The technology/inquiry typology: defining Instructional Technology

7/26/2019 The technology/inquiry typology: defining Instructional Technology.

1/5

The technology/inquiry typology: defining Instructional

Technology.

Instructional Technology is an ill-defined field of study. Thispaper proposes a definition of

Instructional Technology that embracesthe artifactual nature of technology and its application in the

work ofinstruction. Technology, in all its forms, is a means for accomplishingwork. Instruction is a

multifaceted process that involves a variety oftypes of work; each requiring qualitatively different

types of tools andinstruments. The selection, construction, and application of those toolsis the

unique domain of the field of Instructional Technology. It willbe argued that inquiry, seen from a

Deweyan perspective, is an activitythat isn't entirely cerebral and requires technology for

itsoperation. To the extent that education is synonymous with inquiry thenit is a technological

activity. The implication being that the qualityof one's instructional experience is directly related to

thequality of one's tools. To that end, a typology of technologies, asthey relate to inquiry is presented

to assist with the selection ofappropriate instructional technologies.

**********

The Association for Education Communications and Technology hasdefined Instructional

Technology as "the theory and practice ofdesign, development, utilization, management and

evaluation of processesand resources for learning" (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 1). Theirdefinition

avoids a direct reference to computers, artifacts orinstruments, which may be a source of confusion

for those who hold acommonsensical belief that Instructional Technology is synonymous withthe

application of technology in education. It is likely that the Seels& Richey (1994) definition avoids

these terms explicitly in aneffort to highlight the notion that technology isn't

exclusivelymanifested in physical products. As will be discussed, technology, to bea useful variable

in instructional research, needs to be defined asspecifically as possible.

The definition suggested by Seels and Richey (1994) can be viewedin the Deweyan tradition.

Dewey's definition of technology iscentral to his instrumentalist philosophy (Hickman,

1990).Instrumentalism is the idea that anything that is used to accomplishwork can be considered a

tool, technology, or instrument. Hickman (1990)summarizes Dewey's conception of technology when

he states,"something becomes a tool only when it is used to do some kind ofwork" (p. 22). For our

purposes, when it is used to conduct thework of instruction then it is an Instructional Technology.

Instrumentalism does not make a distinction between the physicaland the mental. A mathematical

equation or idea may be considered to bea tool, as might a hammer or saw. Even an institution orsocial programcan be conceptualized as a technology if they are implemented for anactive and

ongoing purpose (Moore & Burton, 1995). Nor doesInstrumentalism make a distinction between

the organic or inorganic. Theuse of the lens in one's eye to examine the world is not muchdifferent

than using the lens of a telescope or a microscope (Moore& Lieberman, 2005); each changes the

field of potential observationand each accomplishes some type of work. The mind has a limited

reachbut is enhanced and extended by organic technologies such as the eye,ear, and hand. And

when problems that can be addressed with thosenascent instruments are exhausted then one may

attempt to extendone's reach inorganically with what we commonly refer to asartifacts.

Conducting the work of instruction is no longer solely thought ofas what is done to the learner, butwhat the learner does in their ownprocess of knowledge construction and inquiry. For example,

Jonassen(2000) has introduced the idea of Mindtools, which he describes as"computer

applications that require students to think in meaningfulways in order to use the application to


2/5

represent what they know"(p. 4). A student using a spreadsheet program to organize data

orsearching the Internet to research a topic of interest are examples ofthe instructional use of

Mindtools. The term Mindtools highlights thefact that all instruction requires a number of different

technologies topresent, communicate, organize, and construct knowledge.

It was Dewey who established that solving a problem was essentiallythe search for an appropriate

tool (Hickman, 1990). The work ofinstruction is, particularly with regard to constructivism, a

process ofinquiry. Dewey (1938) describes inquiry as "the controlled ordirected transformation of

an indeterminate situation into one that isso determinate in its constituent distinctions and

relations as toconvert the elements of the original situation into a unifiedwhole" (p. 104). Different

problems require different tools fortheir transformation and certain technologies have affor-dances

thatencourage their application to different types of problems. Thefollowing section discusses how

technologies may be classified accordingto different stages in the inquiry process.

Technology/Inquiry Typology

A particular tool is selected, modified or generated in a mannersimilar to that of a hypothesis. The

tools act upon the facts of thecase and have a specific purpose, as Hickman (1990) states,

"Thepurpose of the tool is to reorganize the experience in some way thatwill overcome its

disparity, its incompatibility, or itsinconsistency" (p. 21). Connecting, transforming, and

manipulatingare all technological processes and these processes form a transactionbetween the

internal and the external.

Man's connection between the internal and the external isthrough one of three methods: our

actions, our observations, and ourrepresentations. These three methods of transaction are

ofteninterrelated and symbiotic, and of course, each is demonstrably technological because they

allow one to extend one's mind into theenvironment. Rothenburg (1993) identifies several

categories oftechnological extension including those that directly extend one'sphysical form, thosethat extend our intention and yet require guidanceand contact, those that operate independently,

and finally those thatmodify our environment itself. These categories classify the degree

ofindependence that our technologies may exhibit. Rothenburg'scategories of technology can be

aligned with the three previouslymentioned methods of transaction. These categories are described

inTable 1.

The typology in Table 1 suggests that technologies, regardless oftheir manifestation, serve inquiry

by allowing one to interact with theenvironment at a number of levels. Example technologies for

inquiry havebeen placed in the grid for comparison. Each cell of Table 1 representsa category of

technological transaction with the environment.Representative technologies assist one inaccounting for and organizingthoughts and experiences. Action technologies allow one to interact

withthe world while Observational technologies allow one to observe theworld and the results of

our actions. Given the inquiry that we wish toengage in, or the research we wish to conduct, we

must carefully selectour instruments so that we can effectively and efficiently transport ourinquiry

from an "indeterminate state to a determinate one"(Dewey, 1938); the goal of the educational

process.

Improving Practice

By using the typology, we may be able improve our inquiry on theeducational effects of technology.Both formal research and reflectiveclassroom scholarship may benefit from the application of the

typology.For example, a typical question facing instructors and researchers couldbe phrased as,

"Does access to technology improve studentachievement?" However, such a question lacks


3/5

specificity. It couldbe improved by directly referring to the technical artefact in question.For

example, "Does access to a computer lab improve studentachievement?" Further still, the typology

adds a broaderclassification to the question. For example, "Does access to anAction/Environment

technology improve student achievement?" Thebenefits of this process allow one's inquiry to be

placed in abroad context. It may help eliminate some ambiguity. If one is togeneralize their

practice they must be clear what interventions theyhave been investigating, as the engineer

Charles Kettering has stated,"A problem well stated is a problem half solved."

Critically Using the Technology/Inquiry Typology

While the classifications in Table 1 delineate the domains oftechnologies for inquiry it must be

recognized that the classificationmerely provides us with a method for organization and has

limitedutility in applying and selecting our values. One must criticallyanalyze the implications of

using a particular technology. A technologycan help us accomplish our work but may also have

unintendedconsequences. While tools are our method for transformation andconnection, they also

act upon us. The technologies we use have acertain momentum of their own. Dewey (1934) himself

wasn't ignorantof this possibility and describes technology as doing "somethingmore than

providing a number of separate conveniences and facilities.They shape collective occupations and

thus determine the direction ofinterest and attention, and effect desire and purpose" (p.

345).McLuhan (1964) held an even more concerned view in his analysis of mediaand

technology.

In contrast with the notion that technology is our method ofengaging the world, McLuhan (1964)

suggested the term amputation torefer to technologies that cut-off other ways of knowing.

McLuhan (1964)proposed that for every new technological extension there is atechnological

amputation, or a discarding of a technology; An amputationdoesn't imply obsolescence of the

previous technology but, to acertain extent, an abandonment of previous lines of inquiry.

For example the development of the calculator, which could beclassified as a Representation

technology requiring guidance (Table 1),extends our ability to process mathematics, however, it

also amputatedmethods of knowing such as the slide-rule and much of the logarithmic mathematics

that rulers were based upon. It is supposed that sliderulers promoted a certain skill and mind set

that may have influencedinquiry. In McLuhan's analysis the application of a new

technologyrequires a trade-off and we are encouraged to exercise careful judgmentto ensure the

trade-off is a worthwhile one.

Broadening McLuhan's (1967) most famous pun, "The mediumis the massage," we can infer that

our media, tools, instruments,and technologies shape the messages we receive; they exertinfluence onthe path that our inquiry takes, and the questions we ask of research.We cannot fully

develop a critical understanding without knowing whatspecific inquiry related functions they

conduct. The Technology/InquiryTypology attempts to make these relationships transparent.

Thistransparency should assist one in avoiding a technology's"power of imposing its own

assumption on the unwary" (McLuhan,1964, p.15).

CONCLUSION

By focusing on the definitions of technology we are able to defineour research variables in the field

of Instructional Technology with agreat deal more precision. The Instructional Technologytypologyprovides a reminder of the broad and varied ways in which technologiescan be used for

instructional purposes. By classifying a technologyspecifically by its role in inquiry we can clearly

and transparentlystudy its function and structure. The benefits of transparency apply toinstruction


4/5

and research. On the instructional side, instructionaldesigner must choose media and technology to

deliver their messages andthis process often relegated to the later stages of design (Smith

&Ragan). However, when viewed instrumentally it is clear thatinstruction, particularly instruction

that is based upon inquiry, cannotbe conceived of at all without technology. To design sound

instructionalexperiences one must decide what type of inquiry is involved. Integralto that process

is determining what tools to use. Designers shouldreference the instructional technology typology

for the broadest senseof the tools that are available to them.

On the other hand, educational researchers have beenenthusiastically embracing technology

related lines of inquiry. However,too often researchers use the term technology ambiguously. Using

thetypology presented in this paper may help provide some precision tothese research efforts.

References

Dewey, J. (1934). Art as experience. New York: Perigee.

Dewey, J. (1938). Logic: The theory of inquiry. New York: HenryHolt and Company.

Dewey, J. (1953). Essays in experimental logic. New York: DoverPublications, Inc.

Hickman, L. A. (1990). John Dewey's

pragmatic technology.(Indiana series in the

philosophy of technology), Bloomington,

IN:Indiana University Press.

Jonassen, D. H., (2000). Computers as

mindtools for schools:Engaging critical

thinking. 2nd Edition, Upper Saddle River,

NJ:Merrill.

McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media.

New York: McGraw Hill.

McLuhan, M. (1967). The medium is the massage. New York: Bantam Books.


5/5

Moore, D. R., & Lieberman, D. A. (2005). The Technology ofclassroom assessment techniques.

National Research Center, 1st-yearassessment, April, (Invited Essay) Retrieved May 13,

2005,www.sc.edu/fye/resources/assessment/newessay/author/MooreLieberman.html

Moore, D. R., & Burton J. K. (1998). The New MediaCenters' consortium: A tool for legitimizing

technology in highereducation. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 30(3), 296-30

Rothenburg, D. (1993). Hand's end: Technology and the limitsof nature. Berkeley: University of

California Press.

Seels, B., & Ritchey, R. (1994). Instructional technology: Thedefinition and domains of the field.

Washington, DC: Associations forEducational Communications and Technology.

DAVID RICHARD MOORE

Ohio University, USA

[email protected]

Table 1 Example Technologies for Inquiry Action ObservationOrganic Hand -- a hand is tool Eye

-- the lens of the eye is that allows one to constructed as are the lenses manipulate the in a pair of

glasses. The immediate environment. curvature of the cornea directs light to perceptual

sensors.Directly Stick -- a stick is an Microscope -- a microscope isextend physical inorganic

device that positioned close to an eye toform extends one's reach and further direct light. It's

contact the environment proximity directly extends with a degree of safety the physical form. and

specificity.Require Chainsaw -- a chainsaw Hubble telescope -- aguidance and is a machine that

allows technology such as the Hubblecontact one to open the material telescope doesn't require

environment for further proximity to function. It investigation, it requires guidance and requiresguidance, even direction to observe the though it has its own phenomena that we wish to

propulsion. observe.Environmental Cradle -- is constructed Panopticon -- a building for a specific

purpose design for a prison which and creates a controlled allows the guards to observe

environment for an the prisoners without being infant to live and learn observed. The building in.

changes how observations may be made. RepresentationOrganic Fingers -- fingers may be

used to keep track of a basic number sequence.Directly Writing -- writing is a technology that is a

directextend physical extension of one's hand and allows one to record ideas,form propositions,

etc.Require Computer -- a computer runs software that has beenguidance and engineered for a

range of tasks, however, it will notcontact function without the guidance of a user. The processing

it undertakes occurs at a sub-microscopic level and yet can be guided by user.EnvironmentalArchitecture -- buildings may a have a specific function and they may serve to communicate a

message to their inhabitants and users. The message is delivered without any ongoing guidance

from a user.

http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+technology%2Finquiry+typology:+defining+Instructional+Tech

nology.-a0153629994
http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The%20technology/inquiry%20typology:%20defining%20Instructional%20Technology.-a0153629994http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The%20technology/inquiry%20typology:%20defining%20Instructional%20Technology.-a0153629994http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The%20technology/inquiry%20typology:%20defining%20Instructional%20Technology.-a0153629994http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The%20technology/inquiry%20typology:%20defining%20Instructional%20Technology.-a0153629994

Documents

The technology/inquiry typology: defining Instructional Technology