The Arch of Galerius (Gr.: αψίδα του Γαλερίου) (or Kamara, Gr.:καμάρα) and the Rotunda (ροτόντα) are neighboring early 4th-century monuments in the city of Thessaloniki, in the region of Central Macedonia in northern Greece. The Rotunda is also known as the Church of Agios Georgios or (in English) the Rotunda of St. George.

History[edit]

Rotunda and Arch of Galerius complex reconstruction

The arch in 1930

Close view

The 4th-century Roman Emperor Galerius commissioned these two structures as

elements of an imperial precinct linked to his Thessaloniki palace. Archeologists have

found substantial remains of the palace to the southwest.[1] These three monumental

structures were connected by a road that ran through the arch, which rose above the

major east-west road of the city.

At the crux of the major axes of the city, the Arch of Galerius emphasized the power of

the emperor and linked the monumental structures with the fabric of 4th-century

Thessaloniki. The arch was composed of a masonry core faced with marble sculptural

panels celebrating a victory over the Sassanid Persians. Less than half of the arch is

preserved.

The Rotunda was a massive circular structure with a masonry core that had anoculus like

the Pantheon in Rome. It has gone through multiple periods of use and modification as a

polytheist temple, a Christian basilica, a Muslim mosque, and again a Christian church

(and archaeological site). A minaret is preserved from its use as a mosque, and ancient

remains are exposed on its southern side.

Location and description of the Arch[edit]

The Arch of Galerius

Arch of Galerius, stands on what is now Egnatia & Dimitrios Gounari Street. The arch

was built in 298 to 299 AD and dedicated in 303 AD to celebrate the victory of

the tetrarch Galerius over the Sassanid Persians and capture of their capital Ctesiphon in

298.[2] The structure was an octopylon (eight-pillared gateway) forming a triple arch that

was built of a rubble masonry core faced first with brick and then with marble panels with

sculptural relief. The central arched opening was 9.7 m wide and 12.5 m high, and the

secondary openings on other side were 4.8 m wide and 6.5 m high. The central arch

spanned the portion of the Via Egnatia (primary Roman road from Dyrrhacium

to Byzantium) that passed through the city as a Decumanus (east-west major street). A

road connecting the Rotunda (125m northeast) with the Palace complex (235m

southwest) passed through the arch along its long axis.

Only the northwestern three of the eight pillars and parts of the masonry cores of the

arches above survive: i.e., the entire eastern side (4 pillars) and the southernmost one of

the western pillars are lost.[3] Extensive consolidation with modern brick has been

performed on the exposed masonry cores to protect the monument. The two pillars

flanking the central arched passageway retain their sculpted marble slabs, which depict

the wars of Galerius against the Persians in broadly panegyric terms.

Sculptural program of the Arch[edit]

Galerius (L) attacks Narses (R)

The imperial family at the sacrifice of thanksgiving.

The tetrarchs arrayed in unison with a Victoria holding a victory wreath to theAugusti.

Understanding of the sculptural program of the arch is limited by the loss of the majority

of the marble panels, but the remains give an impression of the whole. Four vertically

stacked registers of sculpted decoration were carved on each pillar, each separated by

elaborate moldings. A label for the Tigris River indicates that there were likely labels on

other representations as the builders deemed necessary. Artistic license was taken in the

representations, for instance, the Caesar Galerius is shown in personal combat with the

Sassanid Shah Narses in one of the panels; although they never met in battle.[citation

needed] On the arch a mounted Galerius attacks a similarly mounted Narses with a lance as

an eagle bearing a victory wreath in its talons approaches Galerius. The Caesar sits

securely on his rearing horse, while the Persian king appears nearly unhorsed. Terrified

Persians cower under the hooves of the Caesar’s horse in the chaos of battle. The panel

expresses the power of the Caesar Galerius.

The relief of the imperial family conjoined in a sacrifice of thanksgiving owes its distant

prototype to the Augustan reliefs on the Ara Pacis in Rome.[citation needed] Galerius' wife,

Diocletian's daughter Valeria, is shown at his side, helping authenticate his connection to

his predecessor. Here as elsewhere all the faces have been carefully chiselled off,

whether as damnatio memoriae or in later cultural intolerance of images.

In another panel, the tetrarchs are all arrayed in the toga as a Victoria holds a victory

wreath out to the heads of the twoAugusti. A third panel celebrates the unity of

the tetrarchy, with a depiction of the tetrarchs standing together; the depersonalized

manner in which the tetrarchs are portrayed is reminiscent of the schematic statues of

the tetrarchs in porphyry at St. Mark's Basilica in Venice.[citation needed] Only Galerius is

dressed in armor, and he makes the offering upon the altar.

What remains of the arch asserts the glory of the tetrarchy and the prominence of

Galerius within that system. The arch celebrates the Roman Empire as part of Galerius’

victory over the Sassanid king.[citation needed] On the right pictured, is Galerius on his horse in

an attack on a Sassanid guard.

Rotunda of Galerius[edit]

Location and description of the Rotunda[edit]

Plan

The Rotunda of Galerius is 125m northeast of the Arch of Galerius at 40°37'59.77"N,

22°57'9.77"E. It is also known (by its consecration and use) as the Greek

Orthodox Church of Agios Georgios, and is informally called the Church of the Rotunda

(or simply The Rotunda). The cylindrical structure was built in 306 AD on the orders of

the tetrarch Galerius, who was thought to have intended it to be his mausoleum. It was

more likely intended as a temple; it is not known to what god it would have been

dedicated.

The Rotunda has a diameter of 24.5 m. Its walls are more than 6 m thick, which is why it

has withstood Thessaloniki's earthquakes. The walls are interrupted by eight rectangular

bays, with the south bay forming the entrance. A flat brick dome, 30 m high at the peak,

crowns the cylindrical structure. In its original design, the dome of the Rotunda had

an oculus, as does the Pantheon in Rome.

Uses of the Rotunda[edit]

The altar view of the Rotunda of Galerius, initially a Mausoleum of Roman Emperor Galerius, later a

Christian church, and then a mosque. It is now the Church of the Rotunda and a UNESCO World

Heritage Site.

View of the interior with remnants of the mosaics.

After Galerius's death in 311, he was buried at Gamzigrad (Felix Romuliana)

near Zajecar, Serbia. The Rotunda stood empty until the EmperorConstantine I ordered it

converted into a Christian church in the 4th century. The church was embellished with

very high quality mosaics. Only fragments have survived of the original decoration, for

example, a band depicting saints with hands raised in prayer, in front of complex

architectural fantasies.

The building was used as a church for over 1,200 years until the city fell to the Ottomans.

In 1590 it was converted into a mosque, called the Mosque of Suleyman Hortaji Effendi,

and a minaret was added to the structure. It was used as a mosque until 1912, when the

Greeks captured the city during theBalkan War. Greek Orthodox officials reconsecrated

the structure as a church, and they left the minaret. The structure was damaged during

an earthquake in 1978 but was subsequently restored. As of 2004, the minaret was still

being stabilized with scaffolding. The building is now a historical monument under

the Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities of the Greek Ministry of Culture, although the

Greek Orthodox Church has access to the church for various festivities.

The Rotunda is the oldest of Thessaloniki's churches. Some Greek publications claim it is

the oldest Christian church in the world, although there are competitors for that title. It is

the most important surviving example of a church from the early Christian period of the

Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire.

The Walls of Thessaloniki

 (Greek: Τείχη της Θεσσαλονίκης) are the city walls surrounding the city ofThessaloniki during the Middle Ages and until the late 19th century, when large parts of the walls, including the entire seaward section, were demolished as part of the Ottoman authorities' restructuring of Thessaloniki's urban fabric. The city was fortified from its establishment in the late 4th century BC, but the present walls date from the early Byzantine period, ca. 390, and incorporate parts of an earlier, late 3rd-century wall. The walls consist of the typical late Roman mixed construction of ashlar masonry alternating with bands of brick. The northern part of the walls adjoins the acropolis of the city, which formed a separate fortified enceinte, and within it lies another citadel, the Heptapyrgion (popularly known by its Ottoman name, Yedi Kule).

Heptapyrgion (Thessaloniki)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The location of the Heptapyrgion in the old city of Thessaloniki.

The Heptapyrgion (Ancient   Greek : Ἑπταπύργιον), modern Eptapyrgio (Επταπύργιο), also popularly known by its Ottoman Turkish  name Yedi Kule (Γεντί Κουλέ), is a Byzantine and Ottoman-era fortress situated on the north-eastern corner of theacropolis of Thessaloniki in Greece. Despite its name, which in both languages means "Fortress of Seven Towers", it features ten, and was probably named after the Yedikule Fortress in Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey). It served as the major redoubt of

the city's acropolis, as well as the seat of its garrison commander in Ottoman times, until the late 19th century. It was then converted to a prison (Φυλακές Επταπυργίου), which remained open until 1989. References to the infamous Yedi Kule prison abound in the Greek rebetika songs. Restoration and archaeological work began in the 1970s and continues to this day.

View of the Heptapyrgion from the south-east.

The Heptapyrgion is located in the north-eastern corner of the city's acropolis. Although the urban core of the city essentially dates from its foundation by Cassander in 316 BC, the walls that defined the medieval and early modern city, and that are still visible today, date to the late Antiquity, when the Roman emperor Theodosius I (r. 379-395) fortified the city anew. The five northern towers of the Heptapyrgion, along with the curtain wall that connects them, forming the northern corner of the acropolis, probably date to this period. Another theory, dating their construction to the 9th century, has also been brought forth.

The southern five towers and wall were built likely in the 12th century, thus forming a fortified redoubt in the interior of the city's citadel. This fortress was then maintained and rebuilt in the Palaiologan period. The nature of the reconstruction and dating of the southern portion of the fort is disputed. There is no reference to this fort in the older literary sources, and the later ones are often ambiguous: a kastellion ("fortress") is mentioned in 1208-1209, a castellan with the Tzakones of the castle" in 1235. At the same time, the koulas (from Turkish: kule, "fort") of Thessaloniki, present in the chronicles of the 14th and 15th centuries, could refer to the entire citadel, and not just the Heptapyrgion.

From Byzantine citadel to Ottoman fort

The Ottoman inscription above the gate. Various architectural spolia, embedded into the masonry as

decorative elements, are also evident.

The principal reliable testimony regarding the fortress is the inscription placed over its gate, which indicates that it was rebuilt by Çavuş Bey, the city's first Ottoman governor, in 1431, immediately after the Ottoman conquest of the city:

“This acropolis was conquered and captured by force, from the hands of the infidels and the Franks, with the aid of God, by the Sultan Murad, son of Sultan Mehmed, whom God never ceases to give the banner of victory. And about a month later, this tower was rebuilt and founded by Çavuş Bey, king of the emirs and the Great, in the month of Ramadan, the year 834 (1431 AD). ”

Rather than a new construction, which has been disproved by archaeology, the work of Çavuş Bey may have been limited to the restoration of the bastions over the fort's monumental entrance. In a 1591 account, the fort, referred to as the Iç Kale ("Inner Castle"), serves as the residence of the city's military governor and has a 300-strong garrison. Another inscription, lost today but known from the writings of the 17th-century Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi, testified to another restoration in 1646.

An inventory of the arms and munitions contained in the various forts of the city in 1733 provides the Turkish names for the ten towers: Fener Kulesi (Lamp Tower), Makaslı Kule (Bent Tower), Su Kulesi (Water Tower), Cephane Kulesi (Ammunition Tower), Hapishane Kulesi (Prison Tower), Kız Kulesi (Maiden Tower), Zahire Ambar Kulesi (Granary Tower), Hisar Peçe (Barbican), Kanlı Burgaz (Bloody Tower), and the Çingene Tabyalar (Fortifications of the Gypsies). The latter three were considered as individual forts, unlike the others, which are classified as simple towers.

In the late 19th century, the fortress fell out of use as a military installation and was converted into a prison.

As a prison

Main gates of the Yedi Kule with Ottoman soldiers in front

During the 1890s, the fortress was converted into a prison. The exact date is not known with certainty, but the prison is mentioned in an 1899 map of the city, thus providing a terminus ante quem for the change. This conversion entailed the removal of all previous buildings in the fort's interior, of which no trace now survives. The fortifications themselves were only little modified, although their role was effectively reversed: designed to protect its residents from outside dangers, they know served to isolate the inmates from the outside world.

The prison was for long the main penitentiary facility of the city, and housed all convicted, regardless of sex or crime. New buildings were built along both sides of the walls, to fulfil the various needs of the fort's new role. The interior courtyard was partitioned into five separate enclosures by fences radiating from a central watchtower. Three featured a two-storey building housing the cells and a guard post, while the other two held the prison chapel and other annexes. A fourth cell block was situated close to the north-eastern tower, and was destroyed during the Second World War. The exterior buildings, on the fort's southern side, housed the administration, the women's prison and, to the west, theisolation cells.

The prison is well-known through its frequent occurrence in the underground rebetiko genre, and many songs feature its colloquial name, Yedi Kule. Ιt

also acquired notoriety through its use to house political prisoners during the Metaxas Regime, the Axis Occupation of Greece, and in the post-war period from the Greek Civil Warup to the Regime of the Colonels.

Restoration

The prison functioned until 1989, when it was moved outside the city. The site was then taken over by the Ministry of Culture and the regional Byzantine archaeology service, the 9th Ephorate of Byzantine and Modern Antiquities, which moved some of its offices there. The ephorate had already been active in the restoration works of 1973 on the north-eastern curtain wall, and then again between 1983 and 1985 in the restoration of the damages caused by an earthquake in 1978.

The systematic archaeological study and restoration of the Heptapyrgion began in 1990. The first phase ended in 1995, with the completing of a photogrammetricarchitectural survey and the creation of a digital model of the fortress. Several institutes participate in the relevant projects: the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, the Cornell University in the dendrochronology project, the Center for Preservation and Heritage of Mount Athos, and the municipality of Thessaloniki.

The Church of Saint Demetrius, or Hagios Demetrios 

(Greek: Άγιος Δημήτριος), is the main sanctuary dedicated toSaint Demetrius, the patron

saint of Thessaloniki (in Central Macedonia, Greece), dating from a time when it was the

second largest city of the Byzantine Empire. It is part of the site Palaeochristian and

Byzantine Monuments of Thessaloniki on the list of World Heritage

Sites by UNESCO since 1988.

HistoryThe first church on the spot was constructed in the early 4th century AD, replacing

a Roman bath. A century later, a prefect named Leontios replaced the small oratory with

a larger, three-aisled basilica. Repeatedly gutted by fires, the church eventually was

reconstructed as a five-aisled basilica in 629–634. This was the surviving form of the

church much as it is today. The most important shrine in the city, it was probably larger

than the local cathedral. The historic location of the latter is now unknown.

The church had an unusual shrine called the ciborium, a hexagonal, roofed structure at

one side of the nave. It was made of or covered with silver. The structure had doors and

inside was a couch or bed. Unusually, it did not hold any physical relics of the saint. The

ciborium seems to have been a symbolic tomb. It was rebuilt at least once.[1]

The basilica is famous for six extant mosaic panels, dated to the period between the

latest reconstruction and the inauguration of the Iconoclasticpolicies in 730. These

mosaics, depicting St. Demetrius with officials responsible for the restoration (called the

founders) and with children, represent rare examples of art surviving from the Dark

Age that followed Justinian's death. An inscription below one of the images glorifies

heaven for saving the people of Saloniki from a pagan Slavic raid in 612.

Other magnificent mosaics, recorded as covering the church interior, were lost either

during the four centuries when it functioned as a mosque (1493–1912) or in the Great

Thessaloniki Fire of 1917 that destroyed much of the city. It also destroyed the roof and

upper walls of the church. Black-and-white photographs and good watercolour versions

give an idea of the early Byzantine craftsmanship lost during the fire.

Following the Great Fire of 1917, it took decades to restore the

church. Archeological excavations conducted in the 1930s and 1940s revealed

interesting artifacts that may be seen in a museum situated inside the church's crypt. The

excavations also uncovered the ruins of aRoman bath, where St. Demetrius was said to

have been held prisoner and executed. A Roman well was also discovered. Scholars

believe this is where soldiers dropped the body of St. Demetrius after his execution. After

restoration, the church was reconsecrated in 1949.

Baptistery outside the church

 

St Demetrios with children: one of very few Byzantine mosaics that escaped destruction from the hands of theiconoclasts

 

Inside view of church

 

Small shrine inside the church containing the remnants of St. Demetrius

The CryptUnderneath the Church of St Demetrios is the place where St Demetrios, Thessaloniki’s

patron saint, was martyred.

As the level of the ground gradually rose over the centuries, this area acquired the form

of a crypt. According both to tradition and to archaeological findings, it was an old

bathhouse, in which Demetrios was imprisoned and eventually martyred in ad 303. In the

5th century, when the first Church of St Demetrios was built, the site of his martyrdom

was incorporated into the church and the fountain was converted into a source of holy

water. In the years that followed, the fountain acquired basins, from which the faithful

could collect myron, the sweet-smelling oil produced by the saint’s relics. The crypt filled

up with earth during the period of Ottoman rule and was not rediscovered until after the

fire of 1917. It has been restored by the Archaeological Service and was converted into

an exhibition space in 1988.

It displays a collection of sculptures, capitals, closure slabs, and vessels from the Church

of St Demetrios. More specifically, in room I there are sculptures from the original 5th-

century church and piers with relief decoration and capitals with four acanthus leaves. In

room II, in the saint’s chapel, there are inscriptions documenting the history of the church,

together with figural sculptures of the Middle Byzantine period. Room III displays

photographs, plans, and copies of the restoration work done on the church after the fire

of 1917.

In the next room, room IV, there are sculptures from the decoration of the church which

was built after the fire in the 7th century, and the ambo from the original 5th-century

church is in room V. Rooms VI and VII, lastly, display sculptures from the decoration of

the church in the Middle Byzantine period (10th century) and sculptures and pottery of

the 13th–15th centuries. More specifically, these include the remains of the original

ciborium, which was constructed to house first the saint’s icon and later his sarcophagus.

The ciborium was hexagonal and made of wood and silver. There are also an arch and

fragments of arches from a Byzantine ciborium over the altar, which latter is ornamented

with crosses in medallions and crosses resting on orbs. An inscription indicates that the

donor of the ciborium was Theodore, Bishop of Thessaloniki in the 13th century.[2]

Entrance to the crypt

 

Inside

 

Fountain

 

The remains of the original ciborium

 

Sculptures from the original 5th-century church and piers with relief decoration

Atatürk Museum (Thessaloniki)The Atatürk Museum (Greek: Μουσείο Ατατούρκ, Mousío Atatúrk, Turkish: Atatürk Evi Müzesi, Atatürk House Museum) is a historic house museum in Thessaloniki, Central Macedonia, Greece.

The house is the birthplace of the founder of modern Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who was born here in 1881.[2] It is a three-floor house with a courtyard on 24 Apostolou Pavlou Street, next to the Turkish Consulate. Before the capture of Thessaloniki by the Greek Army in 1912, it was known as "Koca Kasım Paşa district, Islahhane street".[1] It was built before 1870 and in 1935 the Thessaloniki City Council gave it to the Turkish State, which decided to convert it into a museum dedicated to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

The building has three floors and a courtyard. It was repaired in 1981 and was repainted to its original pink. Most of the furniture is authentic. Any missing items were replaced with furniture from Kemal’s mausoleum and from Topkapi Palacein Istanbul. There are photographs on all the walls of Kemal at various periods of his life.

There are four rooms on the ground floor, none of them of much interest to visitors. On the 1st floor is the reception room, with European sofas, a large console table, and a chased brazier; a large sitting-room, with low banquettes around the walls; Kemal’s mother’s room, with a bed, a banquette, and a trunk; and the kitchen, equipped with contemporary cooking utensils. The most impressive room on the 2nd floor is the one in which Kemal was born, a large room with a banquette, his desk, and a large brazier. It faces another room, in which some of Kemal’s personal effects from Ankara are displayed. These include formal dress, smoking requisites, cutlery, cups, and other items. All the documents relating to Kemal’s schooldays have been hung on the walls. A pomegranate tree planted by Kemal’s father still grows in the courtyard.[3]

In September 1955 a bomb exploded close to the Turkish consulate, it damaged also the Atatürk Museum. This was the beginning of anti-Greek demonstrations and violence in Istanbul, known as the Istanbul Pogrom. Six years later a Turkish court found that the bombing was ordered by the government of Adnan Menderes, Menderes apologized and offered compensation.[4]

In 1981 a replica of the house was built in Ankara.

Museum of Byzantine CultureFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Museum of Byzantine Culture

Exterior view

[1][2] The Museum of Byzantine Culture (Greek: Μουσείο Βυζαντινού Πολιτισμού) is a museum in Thessaloniki, Central Macedonia, Greece, which opened in 1994.

History[edit]

To design the museum, a nationwide architectural competition was announced in 1977. The competition was ultimately won by the entry of Kyriakos Krokos. Construction of the building began in March 1989, and was completed in October 1993. Antiquities from the Byzantine & Christian Museum in Athens were transferred in June 1994, some of them being displayed in the museum's inaugural exhibition, "Byzantine Treasures of Thessaloniki: The Return Journey". The museum finally opened on 11 September 1994.[3]

Exhibits[edit]

Opening in 1994, the museum currently has three permanent exhibitions. The first, "Early Christian Churches", focuses on the design and decoration of churches in early centuries of Christianity. "Early Christian Cities and Dwellings", presents aspects of economic life, domestic handicrafts, houses, and food and clothing of early Christians, and finally, "From the Elysian Fields to the Christian Paradise" focuses on cemeteries of early Christians, jewellery, sepulchral architecture and painting, cult customs, and clay and glass objects recovered from excavated graves.[4] Beginning in 1998, the museum has run educational programmes for schoolchildren.[4]

Awards[edit]

In 2005, the museum was awarded the Council of Europe's Museum Prize

White Tower of Thessaloniki

The White Tower of Thessaloniki

The White Tower of Thessaloniki (Greek: Λευκός Πύργος Lefkos Pyrgos), is a monument and museum on the waterfront of the city of Thessaloniki, capital of the region of Macedonia in northern Greece and a symbol of Greek sovereignty over Macedonia. The present tower replaced an old Byzantine fortification which was mentioned around the 12th century and reconstructed by the Ottomans to fortify the city's harbour; it became a notorious prison and scene of mass executions during the period of Ottoman rule. It was substantially remodeled and its exterior was whitewashed after Greece gained control of the city in 1912. It has been adopted as the symbol of the city.

Physical attributes[

The White Tower in 1912, showing the chemise that surrounded the tower until its demolition in 1917.

The White Tower takes the form of a cylindrical drum 23 m (75 ft) in diameter with a height of 27 m (89 ft) above ground level, on top of which is a turret 12 m (39 ft) in diameter and 6 m (20 ft) high. Some of the embrasures in the outer wall of the tower are reached by a spiral ramp; others are accessed from a central room on each of the six floors. The turret houses a platform with a diameter of 10 m (33 ft), and the platform at the top of the main tower in front of the turret is about 5 m (16 ft) wide.

The tower has been altered substantially over the years. Early illustrations show that it was originally covered by a conical roof, like similar towers in the Yedikule Fortress and Rumelihisarı fortress in Istanbul. Until its demolition in 1917, a chemisestood at the foot of the tower, supporting the heavy guns and enclosing an area at least three times the diameter of the main tower. Octagonal turrets on

the chemise and caponiers at ground level provided flanking fire around the tower. It is unclear whether the chemise was part of the original scheme for the tower or was a later addition.[1]

History[

View c.1919

The tower, which once guarded the eastern end of the city's sea walls, was for many years attributed to Venice, to which the Byzantines ceded Thessaloniki in 1423. It is now known definitely that the tower was constructed by the Ottomans some time after the army of Sultan Murad II captured Thessaloniki in 1430.[1] Until 1912, an inscription in Ottoman Turkish verse above the door dated the structure to AH 942 (1535–1536). The historian Franz Babinger speculated that the work was designed by the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, who is known to have built fortifications, including a similar tower at the Albanian port Valona in 1537.[2] The present tower likely replaced an older Byzantine tower mentioned by the 12th-century archbishopEustathios during the sack of 1185.[3]

View of the area

The Tower was used by the Ottomans successively as a fort, garrison and a prison. In 1826, at the order of the Sultan Mahmud II, there was a massacre of the rebellious Janissaries imprisoned there. Owing to the "countless victims of Ottoman torturers and executioners", the tower acquired the name "Tower of Blood" or "Red Tower" (Turkish: Kanli Kule), which it kept until the end of the 19th century.[4]

The Tower was for centuries part of the walls of the old city of Thessaloniki, and separated the Jewish quarter of the city from the cemeteries of the Muslims and Jews.[4] The city walls were demolished in 1866. When Thessaloniki was annexed from the Ottoman Empire to the Hellenic State in 1912 during the First Balkan War, the tower was whitewashed as a symbolic gesture of cleansing, and acquired its present name. King George I of Greece was assassinated not far from the White Tower in March 1913.

The Tower is now a buff colour but has retained the name White Tower. It now stands on Thessaloniki's waterfront boulevard, Nikis (Victory) Street. It houses a museum dedicated to the history of Thessaloniki and is one of the city's leading tourist attractions. The Tower

is under the administration of the Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities of the Greek Ministry of Culture.

White Tower Museum

Close up view

Today, the White Tower houses an exhibition dedicated to the city of Thessaloniki and its history throughout various periods, organized by the city's Museum of Byzantine Culture.

For the first few months of 2002 it housed ‘Byzantine Hours’, an exhibition devoted to ordinary life in Byzantine times.

Exhibits on the first floor were part of the thematic unit entitled ‘Professionals in the market place’. To be more precise, there were tools and other objects belonging to goldsmiths, blade-smiths, cobblers, glassmakers and tilers, coins and a model of the city of Thessaloniki market place. The second floor was devoted to journeys and trade. So exhibits included objects and texts related to journeys by sea and overland, fairs, spectacles and pilgrimages.

The third floor is focused mainly on the presentation of the Byzantine home and what it was like inside, the decoration, supper, and the neighbourhood. One floor above this there was an exhibition of life at home with garments and footwear, cosmetics, perfume and jewellery, personal grooming, and even superstitions. The theme of the top floor was death, covering burial and graves, funerary customs, finds from graves, gravestone inscriptions from cemeteries, even objects and specimens of magic were on display in the show cases on the top floor of the Tower.

The Tower is open to the public, and visitors have the opportunity to view a map of the city with monuments and museums, a timeline with events relevant to Thessaloniki, scientific articles of distinguished historians and archaeologists, bibliography etc. School excursions may be arranged by contacting the Byzantine Museum (tel. (++30) 2310 868 570).[5][6][7]

Banknotes controversy[

Unofficial souvenir banknote from the Republic of Macedonia depicting the White Tower of Thessaloniki

In the early 1990s, the White Tower became the focus of a major controversy between Greece and the newly independentRepublic of Macedonia. Unofficial "Makedonka"

souvenir banknotes created by nationalist organizations in the Republic of Macedonia depicted the White Tower of Thessaloniki, VMRO-DPMNE proposed its adoption. However, the government in Skopje rejected its official use and adopted a different design for the new Macedonian denar, which was issued in 1992.[8]

IMPRES, nonetheless, printed unofficial banknotes depicting the White Tower,[9][10] which were sold as souvenirs on the streets of Skopje, bearing a disclaimer "this is a souvenir banknote and not for official use".[11][12] The printing of the notes became the subject of a rumor in Greece that the currency of the new neighbouring state did in fact depict Greek symbols — a highly controversial point, given the dispute with the Republic of Macedonia over its name and flag.[13] The notes were never placed in circulation, as they were not legal tender, but the episode nonetheless exacerbated the ill will felt between the two countries and helped to aggravate tensions in the Balkans.[14]

Archaeological Museum of ThessalonikiThe Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki is a museum in Thessaloniki, Central Macedonia, Greece. It holds and interprets artifacts from the Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods, mostly from the city of Thessaloniki but also from the region of Macedonia in general.

The building and the exhibitions[edit]

The museum is housed in a building designed by architect Patroklos Karantinos and is an example of the modern architectural trends of Greece. Built in 1962, the museum had a new wing added to it in 1980, in which the findings fromVergina were displayed, up until 1997. In 2001 and 2004, in the run-up to the 2004 Athens Olympics, the museum was extensively renovated and its permanent exhibits reorganized.

The central rooms hold exhibits from the archaeological excavations conducted in Thessaloniki and the broader area ofMacedonia. The new wing hosts two exhibitions: The Gold of Macedon, with artefacts from the cemeteries of Sindos, Agia Paraskevi, Nea Filadelfia, Makrygialos, Derveni, Lete, Serres, and Evropos; and The Thessaloniki Area in Prehistory, with material from prehistoric settlements, dating from the Neolithic to the Early and Late Bronze Age.

At present, the collection of Archaic to Late Roman sculptures from Thessaloniki and Macedonia in general is displayed in the central section of the museum. They illustrate the history of Thessaloniki from prehistoric times to Late Antiquity. These rooms display architectural members from an Ionic temple of the 6th century BC, sculptures of all periods from Macedonia, exhibits from the excavations in the palace complex built by Galerius in the Thessaloniki city centre, a reconstruction of the façade of the Macedonian tomb in Agia Paraskevi, with genuine architectural members, and finds (mainly gold artefacts) of the Archaic and Classical periods from the Sindos cemetery. In all these rooms, certain important exhibits have been singled out and further information about them is given to help visitors appreciate the importance of each exhibit and of the area and the period from which it comes.

Apart from its permanent displays, the Archaeological Museum also hosts major temporary and thematic exhibitions. In theManolis Andronikos Room, for instance, there is an exhibition titled The Coins of Macedonia from the 6th Century to 148 BC, with examples of coins that were circulating in Macedonia in that period. A showcase in the lobby of the museum displays some finds from the excavation of the Neolithic settlement

at Makrygialos in Pieria, accompanied by information about the progress of the excavation.

In the new wing, the The Gold of Macedon exhibition includes finds from numerous excavations in Central Macedonia. Taking the history of gold as its central theme, it presents the culture of Macedonia from the 6th century BC to 148 BC, discussing the use of gold (jewellery, sartorial decoration, gilding of objects and vessels, coins), the technology of the manufacture of gold jewellery, and the techniques of gold mining. There are also numerous finds from cemeteries, and their role inburial customs is described.

The Thessaloniki in Prehistory exhibition aims to recreate a picture of the Thermaic Gulf littoral before the city of Thessaloniki was built. It presents the first excavations, which were carried out during the First World War by British and French troops, and finds from the most important prehistoric settlements in the area (Thermi, Vassilika, Stavroupoli, Oraiokastro, Assiros, Toumba, and Kastana) divided into three chronological groups (Neolithic, and Early and Late Bronze Age)

Church of Panagia ChalkeonFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Church of Panagia Chalkeon (Greek: Παναγία τῶν Χαλκέων) is an 11th-century Byzantine church in the northernGreek city of Thessaloniki.

Location[edit]

The church is located at Dikastirion Square, north of the Via Egnatia at the point where it crosses the Aristotelous Avenue, which leads to the Aristotelous Square. The archaeological site of the city's Roman forum is located northeast, while its name, which translates as "the Virgin of the Copper-smiths", derives from its proximity to the area traditionally occupied by the city's coppersmiths.[1]

History and description[edit]

According to the founder's inscription above the west entrance, the church was built in 1028 by the protospathariosChristopher, katepano of Longobardia, and his wife Maria, son Nikephoros and two daughters, Anna and Katakale. Christopher's tomb was probably located in an arcosolium on the church's northern wall.[1][2]

The ground plan is that of a classic "cross-in-square-form" typical of Macedonian-period architecture, with four columns and three domes, one central and two over the narthex. The entire building is built of bricks, which gave it the popular nickname "Red Church" (Κόκκινη Εκκλησιά). The exterior is enlivened with a variety of arches and pilasters, elements which can be traced to Constantinopolitan influence. The use of arches with several setbacks gives the building a "sculpted" appearance. In the interior, most of the carved marble decoration, as well as frescoes from the 11th and 14th centuries have been preserved.[1][2]

With the conquest of the city in 1430 by the Ottoman Turks, the church was turned into a mosque, named Kazancilar Camii ("Mosque of the Cauldron-Merchants")

Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki

The Hagia Sophia (Greek: Ἁγία Σοφία, Holy Wisdom) in Thessaloniki, Greece, is one of the oldest churches in that city still standing today. It is one of several monuments in Thessaloniki included as a World Heritage Site on the UNESCO list.

History[edit]

Since the 3rd century, there was a church in the location of the current Hagia Sophia. In the 8th century, the present structure was erected, based on the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey). In 1205, when the Fourth Crusade captured the city, the Hagia Sophia was converted into the cathedral of Thessaloniki, which it remained after the city was returned to the Byzantine Empire in 1246. After the capture of Thessaloniki by the Ottoman Sultan Murad II on 29 March 1430, the church was converted into a mosque.[1] It was reconverted to a church upon the liberation of Thessaloniki in 1912.

Its ground plan is that of a domed Greek cross basilica. Together with the Gül and the Kalenderhane Mosques inIstanbul and the destroyed Church of the Dormition in Nicaea, it represents one of the main architectural examples of this type, typical of the Byzantine middle period.[2]

Interior view of Hagia Sophia

In the Iconoclastic era, the apse of the church was embellished with plain gold mosaics with only one great cross, similarly to the Hagia Irene in Constantinople and the Church of the Dormition in Nicaea. The cross was substituted with the image of theTheotokos (God-bearer, or Mary) in 787-797 after the victory of the Iconodules. The mosaic in the dome now represents the Ascension of Jesus Christ with the inscription from Acts 1:11 "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven?". The dome is ringed by the figures of all Twelve Apostles, the Virgin Mary and two angels.

Much of the interior decoration was plastered over after the Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917. The dome was not restored until 1980.[3]