Characteristics of the Tsarist State

The Land•Russia’s geography•Its great size

The People• The Social structure• Tiny dominant elite• The “dark masses”•80% peasant population

The Economy•Undeveloped industry•Backwards agriculture

The Tsarist System •Autocratic government•Reactionary Church• Corrupt bureaucracy•Oppressive Army

Why was Russia Backwards?

PoliticalAutocracyNo opposition/ other political partiesNobles in controlSecret police (Okhrana) Conscripted Army

EconomicHarsh winter –affected farmingBackwards farming methodsBanking undevelopedNo consumer demand for productsPoor communications

SocialOver 80% of 130million population were peasants. “dark masses”Only 800,000 industrial workersNo demand to developSocial hierarchyMostly of Russian Orthodox religion3500 people in 6 universities

Other FactorsClimate – frozen lakes, hard to import and trade onSize of Russia – Extremely hard due to the poor communications (over 8milliom sq miles)

Key dates from Tsarist Russia

1861 Emancipation of the serfs

1881 Assassination of Alexander II

1894 Start of Nicholas II’s reign

1894-1906 Witte’s economic reforms

1898 Social Democrat party formed (SD’s)

1901 Socialist Revolutionary party formed (SR’s)

1903 SD party splits in Bolsheviks and Mensheviks

1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War

1905 Russo-Japanese peace Treaty, Formation of the Octorists, Creation of Duma, Formation of Kadets, All Russian Union of peasants set up.

The problem of Reform in Imperial Russia

Debate over Russia’s character as a nation!

•Westerners: Russians who believed that their nation had to model itself on the advanced countries of Europe.

•Slavophiles: Russians who urged that the nation should preserve its self as “holy Russia”, glorying in it Slavonic culture and traditions

Russia’s political systemmeant change could only come from the Tsar, so why didn't it?

Reform would only weaken their own

position and that of the Romanov Dynasty

The amount of reform depended on the Tsar ‘s reformist inclination. However humiliation like the defeat in the Crimean War (1865) could spark reform

KeywordsZemstva: Elected local councils (power was limited)

Mir: the traditional village community

Intelligentsia: Educated members of Russian society who wanted to see the country reform along western lines

Autocracy: The absolute rule of one person. The Tsar

Nicholas II’s personal issues

• Pobedonostsev: Nicholas was tutored by this man. Known as the “Great Inquisitor” because of his repressive attitudes. He had a deep hatred for liberalism and democracy. Believed in Programs and that the “dark masses” should not be allowed to vote as they were too uneducated and vulgar. He said representative government was the “great lie of our time”

•Easily Manipulated and Swayed: Especially by his wife Alixandra and Pobedonostsev later on Rasputin

•Lacked Imagination: Many of his policies were just a continuation or modification of older ones introduced by his father Alexander III.

• Ministers: He mistrusted most of his ministers and yet was incapable of carrying out the task of ruling the vast Russian empire alone.

Nicholas II’s Policies

RussificationThis Restricted the influence of non Russian national minorities with in the empire by

emphasising all things Russian.Aim:

To impose Russian ways and values on all the people within the empireImplications:

•Russian declared as official language causing all legal proceedings to be performed in Russian. Public office closed for those not fluent in Russian.•Discrimination was more open and vindictive•Over 600 new polices introduced to pose heavy social, political & economic restrictions on the 5 million strong Jewish population •Jews lived in Ghettos and suffered from Pogroms(fierce violent attacks) Russification and therefore Tsardom actively encouraged this. Group called “black hundreds” were notorious for Pogroms.

Result:Policy alienated half of Russia's population. This led to large pockets of anti-tsarist

minorites forming across the empire and many people joined political parties or just developed a hatred of Tsardom.

•Jewish Bund formed in 1897: this was a Jewish anti-tsarist movement

Nicholas II’s polices: Witte

In the 1890s industry grow so quickly the term “The Great Spurt” was used.

State CapitalismThis is the direction and control of the economy by the

government using its central power and

authorityWitte believed that

modernization could only be achieved

though this.

Witte thought Russia needed to raise capital. So he...

•Negotiated Loans from abroad.

•Protective Tariffs were set up as a means of protecting Russia’s domestic industries

•Gold Standard implemented on currency. Making it stable and encouraging FDI in Russia.

This was mainly successful. But penalised consumers at home. Since

the higher value currency made products already scarce more

expensive.

Railwaysmost of the capital

was invested in this. Called the

“transport revolution”

Foreign helpInvited foreign experts and workers to advice.

Plus engineers and managers from Europe.

year Miles of track

1881 13,270

1891 19,510

1900 33,270

1913 43,850(+230% increase)

Key Developments•Private Enterprise•State Capitalism

The Great Spurt

Population growthUrban Growth (urbanization)

Witte’s reforms

Foreign Loans Capital investment

Industrialization Railways

Remember! The Tsar only wanted to modernise to gave

it a strong military force!!1885 onwards – 50% of

government spending on military

Good•Annual production (millions of tons)

• Urbanisation – working classes reached aprox. 11 million

•Growth of railways by 230% in 30 years

•Russia became the 4th largest economy

•In 1900 – economy expanding at 8% per annum

BadNo doubt his policies were good, but did have

drawbacks

•Made Russia too dependant of foreign loans

•Neglected areas such as light engineering•Paid no attention to agriculture

•Growth figures are not as impressive as their was a huge increase in population at

the time

Witte impacts: Good & Bad

Coal Pig Iron

Oil Grain

1890 5.9 0.89 3.9 36

1913 35.4 4.1 9.1 90

However!His freedom of polices were restricted

and he often was told to focus more on military. Witte was disliked by the royal

court and therefore not trusted. This meant the very system he was trying to

protect restricted him despite his ability.

Political Opposition to the Tsarist system

Type Populists(revolutionaries)

Liberals(Reformists)

Marxists

Groups •Peoples will•Social Revolutionaries (SRs)

No real organised party pre 1900•Octoberists•Kadets

•Social democrats (SDs)(later split in Bol +

Men)

Importance •Assassinations•Contributed to many rising and unrest

•Limited as government just ignored requests•Backwardness of Russia made them weak

•Industrial unrest would of occurred with out them because of industrialization, so easy to over state their importance at this time!

Bolshevik – Menshevik Split (SD)

Mensheviks Bolsheviks •Plekhanov (for founder of Russian Marxism)

•Martov

Disagreement over the party size had fundamentally split the party. Lenin claimed his side were the majority which means Bolshinstov in Russian.

They split into two Marxist parties in 1903

•Lenin

A mass organisation with membership open to all

DisagreementThe party

A tight knit, exclusive organisation of professional revolutionaries

Open, democratic discussion with the party. Votes of members made decisions.

Decision making Authority to be exercised by the Central Committee of the party

Alliance with other parties Strategy No cooptation with other parties

Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 OutcomeRussia lost, but why?

Russia's Weakness•Military poorly equipped

•Logistic problems in running a war from 6000 miles away•Commanders using 19th

century tactics (bayonet charges)

•Underestimated Japs

Japans Strength•Under Maji emperors Japan

had rapidly modernized• Better equipped & prepared

View of Japanese•Saw them as an inferior

nation and was very racist towards it. Referred to as

“yellow danger, the new hordes of

Mongols with modern tec”

• Russia turned it into a patriotic struggle. War was

nothing less than the defence of Russia’s

European identity against

the Asian hordes.

Causes•Territorial disputes•Minster or war belied Nicholas wanted to expand empire into Asia further. (Nicholas cousins Kaiser Wilhelm once called Nic the Admiral of the pacific)

• Witte wanted to expand economy into the far east•Obtain an ice free port•Distract from domestic issues (Plehve said “a little victories

war to stem revolution)

Port Arthur fell in Jan 1905

Russian surrender of

Mukden in Feb 1905

Russian fleet destroyed at

Tsushima , may 1905 (after sailing for 8

months to get their was sunk immediately

Effect•National humiliation•Showed incompetence of government•Excited the unrest in the country (this shown by the assassination of Plehve in 1904, in Warsaw this was celebrated by crowds in the streets)

Key dates from 1905 & aftermath

1905 Jan Bloody Sunday

1905 May Union of Unions formed

1905 June The Potemkin Mutiny

1905 Oct October manifesto – Duma / St Petersburg Soviet formed

1905 Nov Moscow Soviet formed

1906 Fundamental Laws / First Duma

1907 Second Duma

1907 -12 Third Duma

1911 Stolypin Assassinated

1912 Lena Goldfields

1912 - 14 Forth Duma / WW1

Bloody Sunday (22nd

January 1905)

AimFather Gapon led a peaceful march of workers and

their families to the winter palace to present a petition to the Tsar, begging him to improve

conditions

HoweverThe march caused the police force to panic and they fired on the marchers

and charged down by the cavalry!•Approximately 200 dead

Disorder spreads

Because of Russo-Japanese war, Bloody Sunday and all other Russia's problems

• Strikes in all major settlements• Terrorism against goverment and landlords (Plehve killed)• Public buildings attacked• large private estates attacked• land and property seized by peasants• Georgia declared itself an independent state• Jews demanded equal rights• Union of Unions formed (called goverment “gang of robbers”)

Potemkin Mutiny June 1905

Throughout 1905 had

been instances of

troops refusing to

fire/disperse on unarmed

peasants

Crew of the Battle ship Prince Potemkin mutinied at sea. This

was over the bad food and water they

were given. Crew took over the ship

from the officers and sailed to Odessa

Their was serious anti-goverment strikes in

Odessa and the crew were greaten as

Heroes.

Troops were sent in. Marched though with

bayonets, trampling over

people and driving many into the sea.

1000s dead!

Very worrying for the goverment as a goverment that cannot rely on the loyalty of its armed forces is in a very vulnerable position.

Witte feared troops returning form Russo-Japanese war would join the revolution. If this happened, he said “then everything would collapse”

Reasons for 1905 Rising

Governments own responsibility

Repression Taxation leadership

Social unrest – Economic recession – Bad harvests

Peasants anger over mortgage repayments

Workers anger over unemployment and falling wages

Russia’s humiliation to Japan

1905 Impacts (What it showed)

1905 showed that as long as the Tsarist goverment kept its nerve and the army loyal, the forces of protest would find it hand to mount a serious challenge

LiberalsFew Liberals enjoyed co-operating with the workers. Many were frightened by the primitive

forces (dark masses). Liberals betrayed workers and backed out of the revolution, leaving them to be crushed by the troops.

TsardomTsardom emerged stronger than it had entered 1905. with the loyal support of its armies.

Trotsky said about the Tsarist system: "although with a few broken rips, had come out of the experience of 1905 alive and strong”

Fundamental Laws April 1906

Despite the concessions the Tsars power was not limited. The Duma was not a limitation of the Tsars autocratic power. This was made clear by the Fundamental Laws.A quote: “No law can come into law with his(Tsars) approval”

Stolypin and the land reform 1906-1911

How to feed Russia's growing population?

Rural CrisisThe problem of land shortages and overpopulation of the countryside caused by rapid population growth.

Bad harvests in 1890s led to famine in 1891 and 1897.

“De-Revolutionising” the peasants

High price of land led to high mortgage (redemption)

payments. One of the reasons that peasant joined the 1905 revolution is the

fear that government would reposes land. In 1905

government cleared this debt to “de-revolutionise”

the peasants

Wager on the strong (1906-07)Stolypin introduced measure to restore peasants sense of security. His aim was to create a layer of prosperous, productive peasants. Whose new wealth would turn them into a Tsarist supporter• Farmers urged to abolish strip system with fenced fields• A Land Bank established, to allow a independent peasant to buy his own land

Did it work?Stolypin had little chance of success as Russian peasantry was so backwards and he had so little time to change things. Conservatism (suspicion of change, therefore resistance to it) of most peasants prevented change occurring. Also Stolypin admitted he needed 20 years to achieve success. He was assassinated in 1911 and therefore only got 5,

The Russian Economy after Witte 1906-1914

End of great spurt

Global Recession

Population explosion in cities

Inflation - Unemployment - overcrowding

Workers unrest

Result: Economy increased, but Russia cant be called a modern industrial state as 4/5 of population are still peasants. Workers had terrible conditions. “At mercy of employers”

Dumas 1906-1914

First DumaApril-June 1906

Duma was dominated by Reformist parties, they demanded the Duma have more power, the opposition the Duma presented the Tsar caused him to say “curse the Duma, its all Witte’s doing”. He then dissolved it after only two months. It achieved nothing (then Vybord Appeal)

Second DumaFeb-June 1907

Loss of Kadets seats were filled by SD’s and SR’s. This caused a clash between the Right-Wing and revolutionaries parties. As well as a clash between the Duma and the Tsarist system once again. Dissolved by Nic ended in disorder

Why Tsar Kept Duma: Despite the opposition of first two Dumas the Tsar kept them because the Tsar wanted to show Russia as a democratic nation to boast foreign relations and trade, this worked. So: Stolypin rendered Duma docile by changing voting laws. Peasants and workers lost votes and Tsars supporters gained votes, third and forth Dumas were now PRO Tsar and full of ring wing parties

Third DumaNov 07 – June 1912

Third Duma more cooperative with government, enabled Stolypin to push though his Land Reforms . Among the 2571 bills it approved were social reforms measures that included the setting up of schools for poor children and national insurance for industrial workers

Forth DumaNov 12- August 1914

Social reform work continued. But this Duma did criticise the government. An Okhrana report in 1912 blamed the tensions in Russia on the awkward and searching questions the Duma was asking of government policy

Before first Duma met the Tsar• Loaned from France to restrict Dumas financial control• Issued Fundamental laws• Made Duma “Bi-Cameral” (this split the Duma in two, one chamber elected, another (with right to Veto) were appointed by Tsar)

Result: Dumas had no real power, Tsarist regime no intentions of allowing concessions it had made in 1905

The Vyborg Appeal

After the first Duma was dissolved the frustration led to 200 Kadet and Labourists deputies to reassemble in Finland. Here they drew up the “appeal” urging Russia's people to defy Russia's government by...• Refusing to pay taxes• Disobeying conscription ordersHowever Russians did not conduct widespread passive disobedience, but scattered violence occurred.

Reaction by Government: violence gave government the excuse for retaliation. Stolypin appointed by Tsar as strongman. Vyborg deputies arrested and banned for re-election into Duma.This led to Stolypins policy of repression. •Martial Law proclaimed • Military courts opened and used to quell disturbances• between 1906-1911, 2500 people were executed • Hangman's Noose renamed the “Stolypin Necktie”

Liberals never recovered from humiliation. Which allowed

left and right parties to think reform could only be

achieved though revolution

Growing tensions in Russia, 1911-14

Following Stolypin’s assassination in 1911, the various ministers appointed by the Tsar were all incompetent. And just enforced further repression. Terror was used to programs returned to province• From 1911 to 1914 strikes rose from 24 to 2400• 17000 acts of terrorism (although a lot not political, just mindless)

The Lena Goldfields Incident, 1912

Demands from miners in the Lena Goldfields, Siberia, for

better pay and better conditions led to the employers appealing to the police. When the police moved in the Miners

closed ranks and situation worsened. Resulted in troops

firing on miners and killing large numbers

Anger among the Moderates (Tsars supporters)

In 1913 the Octoberist leader told his party that their aim for

“a peaceful, painless transition from the old condemned system to a new

order” Had failed.

This shows even the Tsars supporters were starting to turn against him due to his governments incompetence to deal

with problems Russia's faced.

Government remained hostile towards reform,

not only economic change needed, but also

political, which government was not

willing to accept, instead just repressed. After

Witte and Stolypin that “might” have saved Tsarism were either

ignored or killed Tsarism was doomed.

War and Revolution

1914August 1st

Germany declares war on RussiaForth Duma suspended

1915June-July

Forth Duma reconvened

June 25th Progressive bloc formed in Duma

August 22nd Nicholas made himself Commander-In-Chief of Russia's armies

1916December 1st

Rasputin killed by group of aristocrats

1917Feb 18 – March 4th

February revolution

Feb 18th Strike Begins in Petrograd

Feb 23th IWD sees the beginning of widespread workers demonstrations

Feb 25th City-wide strike in Petrograd

Feb 27th Unofficial meeting of Duma coincides with first meeting of Petrograd soviet

Feb 28th Nicholas ii prevented from returning to Petrograd by railway workers

March 4TH PG formed from Duma committeeTsar signs abdication decree

Russia's entry into the War

Russia's concerns

• Growth of United Germany• Formation of Austria-Hungary• Russia saw itself as protector of Slav culture (Balkans, Serbia)• Austro-Hungary& Russia fighting over Balkans (Serbia)

On 28 June 1914 Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by Serbians

who wanted to break away from Austro-

Hungarian influences.

In July 1914 Nic II sent telegrams to his cousin

Kaiser William II regretting the growing

crisis between the countries. These are called “Willy-Nicky”

exchanges

Russia mobilised in order to scare of Austria-Hungary (realistic chance) howeverGermans plan was a lighting quick attack so it mobilised as well (Schrieffer Plan) and declared war on Russia on August the 1st.

Germany and Austria-Hungary VS. Russia, Britain And France

First Months of WW1

Patriotism and unity• Nicholas II became the symbol of nations resistance• French ambassador said about the Tsar “the absolute master of their bodies and souls” shows level of support at start of War. • Special Duma session all the deputies pledged themselves to the national struggle• all political pressure disappeared as parties jointed the national

struggle

BolsheviksThey were against the war so classed as traitors or German spies.

Everyone went into hiding.

Impacts of WW1 on Russia (1)

Three years of total war proved too much for Russia and it became crippled economically

InflationValue of money sharply declined, creating instability and high prices

Problem: between 1914 & 1917 government spending

rose from 4 million roubles to 30 million.

Solution• Increased Taxes as home

• Heavy borrowing• Abandoned gold standard, thus allowing quantitative easing

However this made money worthless. Serve Inflation

followed. Wages doubled, but price of food and food

quadrupled

Food SuppliesDwindled as a result of requisitioning

and transport disruption – urban areas suffered shortages

Problems: • Requisitioning of horses and fertiliser, lowered production• Inflation made trading unprofitable so peasants stopped selling food.•Army had first claim to food• Army priority of transport systems meant food supplies didn't get where they were needed, the cities• Petrograd suffered badly during war, residents easting a quarter of their 1914 diets

TransportBroke down under stresses of Total War

Problems in 1916/17: • Signalling system on which train network relied broke• blocked lines and trains stranded by engine issues were common• 575 stations were no longer capable of handling freight

Implications of this:• Food rotted in stranded trains• Pile up of supplies at Archangel port that goods sunk into the ground under the weight of newer goods placed on top.• Before war Moscow received 2200 wagons of grain per months, was 700 in February 1917• Lack of food in Urban areas• Military shortages of equipment

Impacts of WW1 on Russia (2)

The ArmyRussian army was very strong because of its size, however its crippling weakness was that it was lack of equipment.

Problem:Lack of equipment. This was

not caused by lack of resources but by poor

administration. Transport chaos also effected the army and meant it was often under

supplied. Government departments for supplies didn't work well together

• Troops even fought bare footed because of lack of boots.

Role of the TsarNicholas being Commander-

An-Chief made the survival of Tsardom dependant on

Military success

Problem:Nic II became commander-In-Chief in order to rally the nation around him. But this made him personally responsible for the war effort.

Implication: Russian army was being beaten and were losing the war.

Implication: Nicholas II had to take the blame for Russia's poor war performance, he could no longer blame his other men.

MoraleAfter 1914 spike in moral it sunk rapidly and people became very

pessimistic

Why Morale was low:• Suffering from food shortages• Collapsed transport system• Poor leadership by Nicholas• Large Casualty list from war

Implication:• Some soldiers deserted (but so did other countries?)• growth of opposition to Tsardom

Growth of Opposition to Tsardom

Duma Recalled

In August 1914 Duma voted to be suppressed for duration of the war, this was sign of total support for the Tsar.

By 1915 Duma demanded to be recalled as a result of Russia's poor military showing.

“Progressive Bloc”

Dumas deputies tried to persuade Nic to replace his ineffective cabinet with Duma members.Nic Rejected Denied a direct voice in national policies over half of Duma members formed a “Progressive Bloc “within Duma.

Bloc was a supporter of the Tsar trying to persuade him to make concessions. But his unwillingness to co-operate made the Bloc a focal point of political resistance.

Rasputin

Brought it to heal Nic’s son. Became Alexandra’s confidant whilst Tsar was away.

“The German woman” and a “mad monk” effectively ran the country.

The fact that Rasputin became so prominent with the Tsarist system convinced many the system wasn't worth saving.

February revolution 1917 (events)

Strikes in major factories: Putilov works

23rd February: International women's day protest turned into bread riot

Disorder spreads throughout city

Nicholas ordered troops to take control, they changed side and joinedBy 26th only 1000 of the 150000 garrison in Petrograd hadn't deserted

12 rebellious Duma members create provisional committee

Nicholas tries to return to Petrograd but is halted by mutinous troops

4TH: Army advises Nic to abdicate

Dual authority established

February revolution 1917 (Character)

Not a revolution from below

Bolsheviks played no part

Revolution started by Tsardoms traditional supporters

A failure of leadership and nerve at the top

A revolution in one city – Petrograd

Not result of social or political movement, just of war

An institutional crisis?

Soviets27th February. First meeting of Petrograd Soviets. Represented sailors, soldiers and workers. Formed the Dual Authority with PG

From 27th the Soviets and PC became the De Facto government of Russia

(De facto means to denote the real situation, even though technically not

correct)

The October Revolution

March 2nd Formation of the Provisional government

March 12th Stalin and Kamenev arrive In Petrograd

March 14th Petrograd Soviet issues its “address to the people of the world”

April 3rd Lenin returns

April 4th Lenin issues April thesis

April 20th Bolshevik red guards formed

June 16th Kerensky offensive

July 3-6th Failure of July Days

July 8th Kerensky became prime minister

August 30th Bolsheviks released to protect Petrograd

September 25th Bolsheviks gain majority in Soviet

October 9th Petrograd Soviet set up the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC)

October 23-25 October Revolution, Bolsheviks seize power

The PG and its many problems

The WarIf Russia didn't fight on in the war it would no longer receive War Credits. The PG relived on these to survive finically as Tsardom had left Russia bankrupt. This meant the PG was preoccupied with the war and therefore could not focus on Russia's economic or social issues.It was in a paradoxical situation, in order to survive the PG needed to keep Russia

in the war, but the war was destroying its chances of survival.

“Address to the people of the whole world”14th of march this was issued by Soviets calling for peace without reparations, government accepted this addresses. However it became known that Milyikov had pledged to allies that Russia would fight until Germany was defeated. This caused demonstrations against Milyikov in late April and caused him and few other ministers to resign and caused a reshuffle of the cabinet with it shifting left.

Provisional Government Initial Balance

Considerable cross-over and jointed membership

Petrograd Soviet

But considerable cooperation in the early months after Romanov fall

“Soviet order number 1” gave the Soviet effective veto over the government

This enabled the PG to achieve a number of progressive reforms such as

• Full civil and religious freedoms•Trade unions legally recognised

Dual Authority Bolsheviks ReturnAll the Bolsheviks came out of exile when they learned of Tsar abdication

But their was two views on what they should do...

Stalin & Kamenev: AccommodationismThese two believed in Accommodationism, this is the idea that Bolsheviks should accept the situation that followed the February Revolution and co-operate with the PG and other parties

Lenin: RevolutionBefore returning his “letters for afar”urged WW1 should be turned into a class war with all armies turning on their governments.

On the third of April he arrived in Petrograd and gave a speech. He declared the Feb Revolution had created a ”parliamentary-bourgeois republic” “Old Duma in a new form” he called for a genuine revolution.

The April ThesesIssued on the 4th of April this set out future Bolshevik Policy

He condemned Accommodationsim and all that had happened since the Feb Rev. He instead the Bolsheviks were the only truly revolutionary party and they must;• Abandon all co-operation with other parties• Work for a true revolution• Overthrow the PG• Pass power to the workers• demand authority pass to the soviets

Lenin created two slogans to some up his aims• “Peace, bread and land”• “All power to the Soviets”The first highlighted the problems in Russia, that could not be solved by the PG because they were only interested in their own classes affairs. That's why he wanted to sweep ministers aside with a completely new class of people, hence the second slogan.

Kerensky became war minister and campaigned for Russia to embrace the conflict as a struggle to save the revolution.

The July DaysIn July it seemed the government was not in control of events, the signs of this were

• The spread of soviets• Workers control of the factories• Widespread seizure of land by the peasants• the creation of breakaway national minority governments- Ukraine mostly

Ministerial clash over Ukraine's independence coincided with larger street demonstrations that were as a result of the Kerensky Offensive failure and other issues. These demonstrations turned into a direct challenge to the PG

HoweverHowever the rising was crushed easily as it was a confused affair with demonstrators often fighting themselves. Troops loyal to the PG scattered the demonstrators.

What this showed• Bolsheviks weren't the dominant revolutionary party, and in no position to take over• PG still had strength to be able to put down armed insurrection

Two days after Kerensky became prime minister, he arrested Bolsheviks (Trotsky and Kamenev) and closed Pravda.

Land shortage was a problem. It was a chief concern of the peasants unrest since the Emancipation of the serfs in 1861. The February revolution had led peasants to believe they would benefit from a major land redistribution. This wasn't the case.

Kerensky

Kerensky offensive

This was a major offensive in June. Low

morale which was made worse by Bolsheviks

agitators meant it was a massive failure. Whole regiments mutinied or

deserted.

Kornilov called for the PG to stop offensive

and focus on crushing the “Political

Subversives” at home. This appeal was taken

up by PG and Lvov stood down. Kerensky became prime minster

with Kornilov Commander-In- Chief

The Land Question

Governments SideDid not redistribute land, this led to peasants seizing property of local landlords, this happened throughout 1917. can be called a National peasants revolt.

Majority of PG’s members came from landowning classes, so they didn't want to threaten their own position.

Bolshevik AdaptabilityAs they were a party for the workers they didn't have a land policy.

However Lenin adjusted. He knew it was impossible to ignore the problem that angered 4/5 of the population. Lenin asserted that the peasants were acting as a revolutionary force. Thus allowing them to be classed as part of the proletarian.

Lenin then stole SR’s land policy and all this caused a swing for the Bolsheviks in the countryside.

The Kornilov Affair

Kornilov the commander in chief, believed before Russia could defeat Germany it had to destroy the socialist enemies within. He said “Its time to hang the German supporters and spies, with Lenin at their head, and to disperse the Soviet”

DisorderLarge number of refugees flooded

into Petrograd spreading disorder. Kornilov feared that

Russia was on the edge of anarchy. He told Kerensky that he would bring his

loyal troops to Petrograd to save the PG. (perform

Coup)

ResponseKerensky publicly

condemned Kornilov and ordered him to

surrender his post, he placed Petrograd under

Marital law for its protection.

Kerensky called on loyal citizens to take up arms

and defend the city. Weapons were given to anyone who was willing

to fight.

Bolsheviks•Were given weapons by the very government they were trying to overthrow.• Many released from prison• Gained popularity as seen as defenders of the city• showed PG weakness to Coup

Kornilov stopped by Railway workers on 1st September

October Revolution (1): Soviet role

Bolshevik Majority By middle of September

the Bolsheviks had a majority in both the

Moscow and Petrograd Soviet. However this

was only because attendance had

dropped massively meaning it was easier

for Bolsheviks to influence Soviet.

TrotskyElected chairman of the Petrograd

Soviet in Sept.

On 9th October the Soviet set up the Military Revolution Committee (MRC) in order to protect the city

against another Kornilov.

Trotsky was on the Troika meaning he had control of the only effective

fighting force in Petrograd.

“All power to the Soviets”. Lenin said this in the April theses because he saw the Soviets as power base that could give his small party the power in which to take over.

October Revolution (2): Lenin

Urgency“History will not forgive us if we do not assume power”Lenin wanted to overthrow the PG when it was at it weakest point, he was concerned about two events that were taking place in the Autumn.

• the meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviet in late October• the election of the Constituent Assembly in November

The “Pre Parliament”Kerensky created this as body to fill in before the Constituent assembly, was a body of a variety of parties to advise the government. Lenin instructed his Bolsheviks to condemn the Pre- Parliament then walk out.

ReturnLenin returned to Petrograd from Finland on the 7th October and spent the next two weeks convincing all the Bolsheviks that the time was right for revolution.

October Revolution (3): Course of events

LeakedKamenev and Zinoviev (both on the central committee) wrote in an article that they felt it would a mistake to overthrow the PG at present circumstances.

Kerensky acted first and ordered an attack on the Bolsheviks, on 23rd October Pravda was shut down. Attempts were made to round up Bolsheviks by PG troops.

In response Lenin ordered Coup to begin and Trotsky directed Red Guards and MRC to seize key locations over Petrograd (bridges, telegraph offices)

FightingIn the three days (25th-27th) that it took for Bolsheviks to take control only 6 men died, all Red Guards. The PG had hardly any military force, the ones it did have were not willing to fight a futile struggle so surrendered.

October Revolution (4): Power

The Bolsheviks did not seize power; it fell into their hands.

On the 27th of October Lenin said “from being on the run to supreme power makes one dizzy”

The next day at the All-Russian Congress of Soviets it was announced that the Soviets had seized power. A list of 14 names were read out of the new government, all were Bolsheviks or left SR’s. Mensheviks and others walked out saying it was not the Soviets who had taken power, but a Bolsheviks military Coup. They were right...

Strength of Bolsheviks• MRC; Trotsky said their control of this gave them “Three Quarters” of their victory. • Ruthless and hugely dedicated to the revolution. • Absence of challenge from the other parties • Lenin’s leadership• Trotsky's organisation skills

Weakness of PG• Wasn't elected therefore lacked mandate to rule, would only be judge on its dealing with Russia's problems• Authority limited by “Dual Authority” with soviets• No military support in October as seen as not worth struggling to save• Feared Tsarists (right) more than Socialists (left) • Strain of war• No answer to the land question• Lack of popular support

October revolution: Weakness Vs. Strength The Bolsheviks in Power, 1917-20

1917 Nov Bolsheviks issues the Decrees on Land and Workers control

December Cheka created

1918 Jan Bolsheviks forcibly dissolve the Constituent AssemblyRed Army Established

March Treaty of Brest-Livosk

June Decree on Nationalisation

July Forced grain requisitions beginRomanovs killed

September Red terror officially introduced

1918-20 Civil War

1918-21 War Communism

1919 march Comintern established (aiming for world revolution) Bolsheviks renamed the communist party

1920 April Red Army driven from Poland

The Bolsheviks in power

Problems confronting them• Bolsheviks controlled only Petrograd and Moscow• Low industrial production• High Inflation• Large food shortages• The War

Measures to take problems Economic• State Capitalism – a compromise measure to achieve the transition to a socialist economy • Decree on land – abolished private property and recognised peasant takeovers • Decree on Workers control –• Vesenkha – body to oversee economic development

Political• Cheka – secret police to crush counter – revolution and impose Red rule.

Dissolution of the Constituent AssemblyTruly democratic elections that took place in November 1917.

Results go badly for Bolsheviks (24% of the votes)

January 1918: After one day Bolsheviks forcibly disperse the Assembly

Lenin's Reasons• Assembly would be a brake of Bolsheviks power

• Elections condemned as corrupt bourgeois manipulation• The soviet government already expressed the will of the people (apparently)

Reaction to dissolution• Criticised by some Bolsheviks

(Maxim Gorky said “Peoples Commissars have ordered the shooting of this democracy”)

• Widely condemned by international people

The Treaty of Brest-Litvosk 1918

Views on a treaty

Lenin took a realistic stance• Russia could not win, so best to make peace and fight another day(Lenin believed that after the war the capitalists would fight among themselves)

• Idea that if Germany won on both fronts Russia would be no worse off, but if it lost Russia would just get the land back anyways. (However this not the case, Poland independence)

Trotsky took a compromise position:• “Neither piece, nor war”• Russia could not win; but delay peace settlement as long as possible to encourage mutiny in Germany. • Used deliberately disruptive tactics at talks (yawned when Germans speaking, talked to fellow

colleges, random speeches about Revolution)

The Treaty• Lost third of its European lands• With 45 million people in them• To pay 3 Billion roubles in reparations

Consequence• Conflict between Lenin and SR’s• However Germanys defeat in Nov 1918 made treaty pointless as Russia got original land back.

Important to remember Lenin and Trotsky were International Revolutionaries. This meant they were willing to sacrifice national interest for the cause of world revolution of the workers. This can help explain why Bolsheviks were willing to sign a devastating peace treaty. Treaty a small account when set against the great sweep of world revolution.

Reasons for warReds: Needed military victory to consolidate grip on power. Whites: War was the only way to challenge Bolshevik absolutism Greens: Fighting for national independence

The Civil War 1918-20

Red Strengths• Area they held had..- Administrate centres of Russia (Moscow & Petrograd)- Most of the rail network, this meant they could keep troops supplied and on the move. - Industrial centres: this gave them access to munitions and resources the whites didn't have.

• Red army and Trotsky leadership• Reds could be seen as champions of Russian people due to allied intervention. • Red Terror (Cheka & Red Army)

• High Morale, confident in final victory

White Weaknesses• Various white armies fought separately and with different aims, very rarely worked together to form a united opposition to reds. • Too reliant on supplies from abroad, which didn't arrive in right quantities, place or time.• lacked Leadership of Trotsky like figure. • Political differences often caused conflicts.

Bolsheviks had the peasent support at start of conflict; however brutality when dealing with peasants matched white brutality. Only reason people leaned towards reds is that Whites could just offer return to pre- revolutionary past. The Land question meant peasant support was very low for the whites.

Effects of Civil War on Bolsheviks

ToughnessThe Bolsheviks had taken power during war, they now had to set up a government during war. Of all the members of the Communist party (Bolsheviks) in 1927, a third had joined in the years 1917-20 and had fought in the Civil War. This created a tradition of military obedience and loyalty. Bolsheviks were tough men.

Authoritarianism Because of the large military aspect of early Bolsheviks government it would of been impossible to of survived without resorting to authoritarian measures.

CentralisationAs war required speedy day-to-day decisions to be made their was a move away from the Central Committee, that took to long, towards the Politburo and Orgburo. These two sub committees set up in 1919 could make decisions quicker.

Why the Interventions?• Resentment at Russia withdrawal from war• Fear of Bolshevikism • Anger at wiping of foreign debt• To support the whites

Who came and where?Americans = Archangel & Siberia

France = OdessaJapanese = Vladivostok

Why the interventions fail?• Lack of Co-ordination and liaison• Tired after WW1• Very limited objectives• Not a concerted effort to bring down the Bolsheviks

Foreign Interventions 1918-20

ConsequencesAfter failure of Invasion into

Poland and revolutions in Germany and Hungary Lenin concluded the world was not

yet rip for revolution. He therefore modified his foreign policies to avoid conflict with

other nations.

Background of Hunger. Transport issues of WW1 continued, plus

Russia lost Ukraine in Brest-Livosk. Russia's “wheat Basket”!

Lenin's Revolution 1917-24

1918-20 Red Terror established

1918 January

Red Army establishedDecree on separation of the church and state

1918 June Decree on nationalisation

1918 July Murder of Romanovs

1921March

The Kronstadt Rising NEP introducedDegree on Factionalism

1922-23 Lenin suffers strokes

1923 The Scissors Crisis

1924 January

Death of Vladimir Lenin

The Red Terror!This was the repression that accompanied Bolshevik control between 1918-21. the two main

instruments of this were the Cheka and Red Army. Both were critical during the civil war.

Lenin Trotsky

The ChekaSecret police force that answered only to Lenin, had unlimited powers of• Arrest• Detention• TortureIts role was “Exterminating enemies of the working class”

• Ended Trade unions• Brought workers under military discipline

Red ArmyTurned the old Rubbish Red Army into a 3 million strong fighting force in 2 years. • reinstated old fashioned army, made it very strict. • Conscripted anyone, “everyone to the front”. People unloyal to reds made to dig trenches and move guns etc.

• Red idealism boasted morale

A response to extreme conditions? Or?

An expression of Lenin'sauthoritarianism?

WHY?

War Communism 1918-21Summer of 1918, restrictive economic measure to replace “state capitalism” and

to meet the needs of the Civil War.

Effects: IndustryDecree of Nationalisation 1918:Lenin wanted a policy of Centralisation and now he had the Cheka and Red Army to enforce it. The Decree was passed and in two years practically all industry was brought under government control.

Result: this do not raise production because:• Deprived of manpower due to conscription and people moving to find food (Population of Petrograd and Moscow halved from 1918 to 1921.• Hyperinflation caused by quantitative easing. • Military priority

Effect: AgriculturePeasants saw no point in producing more food until the government was willing to pay a fair price for it. Although government said these Kulaks (rich, exploiting peasants) were hoarding food, this was untrue.

Grain Requisitioning was brought it to repress the peasants and gain food. Cheka squads were sent into the countryside and take grain by force. Lenin ordered Kulaks to be “mercilessly suppressed”

Result: Peasants produced even less food as they knew any surplus would just be taken from them. Famine followed in 1921 killing 5 million people.

Effects: ChurchLenin welcomed the famine as it gave him the opportunity to destroy church. Ordered shooting of priests saying “the more, the better”.

Support?Many believed it represented true revolutionary communism as it• Centralised industry• Ended private ownership• squeezed peasants

EndingFamine, failure of economy and Anti-Bolshevik risings in 1920-21 (Kronstadt) made Lenin think alternative was needed.

The Kronstadt Rising, March 1921Origin: Problems of Cheka terror, Grain requisitioning and Commissars spying on workers led to “workers opposition” groups led to strikes in Petrograd. These strikes travelled to Kronstadt where they joined with sailors and dockyard workers to demonstrate for greater freedoms.

Why the fuss?: This concerned the Bolsheviks because the people who had drafted the plans had been Bolshevik supporters in 1917. called the “heroes of the Revolution” had now turned on the government.

Crushed: Trotsky ordered the Red Army to crush the demonstrators. 60000 troops sent and after violent fighting crushed the rising.

NEP: Lenin later described this as a “lit up reality like a flashing light” he wanted to avoid the scandal and embarrassment of another type of rising so moved to another economic policy, in order to deal with a famine and lessen the opposition to Bolshevikism.

People who are supportive of the Marxist principles of which Communism was based but who turned away from it because of its brutal authoritarianism are said to have

experienced their “Kronstadt moment”

Economically war communism had failed, so NEP brought in to meet the food shortage. Lenin judged that if the peasants could not be forced, they had to be pursued.

Features:• Central economic control relaxed• Grain requisitioning stopped; replaced with Tax in kind• peasants allowed to keep their surplus and sell it for profit• public markets restoredLenin admitted that this showed the Bolsheviks couldn't create an economy along purely ideological lines. This NEP marked a retreat into a mixed economy. Although he argued that the government still controlled the “commanding heights of the economy”

Bolsheviks objections to NEP• Trotsky described the NEP as “the first sign of the degeneration of Bolshevism” as he believed that War Communism was the proper revolutionary policy. • “Nepman” created. People who would get rich because of the NEP. Traders and rich peasants

Lenin was so worried about arguments about NEP he introduced a “one party unity” with a ban of

Factionalism (groups within the party with a particular complaint) This made challenging the NEP hard as you would technically be challenging the party itself.

The New Economic policy (NEP): March 1921 The New Economic policy (NEP): March 1921

SuccessProduction figures showed the policy worked. • Value of factory output doubled• average wage of worker doubled• Electricity production tripled• Grain production: 37% increase

Bukharin's RoleThe outstanding economist enthusiastic his opposition to the NEP and became its biggest supporter. He said “Enrich yourselves under the NEP” he believed as peasants could sell grain they'd get income, which could be spent on manufactured goods, stimulating industry.

ProblemsAgriculture recovered and led to a surplus of food, and a rise in income of peasants. Surplus meant price of food dropped. Industry hadn't recovered as fast so more income meant prices of manufactured goods rose as demand was larger and goods scarce.Danger was that the peasants would lose the incentive to produce extra food as they would have to sell it for a low price and not be able to buy expensive goods.

Lenin's role as Revolutionary

Heir to Russian tradition?Ways Lenin was like the Tsar• No time for democracy• Authoritarianism (repressive government)• Secret Police (Okranna & Cheka) 1917 revolution did not mark a break from the past, but rather a replacement of one form of state Authoritarianism with another.

Lenin's adaptability • Modified Marist theory to fit circumstance• Combined Marxist revolutionary stages. “Telescoped revolution” Compressing of the last two stages of revolution

Soviet society under LeninTrotsky claimed that the aim of the communist state was to create Homo sovieticus. This mock term was invented to describe the new “soviet man”

To achieve this culture was brought under state control. The Proletkult (proletarian culture) was used to extend Bolshevik control

Culture had to serve the state, if it didn't it was unacceptable, no place for free expression. Lenin said “the purpose of art and literature is to serve the people”

By 1922 a range of Proletkult organisations set up:• Writers circles• amateur dramatic groups• art studios• poetry workshops• musical appreciation societies

Position Date Significance

Peoples commissar for nationalities

1917 Little...

Liaison officer between politburo and Orgburo

1919 Allowed him to monitor both the parties policies and personnel

Head of the workers and peasants inspectorate

1919 Allowed him to oversee the work of all government departments

General secretary of the communist party

1922 Enabled him to build up personal files on all members of the party.

Overall: These various positions allowed Stalin the power of Patronage. This means he could appoint people to key positions in the party, in return for their support.

Good Bad

Lenin impressed by• Stalin's organising ability• Insensitivity to suffering• willingness to obey ordersLenin once called him “that wonderful Georgian”

• Stalin's rudeness with Georgians after Civil war caused Lenin to get involved to improve relations.• Over a discussion with Lenin's wife over the Georgian questions Stalin got angry and called her a “whore”. He Subjected her to a “a storm of the coarsest abuse”

Lenin's TestamentThe very day Lenin learned of Stalin's words to his wife Lenin wrote his testament• He said “Comrade Stalin, since becoming general secretary in 1922, has concentrated enormous power in his hands; am I am not sure he always knows how to exercise that power with sufficient caution”• he always said Stalin was to rude for his role and urged “To think of ways of removing Stalin from that position”

However Lenin was too ill to get involved politically. Lenin's testament was not seen by the mass party however.

Stalin and Lenin’s relationship

The Lenin enrolmentChanges in the structure of the party helped. Between 1923 and 1925 the party set out to increase the number of proletarians in it. This was known as the “Lenin Enrolment”. However the new members were uneducated and politically unsophisticated. They were loyal to the person who had brought them into the CPSU as this allowed them perks. The people who did this worked under Stalin. This therefore provided Stalin with a reliable body of votes all around the party and government.

The Attack on FactionalismThis was introduced by Lenin to stop opposition to the NEP. What it effectively did was frustrate any serious attempt to criticise party decisions or policies. The challenge of factionalism provided Stalin with a weapon for resisting challengers to the authority he had begun to create.

Straight after Lenin's death, the Politburo whose members were Stalin, Trotsky, Rykov, Tomsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev publicly said they would lead as a collective. However they all wanted to become leader.

Stalin: At Lenin's funeral Stalin gained and advance as he made a speech. The sight of Stalin as leading mourner suggested a continuity between Lenin and him.

Trotsky: Meanwhile Trotsky ,who had first been offered to make a speech in which he declined, was on holiday. He hadn't even attended the funeral. Hardly giving of the image of a dedicated Leninist. Trotsky predicted Stalin would be the “dictator of the USSR” but did little to stop it.

Attitudes towards Trotsky

People feared Trotsky as the main threat so Kamenev and Zinoviev and Stalin formed a triumvirate within the Politburo. The aim of this was to isolate Trotsky by exploiting his unpopularity with larger sections of the party.

Other factors that helped Stalin Lenin's Funeral

Stalin's Positions from 1917

Trotsky's attacks 1924-27

Attack Info Result

Bureaucratisation Trotsky condemned the growth of bureaucracy within the party and called for a return to “Party democracy”.

Attack misjudged. In trying to expose the growing bureaucracy within the party Trotsky had overlooked that the party had been bureaucratic since 1917. Party members gained perks form the party being bureaucratic, so member didn't want to change it.

Kamenev and Zinoviev

Political attack Towards Kamenev and Zinoviev as they were “October deserters”

They replied stating Trotsky'sMenshevik past and his divergence from Leninism. He lost support.

Fighting over policyPolicy Trotsky's actions. Result

NEP Had openly challenged the NEP at its introduction as it marked a retreat from Communism. This was again clear in 1923 when he led a party members to criticise the Gosplan for putting the interests of Nepman above those of the revolution.

Stalin used Trotsky's attitude towards the NEP to undermine him. Trotsky went against Lenin, so then could be seen as anti-Marxist.

Industrialisation

Everyone agreed that because Russia had little capital and couldn't lend after 1917 that other only way of raising it was to produce surplus grain to sell. So peasants must produce more grain. Left (Trotsky) believed they should be forced into producing more, right thought they should be persuaded.

Created disagreementand effectively split the party between right and left.

Permanent revolution VS. Socialism in one country

Trotsky: Permanent revolution Stalin: Socialism in one country

His key ideas• Revolution was not just a single event but a continuous process in which risings took place from country to country. • events of 1917 were just the first steps of a worldwide revolution of the proletariat• Individual nations did not matter, the interest of the international working class were paramount.

Trotsky believed that USSR could not survive in a hostile world. He thought Russia would be “incapable of holdings her own against conservative Europe”. The only way to guarantee survival was to “export revolution”.

Stalin wanted to build USSR into a modern state capable of defending itself, to consolidate Lenin's revolution. His key ideas• To overcome its present agricultural and industrial problems by its own unaided efforts. • to go on and build a modern state. The equal of any state in the world• to make the survival of the USSR an absolute priority, even if this meant suspending efforts to create world revolution.

Stalin used Trotsky's view against him. He portrayed Trotsky as an enemy of the USSR. Thought-out 1920s was fear of invasion from capitalists, this only damaged Trotsky's ideas further.

Defeat of Trotsky and the Left

Local party bosses, Kamenev and Zinoviev, used their influence to create a pro-Stalin, anti-Trotsky, CPSU Congress in 1925 (this is over “October deserters” attack by Trotsky)

Congress votes against Trotsky – he is dismissed as Commissar of War

Stalin then turns on Kamenev and Zinoviev who form “united opposition”

Polices of United opposition on NEP and industrialisation match Trotsky's.So Kamenevite- Zinoveivite- Trotskyite bloc formed

Stalin uses the Right Communists to deliver the vote in the 1926 Congress that results in• The left united opposition being defeated

• Kamenev and Zinoviev dismissed as soviet chairmen• Trotsky expelled from both Politburo and Central Committee

1927 Congress expels Trotsky from the party1929 he is exiled from the Soviet Union

Trotsky Weakness• Felt inhibited by his Jewishness. Knew about Russia anti- Semitism. Example of this is when in 1917 Lenin offered him the post of Deputy chairman of the soviet government he rejected. Saying “it would..””give enemies grounds for claiming that the country was ruled by a Jew”.• Used to be a Menshevik, this made many older Bolsheviks not trust him.• New “Lenin enrolment” members were not impressed by his cultured attitude and intelligent idea, Stalin was more down to earth and so gained support. • Failed to build a power base so appeared an outsider

Defeat of Trotsky and the Left

Local party bosses, Kamenev and Zinoviev, used their influence to create a pro-Stalin, anti-Trotsky, CPSU Congress in 1925 (this is over “October deserters” attack by Trotsky)

Congress votes against Trotsky – he is dismissed as Commissar of War

Stalin then turns on Kamenev and Zinoviev who form “united opposition”

Polices of United opposition on NEP and industrialisation match Trotsky's.So Kamenevite- Zinoveivite- Trotskyite bloc formed

Stalin uses the Right Communists to deliver the vote in the 1926 Congress that results in• The left united opposition being defeated

• Kamenev and Zinoviev dismissed as soviet chairmen• Trotsky expelled from both Politburo and Central Committee

1927 Congress expels Trotsky from the party1929 he is exiled from the Soviet Union

Defeat of Bukharin and the Right

Leading Figures of the RightBukharin, Tomsky, Uglanov

Issued raised by the RightWhen end the NEP?

How were the peasants to be treated?What was to be the pace of industrialisation?

Weakness of the RightLacked appealing ideas: Could be seen as unrevolutionary

Poorly organisedLeaders unable to rally real support

By 1929 Stalin had triumphed over the Left and Right!He now held complete power.

he was the Vozhd!(Supreme leader, like a Fuhrer)

Stalin, and the economy.

1926 The critical resolution by the party congress on the future of the soviet economy

1928 Collectivisation beginsStart of the First Five-Year Plan (FYP)

1933 Start of the Second FYP

1938 Start of the Third FYP

1941 Operation Barbarossa