theories of motivationtheories of motivation

early approaches to early approaches to motivationmotivation

The scientific mgmt approach The scientific mgmt approach to motivationto motivation• By F.W. TAYLOR( FATHER OF SCIENTIFIC MGMT)By F.W. TAYLOR( FATHER OF SCIENTIFIC MGMT)

• Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 – 1917) put forward the idea that workers are Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 – 1917) put forward the idea that workers are motivated mainly by pay. His Theory of Scientific Management argued the motivated mainly by pay. His Theory of Scientific Management argued the following:following:

• Workers do not naturally enjoy work and so need close supervision and control. Workers do not naturally enjoy work and so need close supervision and control. Therefore managers should break down production into a series of small tasks Therefore managers should break down production into a series of small tasks

• Workers should then be given appropriate training and tools so they can work Workers should then be given appropriate training and tools so they can work as efficiently as possible on one set task.as efficiently as possible on one set task.

• Workers are then paid according to the number of items they produce in a set Workers are then paid according to the number of items they produce in a set period of time- piece-rate pay. period of time- piece-rate pay.

• As a result workers are encouraged to work hard and maximize their As a result workers are encouraged to work hard and maximize their productivity. productivity.

• LILLIAM M. GILBRETH determined LILLIAM M. GILBRETH determined that promotions, higher pay, shorter that promotions, higher pay, shorter hours and holidays are motivators, hours and holidays are motivators, especially when tailored to individual especially when tailored to individual needs.needs.

Behavioral mgmt Behavioral mgmt approach to mgmt.approach to mgmt.

By MAYO & McGregor.By MAYO & McGregor.

MayoMayo

• Elton Mayo (1880 – 1949) believed that workers are not just concerned with money Elton Mayo (1880 – 1949) believed that workers are not just concerned with money but could be better motivated by having their social needs met whilst at work but could be better motivated by having their social needs met whilst at work (something that Taylor ignored)..(something that Taylor ignored)..

• Mayo conducted a series of experiments at the Hawthorne factory of the Western Mayo conducted a series of experiments at the Hawthorne factory of the Western Electric Company in Chicago He isolated two groups of women workers and studied Electric Company in Chicago He isolated two groups of women workers and studied the effect on their productivity levels of changing factors such as lighting and the effect on their productivity levels of changing factors such as lighting and working conditions. What he discovered surprised him: whatever the change in working conditions. What he discovered surprised him: whatever the change in lighting or working conditions, the productivity levels of the workers improved or lighting or working conditions, the productivity levels of the workers improved or remained the same. From this Mayo concluded that workers are best motivated by:remained the same. From this Mayo concluded that workers are best motivated by:

• Better communicationBetter communication between managers and workers ( Hawthorne workers between managers and workers ( Hawthorne workers were consulted over the experiments and also had the opportunity to give were consulted over the experiments and also had the opportunity to give feedback)feedback)

• Greater manager involvement Greater manager involvement in employees working lives ( Hawthorne workers in employees working lives ( Hawthorne workers responded to the increased level of attention they were receiving)responded to the increased level of attention they were receiving)

• Working in groups or teams.Working in groups or teams. ( Hawthorne workers did not previously regularly ( Hawthorne workers did not previously regularly work in teams)work in teams)

Douglas McGregorDouglas McGregor

• Theory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory Y are theories are theories of human motivation created and of human motivation created and developed by developed by Douglas McGregorDouglas McGregor

• Theory YTheory Y• In this theory management assumes In this theory management assumes

employees employees may bemay be ambitious, self- ambitious, self-motivated, and exercise self-control. It motivated, and exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy their is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work dutiesmental and physical work duties

• Theory XTheory X

• In this theory, management assumes In this theory, management assumes employees are inherently lazy and employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can. They will avoid work if they can. They inherently dislike work. Because of inherently dislike work. Because of this, workers need to be closely this, workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed.systems of controls developed.

MaslowMaslow

• Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) along with Frederick Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) along with Frederick Herzberg (1923-) introduced the Neo-Human Herzberg (1923-) introduced the Neo-Human Relations School in the 1950’s, which focused on the Relations School in the 1950’s, which focused on the psychological needs of employees. psychological needs of employees.

• Maslow put forward a theory that there are five levels Maslow put forward a theory that there are five levels of human needs which employees need to have of human needs which employees need to have fulfilled at work. All of the needs are structured into a fulfilled at work. All of the needs are structured into a hierarchy and only once a lower level of need has hierarchy and only once a lower level of need has been fully met, would a worker be motivated by the been fully met, would a worker be motivated by the opportunity of having the next need up in the opportunity of having the next need up in the hierarchy satisfied. A business should therefore offer hierarchy satisfied. A business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to help them different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfill each need in turn and progress up the hierarchy.fulfill each need in turn and progress up the hierarchy.

HerzbergHerzberg

• Frederick Herzberg (1923-) had close links with Maslow and believed in a Frederick Herzberg (1923-) had close links with Maslow and believed in a two-factor theory of motivation. two-factor theory of motivation.

• He argued that there were certain factors that a business could introduce He argued that there were certain factors that a business could introduce that would directly motivate employees to work harder (that would directly motivate employees to work harder (MotivatorsMotivators). ). However there were also factors that would de-motivate an employee if However there were also factors that would de-motivate an employee if not present but would not in themselves actually motivate employees to not present but would not in themselves actually motivate employees to work harder (work harder (Hygiene factorsHygiene factors))

• For example a worker will only turn up to work if a business has provided a For example a worker will only turn up to work if a business has provided a reasonable level of pay and safe working conditions but these factors will reasonable level of pay and safe working conditions but these factors will not make him work harder at his job once he is there. Some of the methods not make him work harder at his job once he is there. Some of the methods managers could use to achieve this are:managers could use to achieve this are:

• Job enlargementJob enlargement – workers being given a greater variety of tasks to – workers being given a greater variety of tasks to perform (not necessarily more challenging) which should make the work perform (not necessarily more challenging) which should make the work more interesting.more interesting.

• Job enrichmentJob enrichment - involves workers being given a wider range of more - involves workers being given a wider range of more complex, interesting and challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of complex, interesting and challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of work. This should give a greater sense of achievement.work. This should give a greater sense of achievement.

• EmpowermentEmpowerment means delegating more power to employees to make their means delegating more power to employees to make their own decisions over areas of their working life.     own decisions over areas of their working life.     

ERG Theory of Motivation - ERG Theory of Motivation - Clayton P. Alderfer Clayton P. Alderfer

• In 1969, Clayton Alderfer's revision of In 1969, Clayton Alderfer's revision of Abraham Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow's Hierarchy of Needs, called , called the the ERG TheoryERG Theory (Existence, (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth), and was Relatedness, and Growth), and was created to align Maslow's motivation created to align Maslow's motivation theory more closely with empirical theory more closely with empirical research.research.

• Existence needsExistence needs include a person’s include a person’s physiological and physically related safety physiological and physically related safety needs, such as the need for food, shelter, needs, such as the need for food, shelter, and safe working conditions. and safe working conditions.

• Relatedness needsRelatedness needs include a person’s include a person’s need to interact with other people, receive need to interact with other people, receive public recognition, and feel secure around public recognition, and feel secure around people (i.e., interpersonal safety). people (i.e., interpersonal safety).

• Growth needs Growth needs consist of a person’s self-consist of a person’s self-esteem through personal achievement as esteem through personal achievement as well as the concept of self-actualization well as the concept of self-actualization presented in Maslow’s model.presented in Maslow’s model.

McClelland’s Theory of McClelland’s Theory of NeedsNeeds David McClelland’s research indicates that individuals are David McClelland’s research indicates that individuals are

motivated based on three needs:motivated based on three needs:• · · Need for achievement (NAch): Need for achievement (NAch): The drive to excel, to The drive to excel, to

achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.succeed.

• · · Need for power (NPower): Need for power (NPower): The need to make others The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.otherwise.

• · · Need for affiliation (NAff): Need for affiliation (NAff): The desire for friendly and The desire for friendly and closeclose

• interpersonal relationships.interpersonal relationships.• Unlike Maslow, McClelland did not differentiate between Unlike Maslow, McClelland did not differentiate between

any certain transition among the needs. He indicates that any certain transition among the needs. He indicates that some people have higher levels of one need than others.some people have higher levels of one need than others.

Process theory of Process theory of motivationmotivation

Vroom model of expectancy Vroom model of expectancy theory theory

• Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. The key elements to this theory are referred to pain. The key elements to this theory are referred to as Expectancy (E), Instrumentality (I), and Valence as Expectancy (E), Instrumentality (I), and Valence (V). Critical to the understanding of the theory is the (V). Critical to the understanding of the theory is the understanding that each of these factors represents understanding that each of these factors represents a belief.a belief.

• The Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom deals with The Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom deals with motivation and management. Vroom's theory motivation and management. Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

• The expectancy theory says that The expectancy theory says that individuals have different sets of goals individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if they believe and can be motivated if they believe that:that:

– There is a positive correlation between efforts and There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance, performance,

– Favorable performance will result in a desirable Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward, reward,

– The reward will satisfy an important need, The reward will satisfy an important need, – The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to

make the effort worthwhile.make the effort worthwhile.

Porter and Lawler Porter and Lawler

• The Porter-Lawler expectancy model is a The Porter-Lawler expectancy model is a model of work motivation. It is an extension model of work motivation. It is an extension of an earlier expectancy model developed of an earlier expectancy model developed by Victor Vroom in 1964. Consistent with by Victor Vroom in 1964. Consistent with the Vroom expectancy model, the Porter-the Vroom expectancy model, the Porter-Lawler model proposes that employee Lawler model proposes that employee motivation depends upon (1) the degree to motivation depends upon (1) the degree to which employees value certain rewards and which employees value certain rewards and (2) employees' belief that their efforts will (2) employees' belief that their efforts will result in their receiving these rewards. result in their receiving these rewards.

• Unlike the Vroom model, however, the Porter-Unlike the Vroom model, however, the Porter-Lawler model suggests that individuals' abilities Lawler model suggests that individuals' abilities and role perceptions moderate the relationship and role perceptions moderate the relationship between effort and performance. Furthermore, between effort and performance. Furthermore, the Porter-Lawler model emphasizes that the Porter-Lawler model emphasizes that employees' perception of the fairness of rewards employees' perception of the fairness of rewards affects the relationship between rewards they affects the relationship between rewards they receive and satisfaction with their work. The receive and satisfaction with their work. The Porter-Lawler expectancy model is one of the Porter-Lawler expectancy model is one of the better known models of work motivation and has better known models of work motivation and has generated a considerable amount of research and generated a considerable amount of research and debate.debate.

Adams equity theoryAdams equity theory

• John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist, put forward his Equity Theory on job psychologist, put forward his Equity Theory on job motivation in 1963.motivation in 1963.

• Adam called personal Adam called personal effortsefforts and and rewardsrewards and other and other similar similar 'give and take''give and take' issues at work respectively issues at work respectively 'inputs''inputs' and and 'outputs''outputs'. .

• Inputs are logically what we give or put into our work. Inputs are logically what we give or put into our work. Outputs are everything we take out in return.Outputs are everything we take out in return.

• These terms help emphasis that what people put into their These terms help emphasis that what people put into their work includes many factors besides working hours, and that work includes many factors besides working hours, and that what people receive from their work includes many things what people receive from their work includes many things aside from money. aside from money.

• Adams used the term Adams used the term 'referent' others'referent' others to describe to describe the the reference points or people with whom we compare reference points or people with whom we compare our own situationour own situation, which is the , which is the pivotal part of the pivotal part of the theorytheory. .

Leadership communicationLeadership communication

• CommunicationCommunication is the process whereby is the process whereby information is imparted by a sender to a information is imparted by a sender to a receiver via a receiver via a mediummedium. Communication . Communication requires that all parties have an area of requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are communicative commonality. There are auditoryauditory means, such as speaking, singing means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbalnonverbal, , physical means, such as physical means, such as body languagebody language, , sign languagesign language, , paralanguageparalanguage, , touchtouch, , eye contacteye contact, or the use of , or the use of writingwriting. .

• No one would talk much in society if they knew No one would talk much in society if they knew how often they misunderstood others. - Johann how often they misunderstood others. - Johann Wolfgang Von GoetheWolfgang Von Goethe

• Many of the problems that occur in an organization Many of the problems that occur in an organization are the direct result of people failing to communicate. are the direct result of people failing to communicate. Faulty communication causes the most problems. It Faulty communication causes the most problems. It leads to confusion and can cause a good plan to fail. leads to confusion and can cause a good plan to fail. Communication is the exchange and flow of Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person to another. It information and ideas from one person to another. It involves a sender transmitting an idea to a receiver. involves a sender transmitting an idea to a receiver. Effective Effective communication occurs only if the receiver communication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact information or idea that the understands the exact information or idea that the sender intended to transmit. sender intended to transmit.

Nonverbal communicationNonverbal communication (NVC)(NVC)• Nonverbal communicationNonverbal communication (NVC) is usually understood as the (NVC) is usually understood as the

process of process of communicationcommunication through sending and receiving through sending and receiving wordlesswordless messages.messages.

• NVC can be communicated through NVC can be communicated through gesturegesture; ; body languagebody language or or postureposture; ; facial expressionfacial expression and and eye contacteye contact; object communication ; object communication such as such as clothingclothing, , hairstyleshairstyles or even or even architecturearchitecture; ; symbolssymbols and and infographicsinfographics. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known . Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as as paralanguageparalanguage, including , including voicevoice quality, quality, emotionemotion and and speakingspeaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons.emoticons.

• However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction.[1]interaction.[1]

Paralanguage Paralanguage

• Paralanguage (sometimes called vocalics) is the study of Paralanguage (sometimes called vocalics) is the study of nonverbal cues of the voice. Paralanguage may change the nonverbal cues of the voice. Paralanguage may change the meaning of words.meaning of words.

• The The voice setvoice set is the context in which the speaker is is the context in which the speaker is speaking. This can include the situation, gender, mood, age speaking. This can include the situation, gender, mood, age and a person's culture. and a person's culture.

• The The voice qualitiesvoice qualities are volume, pitch, tempo, rhythm, are volume, pitch, tempo, rhythm, articulation, resonance, nasality, and accent. They give each articulation, resonance, nasality, and accent. They give each individual a unique "voice print". individual a unique "voice print".

• VocalizationVocalization consists of three subsections: characterizers, consists of three subsections: characterizers, qualifiers and segregates. Characterizers are emotions qualifiers and segregates. Characterizers are emotions expressed while speaking, such as laughing, crying, and expressed while speaking, such as laughing, crying, and yawning. A voice qualifier is the style of delivering a yawning. A voice qualifier is the style of delivering a message - for example, yelling "Hey stop that!", as opposed message - for example, yelling "Hey stop that!", as opposed to whispering "Hey stop that". Vocal segregates such as "uh-to whispering "Hey stop that". Vocal segregates such as "uh-huh" notify the speaker that the listener is listening. huh" notify the speaker that the listener is listening.

Inter-actional model of Inter-actional model of communicationcommunication• The interaction communication model is a The interaction communication model is a

model representing how communication model representing how communication works when one person speaks and then works when one person speaks and then the other person speaks. There is no the other person speaks. There is no feedback in between speaking. For feedback in between speaking. For example, a presidential debate. The example, a presidential debate. The question is asked of the president elects question is asked of the president elects and that president elect answers. The and that president elect answers. The person asking the question does not person asking the question does not provide any sort of feedback for what the provide any sort of feedback for what the president elect has said. president elect has said.

transactional communication transactional communication modelmodel

• The Transaction Model is a model The Transaction Model is a model that sees communication or that sees communication or negotiation of meaning in two or negotiation of meaning in two or more parties responding to their more parties responding to their environment and each other environment and each other

3 kinds of noise under this 3 kinds of noise under this modelmodel

• Internal noiseInternal noise

• External noiseExternal noise

• Semantic noiseSemantic noise