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Chapter11TheTriumphsandTravailsofthe
JeffersonianRepublic,1800–1812
I.FederalistandRepublicanMudslingers
– In1800election,Federalistsfacedhandicaps:• AlienandSeditionActsincitedmanyenemies• FeverishpreparationsforwarwithFranceswelledfederaldebtandrequirednewtaxes,includingastamptax• Militarypreparationsendedupunnecessaryandthereforeseemedextravagant
I.FederalistandRepublicanMudslingers(cont.)
– FederalistsconcentratedtheirfireonJeffersonhimself:• Hebecamevictimofrumors:
– Fatherednumerousmulattochildrenbyhisslavewomen– LongintimacywithSallyHemings
– Aliberalinreligion,JeffersonsupportedseparationofchurchandstateinVirginia
– HedidbelieveinGod,butpreachersthroughoutNewEnglandthunderedagainsthisatheism
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II.TheJeffersonian“Revolutionof1800”
• Jeffersonwonbyamajorityof73electoralvotesto65(seeMap11.1)– NewYorkwentforJeffersonian,largelybecauseofBurr'sintensiveactivity
–MostofJefferson'sstrengthwasinSouth&West– 3/5clauseofConstitutionwasdecisiveinhisvictory
Map 11-1 p206
II.TheJeffersonian“Revolutionof1800”(cont.)
– Jefferson'svictorydampenedbyanunexpecteddeadlock:• Jefferson,thepresidentialcandidate,andBurr,thevice-presidentialcandidate,receivedsamenumberofelectoralvotesforpresidency• UnderConstitution,tiecouldbebrokenonlybyHouseofRepresentatives(seeArt.II,Sec.I.para.2)– HousewascontrolledbyFederalistswhopreferredBurr– JeffersonwonafterafewFederalistsabstainedfromvoting
II.TheJeffersonian“Revolutionof1800”(cont.)
• SometimesreferredtoasRevolutionof1800:– Norevolutionintruesenseofword– Jeffersonnarrowlysqueakedtopoliticalvictory– Hesawhismissionto:• Restorerepublicanexperience• Checkgrowthofgovernmentpower• Haltdecayofvirtue
II.TheJeffersonian“Revolutionof1800”(cont.)
– Peaceful&orderlytransferofpowerwas“revolutionary”:• Remarkableachievementforanyyoungnation,especiallysoatthistimeinworldhistory
– Americanscouldtakeprideinvigorofexperimentindemocracy
III.ResponsibilityBreedsModeration
• JeffersoninauguratedonMarch4,1801:– InswampyvillageofWashington,crudenewcapital
– Hespurnedahorse-drawncoachandwalkedtotheCapitolfromhisboardinghouse
– Hisinauguraladdresswasaclassicstatementofdemocraticprinciples
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III.ResponsibilityBreedsModeration(cont.)
– NewcapitalreflectedsimplicityandfrugalityofJeffersonianRepublicans:• ContrastwithelegantatmosphereofFederalistPhiladelphia,formertemporarycapital• Jeffersonextendeddemocraticprinciplestoetiquette
– Establishedruleofpell-mellatofficialdinners—thatis,seatingwithoutregardtorank
– Hewasshockinglyunconventionalinreceivingguests• HestartedprecedentofsendingmessagestoCongresstobereadbyaclerk
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III.ResponsibilityBreedsModeration(cont.)
• YetJeffersoninpracticereversedmanypoliticalprincipleshehadchampioned
• Inpractice,twoJeffersonsexisted:– Onewasscholarlyprivatecitizen– Otherwasharassedpublicofficial– Hewasthereforeconsistentlyinconsistent– ItiseasytoquoteoneJeffersontorefutetheother
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III.ResponsibilityBreedsModeration(cont.)
• Jefferson'sevictionofFederalistsmarkedfirstpartyoverturninAmericanhistory.
• Jeffersonshowedunexpectedmoderation:– Dismissedfewpublicservantsforpoliticalreasons– Patronage-hungryJeffersonianswatchedFederalistappointeescontinueinoffice
IV.JeffersonianRestraint
• Jefferson,however,determinedtoundoFederalistabuses:– Pardoned“martyrs”convictedunderSeditionAct– Enactednewnaturalizationlawof1802:• Reducedrequirementof14yearsofresidencebackto5-yearrequirement
– HadCongressrepealexcisetaxbecauseithurtfarmers
IV.JeffersonianRestraint(cont.)
• AlbertGallatinprovedtobeablesecretaryoftheTreasury– AgreedwithJeffersonthatnationaldebtwasabaneratherthanablessing
– Bystricteconomy,theyreduceddebtwhilebalancingbudget
• JeffersoniansleftHamiltonianframeworkessentiallyintact:
IV.JeffersonianRestraint(cont.)
– DidnottamperwithfundingnationaldebtatparandassumingRevolutionaryWardebtsofstates
– LaunchednoattackonBankofUnitedStates– Didnotrepealmildprotectivetariff– Infutureyears,re-charteredalargerbankandbolsteredprotectivetarifftohigherlevels
– Jefferson'smoderationcemented“Revolutionof1800”becauseshowedpoliticalchangeneednotbedisastrousfordefeatedgroup
V.The“DeadClutch”oftheJudiciary
• JudiciaryActof1801– OneoflastlawspassedbyFederalists:• Created16federaljudgeshipsandotheroffices• AdamssignedsomecommissionsforFederalist“midnightjudges”onlastnightinoffice• Arousedbitterresentmentfor“packing”lifetimepostswithanti-Jeffersonians
– NewCongressquicklyrepealedJudiciaryActof1801
V.The“DeadClutch”oftheJudiciary(cont.)
• JeffersonianswerealsoafternewChiefJusticeJohnMarshall:– Served34yearsundervariouspresidents– DominatedSupremeCourtbyintellectandpersonality
– ShapedAmericanlegaltraditionmorethananyotherfigure
– Committedtostrengtheningpoweroffederalgovernment
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V.The“DeadClutch”oftheJudiciary(cont.)
• “Midnightjudges”presentedMarshallwithhistoricalopportunity:
• WilliamMarburyappointedajusticeofthepeacebyAdams• Suedwhenhelearnedcommissionwouldnotbedelivered• MarshalldismissedMarbury'ssuit• Marburyv.Madison(1803)enabledMarshalltoaddressquestionofwhohadfinalauthoritytodeterminemeaningofConstitution
V.The“DeadClutch”oftheJudiciary(cont.)
–Marshallpromotedprincipleof“judicialreview”—• SupremeCourtalonehadfinalwordonquestionsofconstitutionality• MarshallinsertedkeystoneintoarchthatsupportstremendouspowerofSupremeCourtinAmericanlife
– JeffersonurgedimpeachmentofJusticeSamuelChase,buteffortfailed
– Establishedprecedentofjudicialindependence
VI.Jefferson,aReluctantWarrior
• Earlyon,Jeffersonreducedmilitary:–Wantedtowinfriendsthrough“peacefulcoercion”
– NorthAfricanpiratesofBarbaryStates(seeMap11.2)plundered&blackmailedmerchantshipsthatventuredintoMediterranean
–WaracrossAtlanticwasnotpartofJefferson'svision
Map 11-2 p212
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VI.Jefferson,aReluctantWarrior(cont.)
• Showdowncamein1801-1805,TripolitanWar:– Jeffersonsentinfantarmyto“shoresofTripoli”– Fouryearsofintermittentfighting– SucceededinextortingtreatyofpeacefromTripoliin1805;bargainpriceof$60,000(ransompaymentforcapturedAmericans)
• Jeffersonalsoadvocatedconstructionofsmallcoastalcraft;about200tinygunboatsbuilt.
VII.TheLouisianaGodsend
• 1800,secretpactsigned:– BonaparteinducedSpaintocedeimmenseregionofLouisiana,includingNewOrleans
– SpaniardsatNewOrleanswithdrewwarehouserightsguaranteedbyPinckney'sTreatyof1795
– HopingtoquietclamorinWest,Jeffersonin1803sentJamesMonroetoParistoworkwithRobertLivingston,theregularministerthere
VII.TheLouisianaGodsend (cont.)
– InstructedtobuyNewOrleansandasmuchlandaspossiblefor$10million
– NapoleonsuddenlydecidedtoabandondreamofNewWorldempireandsellallofLouisiana
– Failedinefforttoreconquersugar-richislandofSantoDomingo(Haiti)
– Slavesstruckforfreedomin1791– HaitianRevolutioneventuallycrushed,butyellowfeverkilledthousandsofFrenchtroops
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VII.TheLouisianaGodsend (cont.)
• WithoutHaiti,noneedforLouisiana'sfoodsupplies.
• TokeepLouisianafromBritish,NapoleondecidedtosellitandusemoneyforschemesinEurope.
• LivingstonwasshockedwhenFrenchaskedhimwhathewouldgiveforallofLouisiana:– OnApril30,1803,treatiessignedcedingLouisianatoUnitedStatesforabout$15million
VII.TheLouisianaGodsend (cont.)
– TreatiesincludedimmensetracttowestofNewOrleansthatwouldmorethandoublesizeofU.S.A.
– Onceagain,twoJeffersonswrestledwitheachother:
– Thetheoristandformerstrictconstructionistversusthedemocraticvisionary
– JeffersonsubmittedtreatiestoSenate,whileprivatelyadmittingpurchasewasunconstitutional
– Gained828,000squaremilesatthreecentsanacre
VIII.LouisianaintheLongView• LouisianaPurchase—– Securedwesternhalfofrichestrivervalleyinworld&laidfoundationofafuturemajorpower
– Establishedvaluableprecedentforfutureexpansiononbasisofequalmembership
– Imperialismwithanewdemocraticface–WouldleadtodisplacementofmanyIndians–MadeisolationistprinciplesofWashington'sFarewelloperationalbecauseremoveEuropefromN.America
VIII.LouisianaintheLongView(cont.)
• LewisandClark'sCorpsofDiscovery:– 1804Jeffersonsentpersonalsecretary,MeriwetherLewis,andarmyofficerWilliamClarktoexplorenorthernpartofLouisiana
– Explorationtook2½years– Richharvestofscientificobservation,maps,knowledgeofIndians,andadventurestories
– DemonstratedviabilityofoverlandtrailtoPacific
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VIII.LouisianaintheLongView(cont.)
Thousandsofmissionaries,fur-traders,andpioneeringsettlerslatermadetheirwaytoclaimOregonCountry•ZebulonPiketrekkedtoheadwatersofMississippiRiver,1805-1806•PikeexploredsouthernpartofLouisianaTerritoryin1807,wherehesightedColoradopeakthatbearshisname
IX.TheAaronBurrConspiracies
LouisianaPurchaseexpandedfortunesofUnitedStatesandpoweroffederalgovernment•Inshortterm,vastnewterritoryandfeeblereachofgovernmentraisedfearsofsecessionandforeignintrigue(seeMap11.3)•Burr,Jefferson'sfirst-termvicepresident,helpedjustifysuchfears•BurrjoinedwithFederalistextremiststoplotsecessionofNewEnglandandNewYork•Hamiltonexposedandfoiledconspiracy
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IX.TheAaronBurrConspiracies (cont.)
• Incensed,BurrchallengedHamiltontoaduel• BurrkilledHamilton• BurrthusdestroyedlasthopeofeffectiveleadershipforFederalists• Burrthenturnedhisplottingtotrans-MississippiWest• StruckdealwithGeneralJamesWilkinson,unscrupulousmilitarygovernorofLouisianaandsecretagentforSpain• Wilkinson'sarmywastomeetBurratNatchez
IX.TheAaronBurrConspiracies (cont.)
• WhenWilkinsonheardthatJeffersonlearnedofplot,WilkinsonfledtoNewOrleans• Burrwasarrestedandtriedfortreason• Marshall,strictlyinterpretingConstitution,insistedguiltyverdictrequiredproofofovertactsoftreason,notmerelytreasonousintentions(seeArt.III,Sec.III)• BurrwasacquittedandfledtoEurope• Hisactionsdemonstratedthatitwasonethingtopurchaselargeexpansesofterritorybutquiteanothertogovernthemeffectively
Map 11-3 p217
X.APrecariousNeutrality
• Jeffersontriumphantlyreelectedin1804:– 162electoralvotestoonly14votesforFederalistopponent
• NapoleonprovokedrenewedwarwithBritain–conflictwouldragefornext11years.
• Duringfirsttwoyearsofwar,maritimeUnitedStatesenjoyedcommercialpickings.
X.APrecariousNeutrality(cont.)
• 1805BattleofTrafalgar:– LordNelsonsmashedFrench&Spanishfleets– EnsuredBritain'ssupremacyonsea
• BattleofAusterlitzinAustria(theBattleoftheThreeEmperors):– NapoleoncrushedAustrianandRussianarmies– Ensuredhismasteryonland
X.APrecariousNeutrality(cont.)
• 1806LondonissuedOrdersinCouncil:– ClosedportsunderFrenchcontroltoforeignshipping,includingAmerican,unlessvesselsstoppedataBritishportfirst
• Napoleonstruckback:– Orderedseizureofallmerchantships,includingAmerican,thatenteredBritishports
• Americanvesselswerecaught--nowaytotradewithonenationwithoutantagonizingother
X.APrecariousNeutrality(cont.)
• ImpressmentalsoupsetAmericans—– ForcedconscriptionofsailorsbyBritish– Some6,000U.S.citizensimpressedbyBritain(1808to1811)
X.APrecariousNeutrality(cont.)
• Chesapeakeaffair(1807):• BritishfrigatestoppedU.S.frigate,theChesapeake,10milesoffcoastofVirginia• Britishcaptaindemanded4allegeddeserters• Londonhadneverclaimedrighttoseizesailorsfromaforeignwarship• Americancommanderrefuseddemand• Britishfired3devastatingbroadsidesatcloserange• 3Americanskilled;18wounded• 4deserterstaken;Chesapeakelimpedbacktoport
X.APrecariousNeutrality(cont.)
• BritainclearlywrongasLondonForeignOfficeadmitted• London'scontritionavailedlittleasroarofangerswelledfrominfuriatedAmericans• Jeffersoncouldeasilyhavehadwarifhewantedit
XI.TheHatedEmbargoHonorwouldnotpermitsubmissiontoBritish&Frenchmistreatment,butUSAnotreadyforwar.• WarringnationsneededUnitedStatesforrawmaterialsandfoodstuffs
• JeffersonthoughtifAmericacutoffexports,offendingpowerswouldrelent
• CongressissuedEmbargoActin1807:• ForbadeexportofallgoodsfromUnitedStates,whetherinAmericanorforeignships• EmbodiedJefferson'sideaof“peacefulcoercion”
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XI.TheHatedEmbargo (cont.)
AmericaneconomydevastatedbyembargolongbeforeBritainorFrancebegantobend–Enormousillicittrademushroomedin1808,especiallyalongCanadianborder–EmbargorevivedmoribundFederalistparty–OnMarch1,1809,threedaysbeforeJeffersonretired,Congressrepealedembargo
• Non-IntercourseActformallyopenedtradewithallnations,exceptBritainandFrance
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XI.TheHatedEmbargo (cont.)
EmbargoactfailedbecauseJefferson:• UnderestimatedBritishdetermination• OverestimateddependenceofbothbelligerentsonAmerica'strade• Miscalculatedunpopularityofaself-crucifyingweaponanddifficultyofenforcingit
NewEnglandpluckednewprosperityfromuglyjawsofembargo:• ResourcefulYankeesreopenedoldfactoriesanderectednewones
XI.TheHatedEmbargo (cont.)
• FoundationsofmodernAmerica'sindustrialmightlaidbehindprotectivewallofembargo.
• Jefferson,avowedcriticoffactories,mayhavedonemoreformanufacturingthanHamilton,industry'soutspokenfriend.
XII.Madison'sGamble
• MadisontookoathonMarch4,1809:– JustasconflictinEuropeescalated– Non-IntercourseAct(1809)wouldexpirein1810– Congressdismantledembargocompletelywithabargainingmeasure—Macon'sBillNo.2• IfeitherBritainorFrancerepealeditscommercialrestrictions,Americawouldrestoreitsembargoagainstnonrepealingnation• ToMadison,billwasashamefulcapitulation
XII.Madison'sGamble(cont.)
• Macon'sBillNo.2:– Frenchimpliedtheirrestrictionsmightberepealed–MadisondidnottrustNapoleon,buthegambled– ThreatofexclusiveU.S.tradewithFrancewouldleadBritishtorepealrestrictions
– GaveBritishthreemonthstorevokeOrdersinCouncil&reopenAtlantictoneutraltrade
– Britishrefused;Madison'sgamblefailed
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XIII.TecumsehandtheProphet
• When12thCongressmetinlate1811,older“submissionmen”replacedbyyounghotheads,manyfromSouthandWest:– DubbedwarhawksbyFederalists,newcomersadvocatedwarwithEngland
– AlsowantedtodestroyrenewedIndianthreatforsettlersmovingtotrans-Alleghenywilderness
XIII.TecumsehandtheProphet(cont.)
TwoShawneebrothers,Tecumseh&Tenskwatawa,knowntonon-Indiansas“theProphet,”decidedtoresisttideofwhiteencroachment•BegantoformconfederacyofalltribeswestofMississippi•Frontiersmenandtheirwar-hawkspokesmenbecameconvincedthatBritishinCanadawerenourishingtheIndians'growingstrength•In1811,WilliamHenryHarrisongatheredanarmyandadvancedonTecumseh'sheadquarters
XIII.TecumsehandtheProphet(cont.)
Tecumsehwasabsent,buttheProphetattackedHarrison'sarmywithasmallforceofShawnees• Shawneeswereroutedandtheirsettlementburned• BattleofTippecanoemadeHarrisonanationalhero• DiscreditedtheProphetanddroveTecumsehintoanalliancewithBritish• DuringAmerica'swarwithBritain,TecumsehfoughtforEnglanduntilkilledin1813atBattleoftheThames• Withhisdeath,dreamofanIndianconfederacyperished
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XIV.Mr.Madison'sWar
• Pushedbywarhawks&upsetbyIndianattacks,MadisonbelievedwarwithEnglandinevitableby1812.
• Madisonalsobelievedwarwouldrestorefaithinrepublicanexperiment.
• CongressapprovedrequestforwarinJune:– Republicans,esp.South&West,supportedwar– Federalists,esp.fromNewEngland,opposed
XIV.Mr.Madison'sWar(cont.)
• ManyNewEnglandersrefusedtosupportwarandactuallyhelpedBritish.
• USAwenttowarbadlydividedbypartyandbysection.
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