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The USSR From 1945-1956
Kevin J. Benoy
Post War USSR
• On the surface Soviet military power looked awesome.
• No longer would Soviet leaders talk about “Socialism in One Country.”
• However, deeper analysis revealed a precarious position – as Stalin well-knew.
Post War Weaknesses
• While the Red Army occupied much of Eastern and Central Europe, it now faced a more powerful and global adversary – the USA.
• Furthermore the USSR was devastated by war.– At least 15 million were dead.– 25 million were homeless.– Factories and collective farms
were smashed.
• Rebuilding the Soviet Union was a formidable task.
Yugoslavia
• The limited nature of Stalin’s reach became evident when Tito split with Stalin.
• Tito put Jugoslav interests first.
• He liberated his country without Soviet help, so the Red Army was not present.
• Tito was touchy about the activities of Soviet agents in his country, actively countering their influence on the Jugoslav Party and the country.
Jugoslavia• Stalin publicly criticized Tito,
saying he was not following the correct path, particularly in collectivization of agriculture.
• In fact this was not true prior to the break.
• After the split he clearly took a different line to the Soviets.
• Tito rejected the over centralization of the Soviet model and even turned to the West for help in the 1950s.
Jugoslavia
• When the break became irrevocable, Stalin expelled Jugoslavia from Cominform and cut off economic aid.
• Tito would not bend.
• Stalin blustered and an invasion looked likely – but nothing happened.
Jugoslavia• In his memoirs,
Khruschchev notes:– I’m absolutely certain that if
the Soviet Union had a common border with Yugoslavia, Stalin would have intervened militarily. As it was, though, he would have had to go through Bulgaria, and Stalin knew we weren’t strong enough to get away with that. He was afraid the American imperialists would have actively supported the Yugoslavs.
Jugoslavia and Albania
• The physical separation that benefited the Jugoslavs also gave Albania, under Enver Hoxha, a similar opportunity – though they would choose an altogether different path – eventually becoming a Chinese client.
Jugoslavia
• The Stalin-Tito split was significant because it meant there could be another model for Communism.
• As Jugoslavia liberalized it looked attractive to newly independent nations.
• Particularly appealing was the Jugoslav practice of denationalizing businesses and handing them over to worker’s councils and assemblies.
• Agricultural communes proved superior to collective farms.• Nonetheless, there were still economic problems, not the
least of which was the unwillingness to fire colleagues and a tendency of workers to pay themselves too much.
The Soviet Union
• In the USSR there would be no liberalization.
• In 1955 Khrushchev told the story of how he, Malenkov and Molotov talked to Stalin of reforms suggested by an economics expert:– We stated that we had seen and
approved the measures proposed by Vosnesensky. Stalin listned to us, and then he said: “Before you go on, you should know that Vosnesensky was shot this morning.”
Forced Repatriation
• The deep hostility to the Soviet regime by its people was not apparent to the West at the end of the war.
• Stalin took immediate steps to ensure it would not be.
• He insisted on the immediate repatriation of Soviet citizens outside the zone of Red Army authority.
Forced Repatriation
• 5 million Soviet citizens were west of the USSR at the end of the war – 3 million in the Western zones.
• Some were prisoners of war, others slave labour in Nazi Germany.
• Finally there were those who collaborated with and retreated with the German army.
Forced Repatriation
• At Yalta the Big Three agreed to repatriate all Allied citizens at war’s end.
• Roosevelt and Churchill did not understand what this would mean to Soviet citizens. They felt it natural that all would want to quickly return home; those who did not must be traitors or were evading justice.
Forced Repatriation
• Soviet citizens were herded into camps for displaced persons before being shipped home.
• Many pretended to be from other areas outside the Soviet 1939 borders.
• Others claimed they were not Soviet citizens at all.
• Still others avoided the camps entirely.
Forced Repatriation• Western observers noted the
fear of Soviet citizens.• 2 million were repatriated
before it was called off.• For those who returned, it was
as they expected.• They were not reintegrated,
but cosigned to the Gulag Archipelago. Common criminals were amnestied to make room.
• Even partisan fighters were sent to the camps.
The Zhdanovshchina
• 65 million Soviets at one time or another lived under Nazi occupation.
• Stalin considered all suspect.
• A general tightening of Soviet society began.
The Zhdanovshchina
• Contact with the West was reduced to an absolute minimum – even contact with Eastern Europe.
• Legislation forbade marriage to foreigners. Wives had to divorce foreign husbands or go into Siberian exile.
The Zhdanovshchina
• Western films were not shown – except Tarzan (Stalin’s favourite) and it too was attacked.
• Jazz music was banned as it was considered morally dangerous.
• Decadent Western literature was attacked.
The Zhdanovshchina
• Everything Soviet was boosted as citizens were told their country was in the vanguard of technology.
• Writers had to stick to government-approved themes and styles.
• Many artists found themselves in trouble, including composers Prokofiev and Shostokovich, as well as film director Sergei Eisenstein.
The Zhdanovshchina• Trofim Lysenko, a poorly
educated plant breeder, attacked the top Soviet genetecists, claiming that acquired characteristics could be inherited.
• Stalin liked the idea and elevated Lysenko to the highest levels of Soviet Science.
• In the new Soviet Union facts would not stand in the way of ideology.
The Zhdanovshchina
• Zhdanov died in 1948, but the purges continued.
• Unlike in the 1930’s it did not extend to the CPSU itself.
The Zhdanovshchina
• In 1949 there was a campaign against the Jews.
• In 1949-50 it was the turn of the physiologists.
• In the winter of 1952-53 it was claimed that doctors were conspiring to kill high party officials – the Doctors’ Plot.
• The purges only ended with the death of Stalin.
The Soviet Economy
• Soviet citizens made more sacrifices.
• Heavy industry and armaments were given priority – in preparation for a new capitalist attack.
• The Soviet atomic programme under Beria (also Secret Police Head) was given primacy.
• Once again, the consumer was asked to tighten his belt.
The Soviet Economy• To make matters worse,
there was a harvest failure in the Ukraine in 1947 – followed by another in the Kuban.
• Agriculture was given low priority in the 1946 5-Year Plan.
• Though the plan restored industrial production to 1940 levels, it came at tremendous cost to Soviet citizens.
Stalin’s End
• After 1948 Stalin’s health failed.
• His physical deterioration was clear and he did little to help himself.
• He drank too much, ate too much and distrusted his own doctors.
Stalin’s End
• His paranoia increased.• He even had Mrs. Molotov sent to the Gulag and
had the room of his closest friend, Voroshilov, bugged.
• The Central Committee and Politbureau rarely met.
• No new Congress was held until 1952.• Everyday affairs were conducted by his henchmen
– who were positioning themselves for when the old man died.
Stalin’s End
• On March 4, 1953, it was announced that Stalin suffered a stroke on the 2nd.
• On the 5th came the announcement that he died.
• Many suggested he might have been “helped along” – with Beria as a prime suspect.
• On March 9, he was laid to rest in the Lenin Mausoleum.
Stalin’s End
• A joint communique of the Soviet leaders called upon citizens not to panic and to remain loyal.
• The funeral was nowhere near as grandiose as expected, though there was genuine grief at the great man’s passing.
• People died in the crush on Truybnaya Square in Moscow.
The Rise of Khrushchev
• At first it appeared Malenkov and Beria would assume the mantle.
• Malenkov was acknowledged as heir apparent at the XIX Party Congress.
• Beria controlled the security apparatus.
• Molotov also appeared part of a ruling triumvirate.
Rise of Khrushchev
• Inside the Politbureau it was more complex.
• By the end of March, Malenkov handed the Party Secretary position to a relative unknown, Nikita Khrushchev.
• The Party seemed to turn to Collective Leadership.
• An immediate relaxation occurred in Soviet society.
Rise of Khrushchev
• Malenkov promised consumer goods within 2-3 years.
• Beria said the Doctors’ Plot was a hoax.
• Revisions were announced to the criminal code to reduce penalties for minor crimes.
• It was hinted that protection of rights of citizens would be ensured.
• Thousands of communities honouring the Soviet dictator were renamed: Stalina, Stalino, Stalinskaya, Stalinskii, Stalinabad, Stalinogorsk and others. Stalingrad regained its former name, Volgograd.
Changes in Eastern Europe
• Soviet changes were reflected elsewhere in Eastern Europe.– Soon after returning from
Stalin’s funeral, Gottwald died and was replaced as Czech President by Zapotocky and as Party Chief by Novotny.
– In Hungary Imre Nagy replaced Rakosi, and announced reforms.
– Everywhere leaders gave up the title of General Secretary and came to be called First Secretary instead.
Changes in Eastern Europe
• Changes signaled weakness at the highest levels, triggering strikes and demonstrations.
• Matters got out of hand in East Germany, where strikes took on revolutionary tones in Berlin and other major centers.
• Soviet troops put down the troubles.
Beria Executed
• In the USSR, Beria was executed in December, charged with attempting to seize power.
• The leadership found it convenient to eliminate this dangerous rival.
Hungary• In 1955 Imre Nagy, the
reformer, again relinquished his post to Rakosi.
• In the same year, the Soviets strengthened their hold in E. Europe by arranging the Warsaw Pact Treaty, placing all satellite armies under Soviet command.
• Khrushchev and Bulganin followed this with a surprise trip to Belgrade where they attempted to patch up the old Soviet-Jugoslav rift.
The Spirit of Geneva
• In May, 1955, the Soviets concluded the Austrian Treaty. Soviet and Western occupation forces left and Austria became a neutral, independent, country.
• A summit meeting of world leaders convened in Geneva, where all appeared friendly.
• The Soviets announced a unilateral return of their base at Porkkala, Finland, and also announced recognition of West Germany.
The Spirit of Geneva• After Geneva, Khruschev
and Bulganin went off on a tour of India, Burma and Afghanistan.
• Their charm offensive won over Nasser, in Egypt.
• Clearly, the USSR was making a pitch to new 3rd World nations – competing with American liberalism and Chinese communism.
The 20th Party Congress
• Officially, the big news of the 20th Congress was that Khrushchev allowed there could be different “forms of transition of various countries to socialism” – and his pointing to Jugoslavia as an example.
• Unofficially there was much more startling news.
The 20th Party Congress• At a closed meeting on
February 24, 1956, Khrushchev criticized Stalin’s crimes, accusing him of murdering loyal Party leaders and of causing the break with Tito.
• He was careful not to go too far, however. Few present had not taken an active role in the purges.
• Stalin’s crimes were errors and “not the deeds of a giddy despot.”
The 20th Party Congress
• Some public rehabilitations occurred, but countless Party members remained non-persons.
• Now that de-Stalinization was launched, how well could it be controlled?
The 20th Party Congress
• Khrushchev also formulated the policy of peaceful coexistence.
• He argued that the peace movement in the West made it difficult for them to wage war, that the bomb makes war impossible, and that it was no longer correct to assume war was inevitable.
• He did not say that an ideological accommodation was to be made with capitalism, just that competition should be economic, not military.
Reactions to Khrushchev’s Secret Speeech• It took little time for word of
the speech to leak.• On June 4, the US State
Department published the text.
• Riots occurred in Georgia when word of the speech leaked there. Hundreds died. Trouble was a combination of opposition to the current regime and anger at Stalin’s demotion in the Communist pantheon. Many felt “though a bastard, he was our bastard.”
Poland
• In March, 1956, Edward Ochab, a moderate, became First Secretary.
• Vladislav Gomulka was released from prison and a struggle for power ensued.
• On June 15, 15,000 workers revolted at Poznan over economic issues.
Poland
• The military moved in, killing 53 and injuring 300-400 others.
• Moderates called for Ochab to step aside.
• Soviet troops moved toward Polish cities and Khrushchev and several other Politbureau members went to Warsaw on November 19
Poland
• A showdown occurred at the airport.
• The Soviets had the tanks but Gomulka had the Polish Communist Party and people behind him.
• Gomulka threatened to instigate a national revolution if Khrushchev did not back down.
• A deal was struck.
Poland
• Gomulka became First Secretary of the Polish party but he became more conservative after assuming office.
• Polish nationalism won out, but liberalization was curtailed.
Hungary
• Pressure for change in Hungary mirrored Poland.
• Rakosi was targeted by moderates and anti-Stalinists.
• Writers and intellectuals were encouraged by Khrushchev’s 20th Congress speech.
• Rakosi tried to placade them by rehabilitating a former leader executed for Titosim, but his personal responsibility in the matter just infuriated his opponents.
Hungary
• In July, Rakosi resigned.
• On October 6 a posthumous funeral was held for Rajk, the executed minister – 300,000 attended.
Hungary• Demonstrations of students
were joined by workers and soldiers.
• On October 23 50,000 marched on Parliament and their numbers swelled to hundreds of thousands.
• The Hungarian secret police fired on students who tried to get into the radio building to broadcast their demands.
• Fighting broke out and the Hungarian army disintegrated as soldiers went over to the rebels.
Hungary• On the night of October 24
the Hungarian Politureau named Imre Nagy Premier – but also called for Soviet military assistance.
• Janos Kadar was named First Secretary.
• Events were now beyond the control of politicians.
• Revolutionary workers’ councils, Soviets, were formed, the following day – all over the country.
Hungary• On October 27 the
government was reorganized to include non-communists.
• A cease-fire was arranged the following day and Soviet troops withdrew from Budapest.
• Nagy now committed a fatal error. He announced Hungary would no longer be a one-party state or a member of the Warsaw Pact.
• Lack of Soviet reaction seemed to indicate victory, but this was not the case.
Hungary
• On November 4 Soviet troops returned.
• Hungarian soldiers and civilians fought back.
• Kadar was made Prime Minister as Nagy took refuge in the Jugoslav embassy.
• Nagy was later tricked into leaving, arrested by the Soviets, and executed.
Hungary• Thousands of Hungarians
voted with their feet and fled to nearby Austria.
• Nagy appealed desperately to the UN for help, but its attention was elsewhere, on the Suez crisis.
• By the time the matter was taken up, Hungary was crushed.
• The US was paralyzed, in the middle of an election campaign.
Hungary• The Soviets succeeded in
enforcing control of their satellites by the invasion.
• It had a devastating effect on Soviet prestige abroad.
• Even French Communist Jean-Paul Sartre tore up his party card in protest.
• Tito also took note of the new Soviet attitude and Jugoslav-Soviet relations cooled again.
Hungary
• Bad publicity followed at the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games.
• Violence exploded in the swimming pool when Hungarian water polo players fought the Soviet team.
• Hungarian players – taught Russian at school – deliberately taunted their Soviet opponents.
• With Hungary winning 4-0 and the crowd firmly on their side, a Soviet player opened a gash on a Hungarian player’s face.
• Spectators joined the fracas and police were called in to prevent a riot.
Hungary
• Even within the Kremlin there was a price to pay.
• Khrushchev was criticized for his handling of de-Stalinization.
• Critics rose to elevated positions
Kremlin Plot
• In June Malenkov, Molotov and Kaganovich engineered a Presidium (Politbureau) vote against Khrushchev, calling for his dismissal.
• Only quick thinking saved him. He announced only the Central Committee could fire him and he had Zhukov fly all of them in for a quick vote of confidence.
Kremlin Plot
• Old Presidium members, with the exception of Bulganin, were dropped from full membership.
• New people were elevated in their place.
• From being in disgrace for his handling of de-Stalinization, it now appeared he was stronger than any leader since Stalin.
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