary to enable useful reflection.

However, findings from the fourth circuit oftraining suggested that reflective approaches couldbe developed amongst teachers, were they toreceive further INSET. By the end of the study,most teachers had reached a level of reflection,which was termed basic technical awareness, anda few teachers had reached Zeichner’s technicalrationality level. Consequently, the INSET stra-tegies model used during the INSET programmehad an underlying rational–technical epistemology.It could however, be successfully used with reflec-tive approaches, were they within the teacherscapacity.

The INSET strategies model then, can be infor-

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med by two views of knowledge: the technical–rational and reflective. It can fit in with a “thirdway” for pre-service teacher education pro-grammes which is emerging in the literature(Hargreaves, 1993; Hatton and Smith, 1995). In theinitial stages of a training programme technicalprescriptive approaches are used to develop teach-ers’ PCSK, and subsequently to support their useof reflective approaches to develop themselves pro-fessionally.

It is widely acknowledged that common andlegitimate starting points in many professionalpre-service programs are the basic skills whichare seen as necessary for the neophyte to enterthe actual professional practice context and sur-vive, operating with some degree of safety andcompetence. These address the concerns stu-dents have about themselves and their ability tocope with the task…It is widely acknowledgedthat from such a starting point which addressesthe immediate and pressing concerns of stu-dents, it is possible to move on to create learn-ing situations which foster development of moredemanding reflective approaches, takingaccount of the factors which impact on the prac-tical context, often using technical competenceas a first framework for analysing performancein increasingly demanding situations (Hattonand Smith, 1995, p. 46).

By the end of the INSET programme, teacherswere successfully operating in their classrooms. Itis reasonable to assume that if the INSET pro-gramme was extended, teachers’ capacity to usereflective approaches would be developed enoughto enable them to move on to analytic practiceshighlighted in the above quote. These practicescould be implemented within the INSET strategiesmodel. This suggests the usefulness of the “thirdway” as a way forward for INSET for unqualifiedand underqualified teachers in Namibia and else-where.

An important point here concerns the first stepof the “third way”, the development of PCSKskills. The skills were not pre-determined in a vac-uum. Reynolds (1998) “context specificity” wastaken into account. The skills were informed by a

number of sources and were tried out by the trainerin “real” classrooms to determine the extent towhich they were within teachers’ capacity toimplement. Their appropriateness to the contextwas also highlighted by follow-up lesson obser-vations which indicated whether the skills werewithin teachers’ capacity or whether they had tobe further adapted. This brings us back to the criti-cal role of the change theory underlying the INSETstrategies model: it takes the teachers’ micro-realities into account. This ultimately enables thedevelopment of INSET strategies which lead toimproved teaching and learning.

7.1. Limitations on the model

Even though the model was effective in theresearch context, there were a number of limi-tations on its effectiveness. The main limitationsemerged from meso- and macro- factors ofimplementation which were beyond its control.They included communication and distributionproblems within the Namibian Ministry of Edu-cation. For example, the Ministry failed to informthe trainer about the appointments of new teachers,the building of new schools and new reform poli-cies, which had implications for the needs assess-ment and organisation stages of the model. Simi-larly, distribution problems had implications forthe determination of content stage and implemen-tation. This often led to textbooks, exercise booksand basic stationery arriving late or not at all. In1996, grade 1 teachers were to implement a tenweek school readiness programme for their lear-ners during the first school term. The trainerexplored pre-reading and pre-writing aspects ofthis programme with the teachers. The trainers’handbook and textbooks for the programme did notarrive however, until the second term, and teacherswere unable to implement it.

Other limitations on the model were ineffectiveprincipals and the large numbers of teachers partic-ipating in the INSET programme. The leastimproved teachers worked in schools with ineffec-tive principals who did not support the programmeas effectively as principals elsewhere. The modelwould have been more successful with a smallernumber of teachers and schools. This would have

114 M.C. O’Sullivan / International Journal of Educational Development 21 (2001) 93–117

enabled more training circuits to take place andallowed time to involve the principals more fullyin supporting the INSET.

8. Implications of findings for INSET forunqualified and underqualified primaryteachers in developing countries

The author considers the model to have widerapplication than Namibia, particularly indeveloping countries with similar education con-texts: large numbers of unqualified teachers, lim-ited resources, rural school locations, and so on.Efforts to apply the model however, have take thetransfer issue into account. It is unlikely that themodel can be successfully blindly adopted in otherdeveloping countries. It will have to be adapted toeach particular context. Action research is sug-gested as a useful method of addressing transfer.Various stages of the model can be tried, andadapted, if necessary.

The model is potentially more effective in othercontexts if there is a lower trainer: teacher ratio.This would allow more circuits to be conductedand would enable more intense follow-up supportto be provided to teachers. Harvey’s (1999) studyhighlights the effectiveness of intense support,termed “coaching”, but also raises the cost impli-cations. Coaching is labour intensive. In the lightof this, the INSET strategies model offers a morecost effective alternative. One trainer can completefour training circuits for 145 teachers over a threeyear period. The teachers will not receive theintense support envisaged in the coaching model,but the support is adequate to lead to effectiveimplementation of the training in the classroom.

The model can be used for training qualified tea-chers. It might be possible to use reflectiveapproaches with qualified teachers. This furthersuggests the use of the model with different under-lying philosophies of knowledge. The authorbelieves that the model will be most effective inother contexts if the trainer(s) is an experiencedprimary classroom practitioner, particularly insimilar contexts. She considers her recent and rel-evant primary teaching experience (backed up bytheoretical study and support) to have been critical

to the effectiveness of the model in the researchcontext. She feels that the teachers related betterto her as she could actively demonstrate in a realeducational setting rather than just lecture aboutthe approaches.

The study also has implications for the variousINSET strategies within the model. For example,efforts to assess teachers’ training needs, high-lighted the problems of using interviews. Teachersdid not answer the question concerning their needs.A possible reason for this is that the teachers inthis study were not sufficiently empowered toassess their own specific needs. Rogan andMcDonald’s (1985) research on the Science Edu-cation Project (SEP) in South Africa highlightedsimilar findings. At the beginning of the trainingprogramme, the trainers sought help from themainly qualified teachers in the formulation ofaims for the courses. Teachers did not offer anyhelp. However, later in the programme, they for-mulated aims. Rogan and McDonald (1985) sug-gest that the teachers were only able to articulateaims once they had reached a level of security intheir professional development, which they claimthe SEP training provided. These findings raisequestions concerning the capacity of unqualifiedteachers in developing countries to articulate theirneeds and challenges the literature which high-lights interviews and questionnaires as an effectivemethod of needs assessment (Monroe and Neel,1988; Lubben, 1994).

The study highlighted the critical role of class-room based strategies in effective INSET. Lessonobservations, assessment of learners’ work andstructured and unstructured observations, providedan accurate picture of implementation of the train-ing in the classroom. They also usefully indicatedteachers’ training needs. Lesson observation wasfound to be a particularly useful strategy. It pro-vided support “at the chalkface”. It indicated theextent to which teachers were implementing thetraining in their classrooms, highlighted problemsthey were having and suggested solutions. Spark’s(1983, cited in Esu, 1991) study highlighted theusefulness of lesson observation to effectiveINSET: “…unless those who organise inservicetraining visit the teachers in the classroom follow-ing the inservice training, little transfer of knowl-

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edge takes place” (Esu, 1991, p. 192). Yet, this isnot reflected in empirical research. A review of theliterature only revealed a handful of INSET studiesin both developing and Western countries whichhad used lesson observation to follow up training(Verspoor, 1989; Lockheed and Verspoor, 1991;Hayes, 1995). Heneveld and Craig’s (1996) WorldBank study highlights this lack of attention. Onlyfour of the 26 projects used lesson observation tofollow up INSET. The use of lesson observationfor evaluative purposes in this study raises the viewof evaluation underlying the INSET strategiesmodel: effective evaluation of INSET has toexplore the extent to which the training isimplemented in the classroom.

In conclusion, the study indicated that theINSET strategies model was effective in the Nam-ibian context and suggests its implications for othercontexts. The model provides teachers with enoughsecurity in their own ability as professionals tobecome empowered and to improve their teachingpractice. It is an effective way of working with tea-chers. It is innovative, culturally aware, worksclosely with teachers and learners in their environ-ments, has in-built coherent needs assessment, sup-port and evaluation mechanisms, is cost effectiveand is sustainable if adequate resources are pro-vided. The model puts the teacher first. It takestheir micro-realities into account and consequently,is implementation friendly. Its “sighted”, ratherthan blind application to other contexts, may pro-vide a possible solution to the problem in a numberof developing countries of training unqualified andunderqualified primary teachers.

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