Thinking Skills in Education

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    Thinking Skills in Education

    Analytical Comparison of Four Frameworks:

    Integrated Design Method, Dimensions of Thinking,

    Infusion of Thinking Skills, Four Frames of Knowledge

    by Craig Rusbult, Ph.D.

    1. Integrated Design Method An Integrated Framework for Thinking

    A central goal of education is helping students learn how to think more effectively. In our

    efforts to achieve this goal, one valuable teaching tool is the system of problem-solving

    methods used in design and science, as represented in my models ofIntegrated DesignMethod (IDM) and Integrated Scientific Method (ISM), which are two aspects of an

    integrated framework for thinking skills. There aretwo objectives for IDM-and-ISM: toallow an accurate description of methods (of what designers and scientists think and do

    when they are solving problems) and to be useful for education.

    Integrated Design Method (IDM) is a model for problem solving. It is a logically

    organized framework for thinking skills: IDM is an integrated system that shows how

    different aspects of thinking are related and how they can be effectively coordinated. Another

    level of integration occurs when IDM provides a "common context" by showing that similar

    thinking skills and methods are used in a wide variety of activities. If IDM is used in a wide

    variety of areas, then (especially when teachers call attention to the transitive logic that "ifscience uses IDM and history uses IDM and music uses IDM, then the methods of thinking

    used in science and history and music are related") students will recognize that much of what

    they are learning in one area of school can be transferred to other areas and can be used inpractical real-life situations.

    COLOR CODING RED is an important term,BLUE is a quotation, and PURPLE is

    explained below.

    RESOURCE-PAGES are available forCRITICAL THINKING & CREATIVE THINKING

    & PROBLEM SOLVING.

    2. Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum & Instruction

    Comparing Two Frameworks

    To illustrate the unifying potential of Integrated Design Method, this page begins by

    examining Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum and Instruction (1988,

    Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development), an excellent book written by

    seven educators: Robert Marzano, plus Brandt, Hughes, Jones, Presseisen, Rankin, andSuhor. In the purple-colored text, a summary of Chapters 1-4 and (in a little more depth)

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    Chapter 5 will show how actions inDimensions of Thinkingare related to actions in

    Integrated Design Method, and how these two "frameworks for thinking" are compatibleand mutually supportive, and how IDM could serve as a unifying structure for our teaching of

    thinking skills and methods:

    In Dimensions of Thinking, Chapter 1 Thinking as the Foundation of Schooling

    emphasizes the centrality and importance of thinking in education.In Chapter 2, the authors definemetacognitionas "being aware of our thinking as we

    perform specific tasks and then using this awareness to control what we are doing." { Allquotations in this section are from Dimensions of Thinking. }

    Chapter 3 explains howcreative thinkingandcritical thinkingoperate as a cooperative

    team: "They complement each other, share many attributes,... and both are necessary to

    achieve any worthy goal." Creativity is "the ability to form new combinations of ideas to

    fulfill a need," to produce ideas that will be useful. Critical thinking, defined broadly, is

    "reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do." { It is

    important to recognize that critical thinkingis just evaluative thinkingthat is not necessarily

    negative and does not always lead to criticism. Critical thinking can also lead to anenthusiastically positive conclusion about the idea being evaluated. }

    Chapters 2 and 3 ofDimensions describe two broad functions of IDM: to promote

    metacognitive "thinking about thinking" and to provide a structure that shows how creativity

    and criticality can be fluently combined in problem solving.

    Chapters 4 and 5 distinguish between a skill and a process: "What we callthinking skills

    are simpler cognitive operations such as observing, comparing, or inferring." Athinkingprocess"involves using a sequence of skills intended to achieve a particular outcome." A

    process "orchestrates numerous skills" and is directed toward achieving an objective.Compared with a skill, a process "is broader in scope, and takes a longer time to complete."

    Chapter 4 describes three types of Thinking Process: Knowledge Acquisitionby

    Concept Formation, Principle Formation, and Comprehension; andKnowledge ProductionorKnowledge Applicationby Problem Solving, Decision Making, Research (Scientific

    Inquiry), Composition ("the process of conceiving and developing a product"), or OralDiscourse (dialog).

    The essence of IDM, its main function and purpose, is to serve as a framework for

    understanding and mastering the applications of knowledge that occur in problem solving,

    decision making, research, and composition. But IDM can also be useful in promoting the

    production and acquisition of knowledge, as explained in the discussion of Chapter 5 that

    follows.

    Chapter 5 examines 21 thinking skills in 8categories. After a brief description of the

    skills in each category (slightly rearrangedby me) I'll explain how the skills inD

    imensionsare related to actions in IDM.

    Focusing Skillsare used to stimulate and guide action "after an individual senses a

    problem, an issue, or a lack of meaning." Focusing can take the form ofDefining Problems

    (to clarify what, why, who, when,...),Setting Goals (to "establish direction and purpose") or

    Formulating Questions (to "clarify issues and meaning through inquiry; good questions

    focus attention on important information and are designed to generate new information").

    Information-Gathering Skillsare "used to bring to consciousness the content to be used

    for cognitive processing." The information "may already be stored, or may be newly

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    collected." Recallingis retrieving old information from long-term memory. Elaborating

    "involves adding details, explanations, examples, or other relevant information from priorknowledge in order to improve understanding." Observingis obtaining new information

    "from the environment... through one or more senses."

    As explained in an outline of IDM, the process of design begins by recognizing a problem

    (which, broadly defined, is an opportunity to make things better or to prevent things from

    getting worse) and defining an overall objective. Following this, you can define goals for thedesired characteristics of the product, strategy, or theory that is the objective. As defined in

    Dimensions of Thinking, the Focusing Skills deal primarily with defining the objective(s) that

    will motivate and guide all actions during the process of design.

    The first action which begins before objectives are defined because observational

    information provides the basis for recognizing that a problem/opportunity exists is to

    gather information. Dimensions emphasizes that information can be old or new. In IDMthese two ways to gather occur in the SEARCH mode (to remember old observations) and

    TEST mode (to produce new observations).

    In the diagram below, two skills from Dimensions (focus and gather information) are

    correlated with the corresponding actions in IDM (define overall objective and the four-stepprocess of producing observations).

    Generating Skillsthat "add information beyond what is given" are "essentially

    constructive, as connections among new ideas and prior knowledge are made by building a

    coherent organization of ideas (i.e., schema) that holds the new and old informationtogether." Predictingis usually done "by assessing the likelihood of an outcome based on

    prior knowledge of how things usually turn out" to produce "a statement anticipating the

    outcomes of a situation." Inferring involves "going beyond available information to identify

    what reasonably may be true. ... Deductive reasoning is the ability to extend an existing

    principle or idea in a logical manner; inductive reasoning refers to making generalizations

    and logical statements based on observation or analysis of various cases."

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    The skill of "generate, by using logic and creativity" (from Dimensions) appears on theleft side of the IDM diagram above, because predicting (in Dimensions) is the four-step

    process of producing predictions (in IDM), and inferring (in Dimensions) occurs in the

    retroductive logic (in IDM) that creatively generates a theory (by aiming for predictions that

    match known observations) or a product-idea (by aiming for predictions that match your goals

    for a product). { Retroduction is discussed in the context of "Goal-Oriented Invention of

    Products" in A Detailed Overview of Design Method. }

    Evaluating Skillsare used to "assess the reasonableness and quality of ideas."

    Establishing Criteriais "setting standards for judging the value or logic of ideas. These

    criteria are rational principles derived from culture, experience, and instruction." Verifying

    (or falsifying) can be the result of evaluating "the truth of an idea, using specific standards or

    criteria of evaluation." Identifying Errors"involves detecting mistakes in logic,

    calculations, procedures, and knowledge, and where possible, identifying their causes and

    making corrections or changes in thinking."

    The action ofestablishing criteria (in Dimensions) is setting goals (in IDM), and

    verifying (in Dimensions) corresponds (in IDM) to evaluate theory and (if we stretch the

    scope ofD

    imensions to include more than just theories) evaluate product. The action ofidentifying errors is implicit in IDM; if evaluation leads you and another person to reachdifferent conclusions, then either one of you has made an error, or each of you has reached a

    valid "alternative conclusion."

    The skills in the next three categories organizing, analyzing, and integrating are

    useful for gaining a deeper understanding of concepts:

    Organizing Skillsare used to "arrange information so it can be understood or presented

    more effectively." Comparingis "identifying similarities and differences between or among

    entities." Classifyingis "grouping items into categories on the basis of their attributes."

    Orderingis "sequencing entities according to a given criterion." Representingoccurs when

    "a learner makes information more meaningful and cohesive" by "changing its form to show

    how critical elements are related." Encodingis the process of organizing information inmemory so it can be recalled.

    Analyzing Skills"are used to clarify existing information by examining parts and

    relationships." A thinker can identifyAttributes and Components ("the parts that together

    constitute a whole"),Relationships and Patterns (that can be "causal, hierarchical, temporal,spatial, correlational, or metaphorical" or...), andMain Ideas (plus key details). When

    applied to a theory, analysis helps us understand. When applied to an argument, analysis

    helps us think about the credibility of assumptions, observations, reasonings, and claims.

    As partners of analyzing skills,Integrating Skillsinvolve "putting together the relevant

    parts or aspects of a solution, understanding, principle, or composition... by building

    meaningful connections between incoming information and prior knowledge, incorporating

    this integrated information into a new understanding." Summarizing"is combining

    information efficiently into a cohesive statement." Restructuring"is changing existingknowledge structures to incorporate new information. Because of new insights, the learner

    actively modifies, extends, reorganizes, or even discards past understandings. ... Thisrecasting of ideas is a major part of conceptual growth, and ultimately of cognitive

    development."

    In IDM the focal point for all of these skills is theory, which is defined broadly so it

    includes organized systems of concepts in science (physical, biological, social, economic,...)

    and in math, business, and other areas, and also interpretations of events in real life (in current

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    or historical situations) and in fiction. IDM can help students understand how theories are

    constructed (by inference), why they are accepted or rejected (due to evaluation), and howthey can be useful (for predicting) during the process of solving problems in many types of

    design. Because IDM is closely related to ISM (Integrated Scientific Method) and becausescientific method is the process of designing theories the potential educational value of IDM-

    and-ISM in promoting the learning of theories (i.e., concepts, principles, comprehensions,...)

    is further enhanced. IDM and/or ISM can also help students understand the relationshipsbetween conceptual knowledge (gaining a deeper, more accurate understanding of conceptsand situations) and procedural knowledge (in a wide variety of activities that include, but are

    not limited to, the production and utilization of conceptual knowledge).

    As discussed above, there is a close connection between the thinking skills and methods in

    IDM and in Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum and Instruction. Thus, it

    seems likely that IDM could be smoothly integrated with the type of "education in thinking"recommended by the authors ofDimensions and by many other educators. Because it

    provides a common context that is shared by many areas, the transitive nature of IDM (whichconnects with many areas, thus connecting them with each other) might help students

    understand the similarities between thinking methods in different areas of the curriculum, and

    might promote a transfer of skills from one area to another.

    3. A Strategy for Instruction (Robert Swartz)A central goal of many educators is to help students learn how to think more effectively.

    Robert Swartz (director of the National Center for Teaching Thinking) and Sandra Parks, in

    their book onInfusing the Teaching of Critical and Creative Thinking into ElementaryInstruction, emphasize the importance of thinking skills, and then explain their approach to

    instruction:"Improving the quality of student thinking is an explicit priority of current educational

    reform efforts. ... Good thinking is essential in a technologically oriented, multicultural

    world. ... Our students must be prepared to exercise critical judgment and creative thinking to

    gather, evaluate, and use information for effective problem solving and decision making in

    their jobs, in their professions, and in their lives."

    "Infusing critical and creative thinking into content instruction blends features of two

    contrasting instructional approaches that educators have taken to teaching thinking: (1) directinstruction of thinking in noncurricular contexts and (2) the use of methods which promote

    thinking in content lessons." As in Approach #1 (but not #2) infusion lessons "employ directinstruction in the thinking skills and processes that they are designed to improve" but (unlike

    #1) "are not taught in separate courses or programs outside the regular curriculum." (Swartz &

    Parks, 1994)

    The authors also explain the difference between "methods that promote thinking... [but]

    remain content oriented" and methods that, in addition to promoting content learning, also use

    direct instruction that is designed to improve thinking skills. In an infusion approach there isa dual emphasis on content and process, on conceptual knowledge and procedural knowledge,

    on deeper understanding and improved thinking.

    The framework for thinking skills employed by Swartz and Parks is similar to that in

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    Dimensions of Thinking, but is distinctive in important ways. Because it is designed to make

    a direct connection with teachers "this handbook presents a teacher-oriented approach toimproving student thinking that blends sound theory and effective classroom practice" the

    overall framework inInfusion of Thinkingis simpler, with three categories of skills(Clarification and Understanding,Creative Thinking, and Critical Thinking) plus two

    types of objectives (Decision Makingand Problem Solving). As in Dimensions, each skill

    category is expanded into a number of skills: inInfusion the 3 categories encompass 7 sub-categories and 16 skills.

    Overall, the coverage inInfusion is similar to that in Dimensions and IDM, but there is a

    difference in emphasis. In Dimensions, for example, Creative Thinking is discussed (alongwith Critical Thinking) in Chapter 3, but is not explicitly included in the Thinking Methods

    (Chapter 4) or Thinking Skills (Chapter 5). But in Dimensions, Creative Thinking is one ofthe 3 major categories that is then elaborated into skills: Creative Thinking involves using

    Multiplicity of Ideas (Fluency), Varied Ideas (Flexibility), New Ideas (Originality), andDetailed Ideas (Elaboration) to Generate Alternative Possibilities, and using

    Analogy/Metaphor to Combine Ideas. This explicit analysis into specific skills makes it morelikely that, in the classroom, teachers will direct students' attention to the individual aspects of

    creative thinking.

    These "creative thinking skills" are included in the discussions of creativity in Dimensions

    and IDM, but do not appear in either framework. However, the general category of CreativeThinking is in the Dimensions framework. And in the IDM framework, creativity occurs

    whenever there is a need to generate: in Generate (select or invent) Ideas for Product,Generate (acquire or construct) Product, Design (generate and evaluate) Model of Product,

    and Design (generate and evaluate) Experimental System. And creativity also appears inother actions, such as Defining an Objective (in IDM) or Elaborating (in Dimensions).

    Despite their superficial differences, however, all three frameworks agree about the

    characteristics and importance of creative thinking (and critical thinking and conceptual

    learning) and all agree that we can teach these skills more effectively, and we should.

    More information about the National Center for Teaching Thinking, an organizationdevoted to helping teachers improve the way they teach thinking skills, is available at theirwebsite, which includes What is Infusion? (it's an introduction to their teaching approach)

    and several infusion lessons. {as with other italicized links, these pages will open in a

    separate new window}

    4. Four Frames of Knowledge (David Perkins)

    The remainder of this section, which describes another interesting approach to education

    in conceptual knowledge and procedural knowledge, is quoted from an early version of a

    proposal (Rusbult, 1996) for my Ph.D. dissertation:

    In an effort to encourage the development of instructional techniques that will help

    students develop a deep understanding of content and thinking skills, Perkins & Simmons

    (1988) propose an integrative model with four mutually interactive frames of knowledge:

    content, problem solving, epistemic, and inquiry. After describing each frame in detail, along

    with examples that illustrate the detrimental effects of ignoring some frames during

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    instruction, or of treating the frames in isolation from each other, the authors based on their

    theory that "people learn much of what they have a direct opportunity and some motivation tolearn, and little else" recommend that "instruction should include all four frames... and

    should involve explicit articulation by teachers and/or students of the substance of the framesand their interrelationships."

    Some relationships between content and process are explicitly characterized in thePerkins-Simmons model with its four interactive frames of knowledge. In science these

    frames can be described in terms of thinking skills: thecontentframe is learning scientific

    theories,problem solvinginvolves using these theories, theepistemicframe is evaluatingtheories, and the focus ofinquiryis inventing theories. With this formulation, one way to

    explicitly articulate "the substance of the frames and their interrelationships" and to pursuethe educational benefits that may ensue is to show how the frames operate in the context of

    science. This is what my model of Integrated Scientific Method (ISM) will do. [note: Sincemy dissertation was about ISM and its use in the analysis of instruction, the focus here is on

    ISM, but most of what is said also applies to IDM.]

    As a way to articulate the four frames, ISM will offer two distinct benefits:

    First, the visual organization of ISM could make it easier for students to understand

    essential relational patterns between the four thinking frames, to literally see how details fitinto the "big picture" of science; an explicit, logically organized visual model can help

    students construct their own mental models of science and thinking strategies (Mayer, 1993).... The visual representation of knowledge especially when it is closely coordinated with

    verbal representation, as in the proposed model for ISM can be a powerful tool forfacilitating a deeper, more sophisticated understanding of conceptual organization.

    Second, although it is closely related to the four-frame model, scientific method is more

    familiar to scientists, study-of-science scholars, educators, teachers, and students, so it may be

    easier to communicate ideas effectively if they are expressed in terms of scientific method,used by itself or in conjunction with the four frames of knowledge. This familiarity will also

    make it easier to connect with and to effectively utilize the large amount of thinking that has

    been done about the methods of science and their application to education. .....ISM provides a way to explicitly articulate "the substance of the frames and their

    interrelationships," as recommended by Perkins & Simmons (1988). "ISM could, by its use in

    curriculum planning, expand the range of opportunities for student learning experience to

    include all four frames of knowledge; and by its direct use in the classroom, ISM could also

    help students learn more from their experience by explicitly directing attention to importantaspects of what can be learned, thus facilitating forward-reaching transfer (Salomon &

    Perkins, 1989) and intentional learning (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989). One valuable form oflearning involves metaknowledge; ISM could help students learn more about the integrated

    structure of knowledge and the consequent potential for gaining new knowledge. Forexample, an improved knowledge of science-as-process can be used to gain an increase in

    knowledge of science-as-content." (Rusbult, 1996)

    Four Frameworks Strategies and

    Methods for Teaching Thinking Skills

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    This page has examined three frameworks for thinking skills and methods Dimensionsof Thinking, Infusion of Thinking Skills, and Four Frames of Knowledge to show that

    these frameworks are compatible with IDM-and-ISM and with each other. In fact, all four

    frameworks are mutually supportive, and these approaches (along with others) could be

    creatively blended to form a powerful cooperative team, operating synergistically to improve

    education both before and during instruction, in curriculum development and in the

    classroom.