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The outdoor leisure behaviour ofMoroccan public sector workersCatherine Bachledaa, Ahlam Fakhara, Salma Slimanib & WafaElgaraha
a School of Business Administration, Al Akhawayn University,Ifrane 53000, Moroccob Department of General and Commercial Affairs, Rabat Zoo,Rabat, MoroccoPublished online: 30 Jun 2014.
To cite this article: Catherine Bachleda, Ahlam Fakhar, Salma Slimani & Wafa Elgarah (2014) Theoutdoor leisure behaviour of Moroccan public sector workers, Leisure/Loisir, 38:1, 53-72, DOI:10.1080/14927713.2014.934030
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14927713.2014.934030
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The outdoor leisure behaviour of Moroccan public sector workers
Catherine Bachledaa*, Ahlam Fakhara, Salma Slimanib and Wafa Elgaraha
aSchool of Business Administration, Al Akhawayn University, Ifrane 53000, Morocco; bDepartmentof General and Commercial Affairs, Rabat Zoo, Rabat, Morocco
Do demographic variables directly impact attitude and subjective norm? This studysought to address this previously unanswered question by exploring whether income,education and gender influence attitude and subjective norm within the context of fiveleisure behaviours in Morocco. Employing an online survey method and structuralequation modelling, results from a sample of 187 Moroccan public sector workerssuggest that these demographic characteristics have no attitudinal or normative influ-ence on participation in outdoor jogging, walking, biking, swimming and visitingnatural parks. This finding appears to contradict the theory of reasoned action’s(TRA) early model assumptions. However, results do lend further support to theTRA’s sufficiency assumption and provide information about outdoor leisure behaviourin a developing country.
Keywords: TRA; leisure; gender; education; income
Les caractéristiques démographiques ont-elles un effet sur l’attitude et les normessubjectives? Cette étude a abordé une question jusque-là demeurée sans réponseen examinant si le revenu, l’éducation et le genre ont une influence sur l’attitudeet les normes subjectives, dans le contexte de cinq activités de plein air au Maroc.L’étude a fait appel à une méthode de sondage en ligne et à une modélisation paréquation structurelle. Les résultats, tirés d’un échantillon de 187 travailleurs dusecteur public marocain, suggèrent que ces caractéristiques démographiques n’ontaucune influence, toujours en lien avec l’attitude et les normes subjectives, sur laparticipation aux activités de plein air que sont le jogging, la marche, larandonnée à bicyclette, la nage et la visite de parcs naturels. Ce résultat semblecontredire les suppositions du premier modèle de la théorie de l’action raisonnée(TAR). Toutefois, les résultats soutiennent l’hypothèse de suffisance de la TAR etprocurent de l’information sur la pratique d’activités de plein air dans un pays endéveloppement.
Mots-clés: TRA; loisir; sexe; éducation; revenus
Introduction
The theory of reasoned action (TRA) and its variants such as the theory of plannedbehaviour (Ajzen, 1985) have been used to predict and understand behaviour for severaldecades. Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) argued that the TRA is applicable to most behaviourunder volitional control, a proposition confirmed by a large volume of social and beha-vioural science research (e.g. Albarracín, Johnson, Fishbein, & Muellerleile, 2001;Fitzmaurice, 2005; Randall & Wolff, 1994; Ryu & Jang, 2006; Sheppard, Hartwick, &Warshaw, 1988; Spitzmulle & Stanton, 2010), including recreation and leisure research
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Leisure/Loisir, 2014Vol. 38, No. 1, 53–72, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14927713.2014.934030
© 2014 Canadian Association for Leisure Studies / Association canadienne d’études en loisir
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(e.g. Ajzen & Driver, 1991; Chatzisarantis, Hagger, & Smith, 2007; Hrubes, Ajzen, &Daigle, 2001; Rollins, Harding, & Mann, 2001). The TRA posits that an individual’sstated intention to engage in a given behaviour is the main predictor of that behaviour andthat behavioural intentions are determined by the two independent factors attitude andsubjective norm (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Moreover, the TRA assumes that validmeasures of attitude and subjective norm should account for all or most of the variancein behavioural intentions, a premise known as the “sufficiency assumption” (Bettman,1986, p. 286). The TRA acknowledges that other factors such as demographic character-istics may potentially influence behaviour. However, if such factors do influence beha-viour, they are thought to do so only indirectly through attitude and subjective normsrather than directly via intention (Ajzen & Albarracin, 2007; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980).While numerous studies have incorporated demographic variables in the TRA, few studieshave explored whether such characteristics have a direct effect on attitude and subjectivenorm (Ajzen & Albarracin, 2007). In response to a call for research to address thisliterature gap (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010), this study explored, using structural equationmodelling (SEM), whether the demographic variables of gender, education level andincome impact the outdoor leisure behaviours of public sector Moroccans through theirinfluence on attitude and subjective norm.
SEM was chosen for analysis as it can provide a more robust exploration of the TRAand its assumptions (Bleakley & Hennessy, 2012; Morrison et al., 2002; Sideridis,Kaissidis, & Padeliadu, 1998). Indeed, measurement error may produce artificial resultsif methods other than SEM are used during analysis of the TRA (Langdridge, Sheeran, &Connolly, 2007). The Moroccan public sector was chosen because, in contrast to manydeveloped countries, most salaried middle class Moroccans are employed by the publicsector (Cohen, 2004; Shediac, Bohsali, & Samman, 2012). Moreover, it is one of the fewMoroccan sectors that have a current official contact book containing the address, phonenumber and email of public sector employees. Morocco was chosen as the site of thisstudy because much of the existing research on leisure behaviour has been conducted indeveloped countries (exceptions include Arab-Moghaddam, Henderson, &Sheikholeslami, 2007; Demir, 2005). Yet, because developing countries often lackknow-how in managing and financing leisure and tourist projects, they can provideopportunities for multinational leisure firms to expand into newer markets (Rodriguez,2002). However, development of effective entry strategies into such countries requires anunderstanding of the predictors of leisure behaviour. Similarly, as interest in leisureactivities increases within developing countries, domestic policy makers require an under-standing of leisure behaviour predictors to guide outdoor leisure facility planning.Morocco, a North African country, enjoys sunshine for most days of the year, making itan ideal place for outdoor leisure activities. With a rising middle class, comprised mainlyof professionals, interest in leisure activities is steadily growing (Mubila, Aissa, &Lufumpa, 2011). Currently, leisure accounts for 11% of Moroccan household expenditurescompared to 4% worldwide (Moroccan High Commission for Planning, 2010; WorldTravel & Tourism Council, 2012). By 2021, leisure spending in Morocco is expected toincrease by a further 6% compared to 4% worldwide (Moroccan High Commission forPlanning, 2010; World Travel & Tourism Council, 2012). In spite of these figures, there isa dearth of literature on the leisure behaviour of Moroccans.
The next section provides an overview of literature relevant to the potential relation-ship between the TRA variables of attitude and subjective norm and the three demographic
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characteristics of gender, education level and income, within the context of leisurebehaviour. Because the TRA is described in detail elsewhere (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980),only brief summaries of its various components are presented in this article. Relevantempirical findings are considered as each aspect of the theory is discussed.
Literature review
The TRA relationships
As indicated above, the TRA argues that stated intention to engage in a given behaviour isthe main predictor of that behaviour and that behavioural intentions are determined by thetwo independent factors attitude and subjective norm (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Figure 1illustrates these relationships. Attitude refers to the extent to which an individual has afavourable or unfavourable evaluation of a given behaviour (e.g. outdoor walking is good/bad). The TRA posits that the more favourable an individual’s attitude toward a givenbehaviour, the stronger their intention to perform the behaviour (Ajzen & Driver, 1992;Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Numerous studies support the attitude–intention relationship.Kouthouris and Spontis (2005), for instance, found attitude was a significant predictor ofintention to participate in leisure activities such as archery and canoeing. Moreover,Hrubes et al. (2001), in a study of hunting participation, found attitudes were the mostsignificant predictor of hunting intention. Thus, it was hypothesized that:
H1: Attitude would be significantly related to intention to participate in outdoor leisureactivities.
Subjective norm reflects the perceived social pressure to perform or not perform a givenbehaviour based upon the approval/disapproval of important referents (e.g. would myfriends approve of me bike riding). The more favourable subjective norm is toward a givenbehaviour, the stronger an individual’s intention to perform the behaviour (Ajzen, 1991;Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). The subjective norm–intention link has been supported by awealth of outdoor leisure studies including Ajzen and Driver’s (1992) study of collegestudent’s intentions to participate in five outdoor leisure activities. Here, subjective normwas found to be a significant predictor of intention to participate in visiting the beach,jogging, mountain climbing, boating and biking. Thus, it was hypothesized that:
Figure 1. The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) relationships.
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H2: Subjective norm would be significantly related to intention to participate in outdoorleisure activities.
Intention is defined by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) as the function of both attitudes andsubjective norm toward a given behaviour and has been found to predict actual behaviour(see, e.g. meta-analytic reviews by Hagger, Martin, Chatzisarantis, and Biddle (2002) andRandall and Wolff (1994)). Kouthouris and Spontis (2005), for example, in their two-stagestudy of predictors of participation in various outdoor leisure activities confirmed thatintention toward participation was a significant predictor of actual behaviour. Thus, it washypothesized that:
H3: Intention would be significantly related to participation in outdoor leisure activities.
Notwithstanding some critics of the reasoned action approach (for a detailed discussionand review of the validity of such challenges, see Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010; Langdridgeet al., 2007), the TRA’s assumption that the model includes all of the proximal predictorsof behaviour has found support in hundreds of empirical studies across a broad array ofbehaviours (see reviews by Armitage and Conner (2001), Fishbein and Ajzen (2010),Sheeran (2002), and Sheppard et al. (1988)).
The TRA and demographic variables
Regardless of the behaviour under review, most reasoned action studies have collecteddemographic information about the research population with gender, income and educa-tion being three of the most common variables (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). Yet, the majorityof TRA studies have used such demographic information either to describe the populationcharacteristics (e.g. Hrubes et al., 2001) or to segment and compare various subgroupswithin the population. For instance, Young and Kent (1985) compared attitude andsubjective norm among males and females with respect to camping intentions. A limitednumber of studies, in contravention of the TRA’s sufficiency assumption, have attemptedto use demographic variables together with attitude and subjective norm as direct pre-dictors for intention (e.g. Armitage, Norman, & Conner, 2002; Sutton, McVey, & Glanz,1999), with inconsistent or weak results.
However, in spite of the number of studies that have incorporated demographicvariables within the TRA framework, it is difficult to find any that has exploredwhether such characteristics have a direct effect on attitude and subjective norm.This is interesting given Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) raised the likely role of suchbackground factors in their early conceptualization of the TRA. Indeed, the authorsstate explicitly that demographics may influence behaviour. However, they also arguethat because the TRA incorporates all of the proximal predictors of behaviour,individual characteristics such as demographics could only occur prior to attitudeand subjective norm beliefs. In other words, while such factors may influenceattitude and subjective norm directly, they would only influence behaviour indirectly.Thus, the present research attempts to address the still unanswered question ofwhether demographic characteristics (gender, education level and income) have adirect effect on attitude and subjective norm within the context of leisure behaviour(see Figure 2).
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Gender, attitude and subjective norm
Research has shown a consistent link between gender and participation in outdoor leisureactivities such as jogging, hiking, mountain climbing, horseback riding, walking, snowskiing (Humphreys & Ruseski, 2007); camping (Young & Kent, 1985); wilderness trips(Young, 1983); and water-based and forest-based activities (Kelly, 1980). While there areexceptions (e.g. the studies of Barnett (2006) and Kaczynski, Potwarka, Smale, and Havitz(2009)), females tend to participate less frequently and select more passive outdoor leisureactivities than males (e.g. Burk, Shinew, & Stodolska, 2011; Harrington & Dawson, 1995;Humphreys & Ruseski, 2007; Jackson & Henderson, 1995; Son, Kerstetter, & Mowen,2008). Such participation differences could be due to differences in attitude toward leisureactivities. For instance, Fontenelle and Zinkhan (1993) argue that males and females haveperceptual and attitudinal differences toward leisure activity. Others have found thatwomen’s nurturing tendencies lead them to prioritize others’ leisure needs before theirown or to feel guilty about enjoying leisure activities (e.g. Brown, Brown, Miller, &Hansen, 2001; Harrington & Dawson, 1995; Henderson & Bialeschki, 1991; Herridge,Shaw, & Mannell, 2003; Heuser, 2005; Kulakac, Buldukoglu, Yilmaz, & Alkan, 2006;Shaw & Henderson, 2005). Moreover, women often view participation in outdoor leisureactivities such as hiking alone or jogging after dark negatively because of fear of crime(Carr, 2000; Shaw, 1994; Shores, Scott, & Floyd, 2007; Virden & Walker, 1999).
Alternatively, such participation differences could be due to variance in the influenceof significant others. Shaw, Caldwell, and Kleiber (1996), for example, observed thatadolescent females participate in some leisure activities simply to please others. Culp(1998) found that family and peer gender role beliefs sanctioned young female’s participa-tion in some outdoor leisure activities. In summary, the above studies suggest that gendermay be a direct predictor of attitude and subjective norms in the context of participation inoutdoor leisure activities. Thus, it was hypothesized that:
H4a: Gender would be significantly related to attitude.H4b: Gender would be significantly related to subjective norm.
Education, attitude, and subjective norm
Education also appears to impact attitude toward participation in outdoor leisure activities.Neulinger and Breit (2009) found individuals who were more highly educated had a
Figure 2. The TRA and demographic variable relationships.
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greater affinity for leisure than those with less education. Similarly, Payne andSchaumleffel (2008) reported a positive relationship between education level and attitudetoward community access to walking trails and parks. Moreover, Lee, Scott, and Floyd(2001) in a study of 3000 Texas residents concluded that individuals who had a collegedegree were 1.5 times more likely than those without a college degree to participate inoutdoor leisure away from home and 1.4 times more likely to participate in outdoor leisureclose to home. In a similar vein, Morin, Moore, and Schmidt (1997) found that 70% ofwilderness visitors held tertiary qualifications. Alexandris and Carroll (1997) also reportedless educated individuals had a more negative attitude toward participation in recreationalsports. Arguably, those more highly educated have a greater appreciation for the healthbenefits associated with being physically active outdoors (Divine & Lepisto, 2005;Humphreys & Ruseski, 2007; Payne & Schaumleffel, 2008). Alternatively, an advancededucation may simply contribute to the development of a positive attitude toward outdoorleisure (Lee et al., 2001).
Education may also impact the normative influence of outdoor leisure behaviour. Onthe one hand, those attending higher education institutions are often socialized intoincreased participation in outdoor leisure activities (Kelly, 1980, 1996). On the otherhand, education, especially in less developed countries, may provide the necessary con-fidence, particularly for women, to ignore some outdoor leisure normative-based sanctions(King & Hill, 1993). In summary, the above studies suggest that education level maydirectly impact the normative influence of and attitude toward participation in outdoorleisure activities. Thus, it was hypothesized that:
H5a: Education level would be significantly related to attitude.H5b: Education level would be significantly related to subjective norm.
Income, attitude and subjective norm
A number of studies have established a link between income, attitude and participationin outdoor leisure activities. Scott and Munson (1994), for example, found individualswith low income in Cleveland, USA, viewed park usage negatively because of fear ofcrime, transportation and cost issues. Howard and Crompton (1984), in a study of publicpark and recreation service users, in three American cities, found that low income wasassociated with lack of interest in and infrequent use of outdoor facilities. Similarly,Jackson and Searle (1985) in a Canadian study reported a link between low income andadults who had no desire to participate in outdoor recreation activities. Finally, Huhtala(2004) found income had a significant effect on attitude toward payment of outdoorleisure services in Finnish national parks, with willingness to pay increasing as incomeincreased.
Normatively, family and friends exert an important influence on the type and level ofleisure activity undertaken (Kelly, 1983; Martin, 2004; Yoesting & Burkhead, 1973).However, the degree to which an individual is susceptible to such normative influencescould be affected by a range of individual and social factors including level of income(Girard, 2010; Schiffman & Kanuk, 2010). Arguably, greater income provides moreopportunity to engage in the lifestyle and leisure activities of one’s own choice.Schwartz (2006), for example, found that higher levels of income contributed to greaterself-direction and lower conformity to the influence of others. Moreover, Snir and Harpaz(2002), in a study on leisure and the meaning of work, found those who reported lessnormative pressure to earn income were more leisure orientated. In summary, the above
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studies suggest that income may be a predictor of attitude and subjective norms within thecontext of undertaking outdoor leisure activities. Therefore, it was hypothesized that:
H6a: Income would be significantly related to attitude.H6b: Income would be significantly related to subjective norm.
Research methodology
Preliminary study
Given the wide range of outdoor leisure activities available and in line with previousstudies (e.g. Ajzen & Driver, 1992), a preliminary study was undertaken to select a limitednumber of leisure activities for the main study. An email describing the purpose of thestudy and containing a unique link to the online survey was sent to 40 people who wererandomly selected from the Moroccan contact book for public sector workers: theTrombino. Two follow-up emails were sent, one after two weeks and one after fourweeks. At this point, those who had still not completed the survey were telephoned toascertain if they had received the emails and to provide a final request for participation.
Respondents were asked to indicate the frequency (on a 7-point scale ranging fromnever to over 20 times) that they had engaged in a series of 12 outdoor leisure activitiesduring the preceding 2 years. An open-ended question provided respondents the opportu-nity to identify other activities not included in the list of 12. A total of 24 completedquestionnaires were obtained. Based on reported frequency of engaging in each activity,the following five behaviours were selected for inclusion in the main study: outdoorjogging, outdoor walking, outdoor biking, outdoor swimming and visiting natural parks.The mean performance frequencies for these activities ranged from twice a year forvisiting natural parks to over 20 times a year for jogging. Thus, the leisure activitiesselected for this study were those activities participated in by public sector Moroccans thatshowed a range of participation.
Main study
Consistent with the method used in the preliminary study, 300 people who were randomlyselected from the Moroccan Trombino were sent an email describing the online study andinviting participation. The three hundred respondents were subsequently sent two remin-der emails, one after two weeks and one after four weeks, and then, where applicable,telephoned as a final reminder. A total of 187 usable questionnaires were obtained fromthe three hundred sampled. The response rate of 62% was considered acceptable for anemail-web-based survey (Dolsen & Machlis, 1991; Sax, Gilmartin, & Bryant, 2003).
Questionnaire development
The questionnaire comprised a total of 25 items covering intention, attitude, subjectivenorm, behaviour and demographic profile. Draft questionnaires were reviewed by anumber of university professors and revised as needed. For respondent convenience, thefinal questionnaire was translated into French before being posted online. While Arabic isthe official national language in Morocco and English is popular in education, interna-tional trade and diplomacy, it is French that is most widely used in government, businessand the media (Central Intelligence Agency, 2012; Sadiqi, 2006).
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In line with the procedure recommended by Brislin (1980), all survey measures werefirst translated from English into French and then independently back-translated intoEnglish by another translator. Discussion between the translators was used to adjust theFrench translation for the few identified differences between the original English versionand the back-translated version. A pilot was then conducted to determine whether thequestionnaire flowed naturally, whether the questions were clear and easy to understandand to establish a completion time. Twenty respondents participated in the online pilot. Anumber of minor modifications to question wording were made as a result of the pilot.Pilot respondents were not included in the main sample.
Measures
To remain consistent with previous research, the major variables in the TRA (attitude,subjective norm and intention) were measured using items adapted from Ajzen andDriver’s (1992) work and consistent with Ajzen’s (2006) questionnaire constructionmanual (see Table 1). Intention was measured using one categorical item. Respondentswere asked to indicate on a 7-point scale whether they planned to engage in each one ofthe five leisure activities in the next 6 months. A 6-month time frame was chosen to beconsistent with previous studies (e.g. Ajzen & Driver, 1992; Okun, Karoly, & Lutz,2002).
Attitude was measured using four items for each of the five outdoor leisure activities.Respondents were asked to rate each activity on a set of 7-point semantic differential scaleitems. The scale contained four adjective pairs – two had an instrumental tone (useful/
Table 1. Summary descriptive statistics for TRA constructs.
TRA Construct
Item Mean SD
Intentiona
I plan to engage in outdoor jogging in the next 6 months 4.17 2.56I plan to engage in outdoor walking in the next 6 months 5.19 1.84I plan to engage in outdoor biking in the next 6 months 2.79 2.09I plan to engage in outdoor swimming in the next 6 months 3.40 1.97I plan to engage in visiting natural parks in the next 6 months 3.10 2.02
Attitudeb
For me, outdoor jogging is 5.02 2.29For me, outdoor walking is 5.98 1.65For me, outdoor swimming is 5.35 1.87For me, outdoor biking is 5.15 1.97For me, visiting natural parks is 4.54 1.99
Subjective normc
Outdoor jogging 3.43 2.63Outdoor walking 5.58 2.21Outdoor biking 4.26 2.59Outdoor swimming 4.86 2.44Visiting natural parks 5.05 2.07
Notes: aMeasured on a 7-point scale from 1 = “not at all” to 7 = “frequently.”bMeasure of attitude on each outdoor leisure activity based on average of four semantic differentials on 7-pointscales: (1) harmful/beneficial, (2) useless/useful, (3) boring/interesting and (4) unpleasant/pleasant.cMeasure of each item based on response to “Most people who are important to me approve/disapprove of myengaging in. . .” using a 7-point scale from 1 = “approve” to 7 = “disapprove.”
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useless and beneficial/harmful) and two had an affective tone (pleasant/unpleasant andboring/interesting).
In line with Ajzen and Driver (1992) work, overall attitude toward a leisure activitywas measured by averaging the four items. Higher scores indicated a more favourableattitude toward each of the outdoor leisure activities: jogging (α = 0.930), swimming(α = 0.892), biking (α = 0.897), outdoor walking (α = 0.897) and visiting outdoor parks(α = 0.894).
Subjective norm was measured using one item for each outdoor leisure activity.Respondents were asked to indicate, on a 7-point Likert scale, whether people whowere important to them would approve/disapprove of them engaging in each of the fiveoutdoor leisure activities. Behaviour was measured by asking respondents to indicate, on a6-point scale, how many times they undertook each of the leisure activities during the6 months prior to the study. The distribution of responses is listed in Table 2.
Analysis
Participants
The 187 survey respondents comprised 64 (34.2%) women and 123 (65.8%) men. Thiswould appear to be fairly representative of the Moroccan civil service with a recent reportindicating that females represent 36% of the public sector workforce (Moroccan Ministryof Economy and Finance, 2012). With respect to respondent age, 2% were aged 18–20 years, 23% were aged 21–30 years, 32% were aged 31–40 years, 35% were aged 41–50 years and 8% were aged 51–60 years. There were no respondents aged more than60 years. These figures, by and large, appear to be representative of employed Moroccans(Moroccan High Commission for Planning, 2010). With respect to educational back-ground, 85% of the sample had either a bachelor (56%) or master (29%) degree, whichwould appear to be representative of the public sector in Morocco with recent figuresshowing 87% of this labour force have a tertiary qualification (Moroccan HighCommission for Planning, 2010). Nearly two-thirds of the sample (65%) indicated thatthey were married, almost one-third indicated they were single (31%) and the remainder ofthe sample indicated they were divorced or widowed (2% each). With respect to monthlyincome, 25% of respondents indicated they earned 5000–10,000 Moroccan dirhams, overone-third of (39%) indicated they earned 10,001–15,000 dirhams, 18% indicated they
Table 2. Participation in outdoor leisure activity undertaken during the past 6 months.
Frequency of Behaviour in past 6 months
Percentage Summary
Outdoor leisureactivity Never
Once ortwice
3 or 4times
5–10times
11–20times
More than 20times Mean SD
Jogging 27.3 15.0 8.6 12.3 8.0 29.9 3.49 2.04Swimming 29.4 16.6 26.2 12.3 8.6 7.0 4.44 1.62Walking 5.9 7.0 16.0 19.8 9.1 42.2 2.19 1.66Biking 53.5 11.8 14.4 9.6 1.1 9.6 2.73 1.55Visiting NaturalParks
25.7 23.5 28.3 14.4 2.7 5.3 2.59 1.38
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earned 15,001–20,000 dirhams with the remainder earning in excess of 20,000 dirhams(11%). On the whole, this would appear to be fairly representative of incomes earned bythe working population in Morocco (Moroccan High Commission for Planning, 2007,2010). In terms of the respondents’ occupation, the Moroccan labour nomenclature wasfollowed to categorize occupation as agent (8%), assistant (5%), executive (36%), head ofservice (23%), head of department (10%), director (7%) and other (11%).
The TRA relationship results
Prior to testing the hypothesized relationships between demographics and the TRA, astructural equation model was developed, using SPSS AMOS 20, for each of the fiveoutdoor leisure activities. The objective was to test how well the observed measuresreflected the basic TRA relationships illustrated in Figure 1.
As all TRA measures were based on Likert-type scales (see Tables 1 and 2), they weretreated as continuous variables (Rhemtulla, Brosseau-Liard, & Savalei, 2012). In prepara-tion for using maximum likelihood estimation, multivariate normality for each of the fiveleisure activities was assessed. Outdoor walking was the only leisure activity that departedfrom the assumption of multivariate normality with a multivariate kurtosis of more than3.0. Therefore, the Bollen–Stine bootstrap p-value was calculated using 2000 bootstrapsamples. The resulting Bollen–Stine bootstrap p-value did not indicate a major improve-ment on the fit, implying that the sample’s departure from multivariate normality did notaffect the overall goodness of fit of the model.
Interestingly, as reported in Table 3, the fit of the sample variance–covariance data tothe specified model varied amongst the five leisure activities (n = 187). On the one hand,as indicated by the chi-square test statistics, the relative chi-square (χ2/df), the incrementalfit index (IFI), the comparative fit index (CFI), the normed fit index (NFI), and the TuckerLewis Index (TLI) results, the structural equation models of outdoor swimming, walkingand biking all had a good fit. Moreover, the Parsimony-Adjusted Measures and the rootmean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were below 0.06 for swimming and bikingalso indicating a good fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999) and at 0.07 for outdoor walking indicatinga decent fit (Steiger, 2007). On the other hand, the models for outdoor jogging and visitingnatural parks were not supported by the observed data.
To ascertain whether the study results had been affected by the relatively small samplesize, MacCallum, Browne, and Sugawara’s (1996) guidelines and Preacher and Coffman’s
Table 3. Summary of overall fit indices for the five outdoor leisure activities.
Outdoor leisure activity
Overall Fit Indices (n = 187)
χ2 χ2/df IFI CFI RMSEA NFI TLI
Swimming 3.267* 1.634 0.984 0.983 0.058 0.959 0.949Walking 2.160* 2.160 0.989 0.988 0.079 0.980 0.931Biking 2.515* 1.258 0.996 0.996 0.037 0.983 0.989Visiting parks 6.214 3.107 0.966 0.965 0.106 0.951 0.896Jogging 22.973 11.487 0.920 0.919 0.237 0.913 0.756
Notes: χ2 = chi-square test; df = degrees of freedom; IFI = Incremental fit index; CFI = Comparative-fit index;RMSEA = Root mean square error of approximation; NFI = Normed fit index; TLI = Tucker Lewis Index.*indicates chi-square statistic is nonsignificant.
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(2006) online software were used to test whether RMSEA was equal to 0.05 against thealternative that RMSEA was 0.08, as recommended by MacCallum and Hong (1997).Results indicated that the outdoor swimming, biking, visiting parks and jogging modelseach had a power of 0.1298 (df = 2, α = 0.05, n = 187 and ε a = 0.05) and the outdoorwalking model had a power of 0.1063 (df = 1, α = 0.05, n = 187 and ε a = 0.00). Asexpected, since the RMSEA as a measure of goodness of fit is extremely sensitive tosample size (Hu & Bentler, 1998), the results suggested that the sample was smaller thanthe minimum size required for adequate power. As an alternative, the Bentler–Bonett non-normed fit index (NNFI) and the TLI, which are two measures of power relativelyunaffected by sample size (Hu & Bentler, 1999), were used. Results for the NNFI, a“sample free” measure (Tanaka, 1987), established that the models for outdoor swimming,walking, biking and visiting parks all had a good fit, and the model for jogging had anacceptable fit. These results were confirmed by the TLI, which found an acceptable fit foroutdoor swimming, walking and biking and a poor fit for visiting parks and jogging (seeTable 3). Both the NNFI and the TLI suggest that the study results were not affected bythe relatively small sample size.
The standardized regression weights and the covariance are listed in Table 4. Resultsfrom estimating the model for outdoor swimming indicated that the effect from attitudeand subjective norm was fully mediated by the intent to swim (β = 0.45, p < 0.05). Whentested for outdoor walking, the structural model revealed that the mediation effect fromintention to behaviour was quite strong and significant (β = 0.420, p < 0.05). A singularfinding for outdoor walking as a leisure activity was a strong, positive and significant pathfrom subjective norm directly to behaviour (β = 0.263, p < 0.05). This finding suggests
Table 4. Standardized regression weights and co-variances.
Outdoor leisure activity Estimate
Outdoor swimming Intention ← Attitude 0.176Intention ← Subjective norm 0.173Behaviour ← Intention 0.445*Attitude ↔ Subjective norm 1.471*
Outdoor walking Intention ← Attitude 0.169*Intention ← Subjective norm 0.111Behaviour ← Intention 0.420*Behaviour ← Subjective norm 0.263*Attitude ↔ Subjective norm 1.434*
Outdoor biking Intention ← Attitude 0.337*Intention ← Subjective norm 0.072Behaviour ← Intention 0.641*Attitude ↔ Subjective norm 1.568*
Visiting natural parks Intention ← Attitude 0.355*Intention ← Subjective norm 0.213*Behaviour ← Intention 0.514*Attitude ↔ Subjective norm 1.267*
Outdoor jogging Intention ← Attitude 0.615*Intention ← Subjective norm −0.087Behaviour ← Intention 0.733*Attitude ↔ Subjective norm 1.706*
Notes: Indicator: Standardized regression weight = ←, Covariance = ↔.*Standardized estimate significantly different from zero at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).
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subjective norm has a direct and positive effect on behaviour. Results from estimating thestructural model for outdoor biking showed a positive, although weak, standardizedregression weight (β = 0.337, p < 0.05) on intention to bike from attitude. Moreover,intention to bike significantly predicted biking behaviour (β = 0.641, p < 0.05). Although apoor overall fit, the structural models for visiting natural parks and outdoor joggingseemed to share the feature of a significant mediating effect from intention to behaviour(β = 0.514, p < 0.05 and β = 0.733, p < 0.05, respectively). On the other hand, for visitingnatural parks, both attitude and subjective norm significantly loaded on intention, whereasfor outdoor jogging, only the path from attitude was significant with a standardizedregression weight of β = 0.615 (p < 0.05). In summary, the overall results supporthypotheses H1 and H3 for the five outdoor leisure activities. However, H2 was onlysignificant for visiting natural parks.
The TRA and demographic variable results
Following testing of the basic TRA relationships for all five types of leisure, analysisfocused on whether demographics predicted attitude and subjective norm toward eachleisure activity (see Figure 2). For completeness, it was also decided to test whetherdemographics predicted intention and behaviour in the sample. In regards to the latter, itwas found that none of the demographic variables was a significant predictor of intention.Moreover, introducing demographics to the model worsened the overall fit for outdoorwalking, biking, swimming and visiting parks. Similar results were obtained when gender,education and income were used as predictors of behaviour; none of these demographicswere significantly linked to behaviour. Moreover, the addition of demographics degradedthe overall goodness of fit of the models for outdoor biking, walking, swimming andvisiting parks. The results for jogging remained the same for the two demographicvariations.
In regards to whether demographics predicted attitude and subjective norm for eachleisure activity, three different alternative models were used. The influence of demo-graphics was tested first on subjective norms, second on attitude and finally on bothvariables at the same time. None of the combinations made for a good model fit, indicatingthat these demographics were irrelevant to the TRA model for the five outdoor leisureactivities. Moreover, none of the demographics was a significant predictor of eithersubjective norms or attitude, except for gender which was found to have a significantrelationship with the attitude to outdoor jogging. Thus, hypotheses H4a, H4b, H5a, H5b,H6a and H6b were not supported by the data.
Discussion
One of the most interesting results from this study was the finding that the demographiccharacteristics of gender, education and income did not directly influence subjective normand attitude in any of the five outdoor leisure activities. In terms of gender, this findingappears to contradict prior studies (e.g. Culp, 1998; Kulakac et al., 2006; Son et al., 2008)that suggest gender matters in respect of leisure activity. Culture may provide oneexplanation for this finding. Unlike previous studies undertaken within a Western, indivi-dualistic cultural context, the present study was undertaken within a collectivist culturalcontext. Individualist societies tend to emphasize individual rights and choices. In con-trast, collectivist cultures tend to emphasize group choices, where the goals of theindividual are subordinate to the goals of the group (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov,
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2010). Morocco is a collectivist society. As a reflection of their collectivist values, mostMoroccans have a strong family orientation (Arends-Tóth & Van De Vijver, 2008;Hofstede et al., 2010) and feel it is important to be with close and extended family atthe weekend and during vacation periods. As such, many leisure activities are experiencedas a family group. Indeed, in Morocco, it is common to see families of all social strataenjoying an outdoor picnic or a walk on evenings and weekends. Thus, it is plausible thatthis family orientation toward leisure activities may reduce gender-specific attitude ornormative influences. Such a supposition might be an avenue for further research.
In terms of education, the results also appear to contradict previous findings thatattitudes and normative influences toward outdoor leisure activities are positively asso-ciated with higher education levels (e.g. Kelly, 1996; Lee et al., 2001; Morin et al., 1997;Payne & Schaumleffel, 2008). The fact that 85% of the population sample in the currentstudy had either a bachelor or master degree may have influenced the results. On the otherhand, the results may simply suggest that most public sector Moroccans take an activeinterest in outdoor leisure activities regardless of education level. The plausibility of thislatter explanation is supported somewhat by the fact that promotion of sporting activity iscompulsory in all Moroccan education institutions not just higher education establish-ments (Moroccan Ministry of Youth and Sport, 2007). Moreover, in general, most Islamiccountries encourage sport and outdoor leisure activities as a means of advancing healthybodies and minds (Martin & Mason, 2004).
The results for income also contradict several other studies that found a link betweenincome, attitude, subjective norm and participation in leisure activities (e.g. Girard, 2010;Huhtala, 2004; Jackson & Searle, 1985; Scott & Munson, 1994). One explanation may bethat outdoor jogging, swimming, walking, biking and visiting natural parks are not incomereliant activities for public sector Moroccans, because many outdoor activities are free andtherefore accessible regardless of income. That said, the travel costs associated withaccessing more remote areas may negate this argument in the case of visiting naturalparks. Alternatively, as with gender, culture may have mediated the findings. Those incollectivist societies tend to take care of group members, particularly family members(Fjneman et al., 1996; Hofstede et al., 2010). In Morocco, the traditional family groupconsists of parents, grandparents, children, siblings, aunts, uncles and cousins all living inclose proximity. Further, it is expected that more affluent family members assist lessaffluent family members with the necessities of life (Njoku, 2006). As such, perhapsindividual income constraints for outdoor leisure activities are buffered by strong familysupport and team effort in collectivist countries like Morocco. This hypothesis might alsobe an avenue for future research.
Finally, a more obvious explanation for the finding that the demographic character-istics of gender, education and income did not directly influence subjective norm andattitude in any of the five outdoor leisure activities may be that the TRA’s sufficiencyassumption holds true for the five leisure behaviours studied in this research. Moreover,the sufficiency argument could also account for any apparent cultural differences impliedin the results. Fishbein and Ajzen (2010) suggest that cultural differences are reflected inthe TRA through the relative weight placed on attitude and normative influences, withsome cultures giving more weight to norms and others to attitudes.
Findings in respect of the basic TRA model and the five leisure activities were alsointeresting. While the models for outdoor swimming, walking and biking were a good fitand in line with previous studies (e.g. Hrubes et al., 2001; Mummery & Wankel, 1999),the finding that the models for jogging and visiting natural parks were not supported bythe observed data contradicts previous studies (e.g. Ajzen & Driver, 1992; Kelly, 1980). In
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relation to visiting natural parks, there are a number of possible reasons for these findings.Participation in an outdoor activity such as visiting natural parks is in part a function of theavailability, accessibility (Jackson & Dunn, 1988; Knetsch, 1969) and awareness of suchoutdoor resources. Mowen, Payne, and Scott (2005), in a study of constraints to parkvisitation in Ohio, America, found 70% of non-users or infrequent users reported theymight use parks more frequently if they had more information about the parks. Moreover,Kaczynski et al. (2009) found in a Canadian study that the number and size of neighbour-hood parks positively impacted participant physical activity, particularly for younger andolder adults and women. The Moroccan government has recently created a number of newnational parks and implemented a program to improve conservation (World Bank, 2008).However, in general, Morocco’s national parks and nature reserves remain underfunded.The total protected area within Morocco is less than 2%, and bordering communities stilluse much of the land for grazing and firewood. Moreover, in spite of increased publicawareness campaigns about parks and nature conservation, visitor facilities remain limited(World Bank, 2008).
The finding that the TRA model for jogging was not supported by the data is puzzling.It is possible that Moroccan government workers simply do not have the time to jog.Jackson (1993) in a study of Canadians found time to be the main constraint to exercise-orientated outdoor activities such as jogging. Alternatively, the finding may be age-related.In the present sample, the majority of respondents were aged over 40 years. A number ofstudies have found that leisure activity may be constrained with increasing age (e.g.Mowen et al., 2005; Scott & Munson, 1994). Finally, there may be a religious element,at least for the female respondents to the study. Morocco has a 99% Sunni Muslimpopulation (Central Intelligence Agency, 2012; Kabasakal & Bodur, 2002). Khanam andCostarelli (2008), for example, explored attitudes toward health and exercise, in firstgeneration Muslim Bangladeshi females living in the United Kingdom. They found thatthese women preferred slow walking to brisk walking or jogging as they felt it was notappropriate for a Muslim woman to be seen moving fast in public. Moreover, Stodolskaand Livengood (2006) found clothing and segregation requirements limited many Muslimwomen’s participation in leisure activities such as jogging.
Limitations
As indicated by the discussion above, results suggest that the TRA model can advanceunderstanding of the factors that determine participation in outdoor leisure activities suchas biking, walking and swimming. However, this predictive ability is not enhanced by theinclusion of demographic factors. That said, there are a number of limitations to thisresearch. The main limitation is the study’s reliance on only five outdoor leisure activitiesand respondents who were relatively well-educated and employed. It would be desirablefor future research to apply the model to other recreational activities and to includerespondents from the broader Moroccan community.
Another potential limitation is reflected by the fact that the measures of subjectivenorm, intention, and behaviour consisted of single items. The use of multiple-item itemswould have allowed scale reliability to be assessed. That said, traditionally subjectivenorm, intention and behaviour have been measured with single items (see review by Ajzenand Fishbein (1980)). Moreover, single item measures of intention and subjective normhave been shown to be reliable and valid (e.g. Trafimow & Finlay, 1996). A furtherlimitation relates to the possible bias inherent in the use of self-reports of behaviour. Whileself-reports are considered reasonably accurate when information is not of a sensitive
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nature (Ajzen, 1988), future studies that focus on more direct evidence of participation inoutdoor leisure activities might be useful.
Finally, in this study, an overall measure of attitude was used that combined theaffective and instrumental components of attitude. Traditionally, this has been the recom-mended approach (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). However, in somestudies, researchers have explored the relative contribution of the affective and instru-mental components of attitude, in an effort to produce more insightful results. Forexample, Lowe, Eves, and Carroll (2002) in a longitudinal study of exercise behaviourfound that the affective component of attitude was a more powerful predictor of intentionthan the instrumental component. As such, this may be an opportunity for a futureextension of the present study.
Implications and conclusion
In contrast to previous studies that have incorporated demographic variables in the TRA,this study explored whether demographics directly affect subjective norm and attitude. Asample of public sector Moroccans was used to test whether income, education and genderare direct predictors of attitude and subjective norm for outdoor jogging, walking, biking,swimming and visiting natural parks. Results suggest that for public sector Moroccans,demographic characteristics have no attitudinal or normative influence on participation inthese five outdoor leisure activities. While results contradict early model assumptions,they do support the TRA’s sufficiency assumption and shed light on the previouslyunanswered question of whether demographic variables impact behaviour through attitudeand subjective norm. It would be interesting to explore in future research whether thisfinding can be extended to the Theory of Planned Behaviour.
The present findings also provide information about outdoor leisure behaviour in adeveloping country, which may assist Moroccan and multinational recreation marketers tostructure their promotion campaigns more effectively. The results imply that culture (ratherthan demographics) may play an important role in the outdoor leisure behaviour of publicsector Moroccans. The implication for multinational recreation marketers is that a uniformapproach to advertising may not be effective. Indeed, De Mooij and Hofstede (2002) arguethat cultural differences result in more heterogeneous consumption behaviours that requirethe development of advertising campaigns tailored to reflect local cultural values.However, through the study of normative and attitudinal beliefs, the TRA may assistmarketers to better understand cultural differences in intention and behaviour, which inturn, could provide the basis for development of more culturally specific marketingcampaigns.
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