TimelineofHistoryofMedicineAntiquity

2600BCImhotepthepriestphysicianwhowaslaterdeifiedastheEgyptiangodofmedicine.[1]ancientEgyptianmedicine2500BCIryEgyptianinscriptionspeaksofIryas[eyedoctorofthepalace,][palacephysicianofthebelly,][guardianoftheroyalbowels,]and[hewhopreparestheimportantmedicine(namecannotbetranslated)andknowstheinnerjuicesofthebody.][2]1900BC1600BCAkkadianclaytabletsonmedicinesurviveprimarilyascopiesfromAshurbanipal'slibraryatNineveh.[3]1800BCCodeofHammurabisetsoutfeesforsurgeonsandpunishmentsformalpractice[2]1800BCKahunGynecologicalPapyrus1600BCHearstpapyrusCoprotherapyandmagic[4]1551BCEbersPapyrusCoprotherapyandmagic[5]1500BCSaffronusedasamedicineontheAegeanislandofTherainancientGreece1500BCEdwinSmithPapyrusanEgyptianmedicaltextandtheoldestknownsurgicaltreatise(notruesurgery)nomagic[2]1300BCBrugschPapyrusandLondonMedicalPapyrus1250BCAsklepios[2]9thcenturyHesiodreportsanontologicalconceptionofdiseaseviathePandoramyth.Diseasehasa"life"ofitsownbutisofdivineorigin.[4]8thcenturyHomertellsthatPolydamnasuppliedtheGreekforcesbesiegingTroywithhealingdrugsHomeralsotellsaboutbattlefieldsurgeryIdomeneustellsNestorafterMachaonhadfallen:Asurgeonwhocancutoutanarrowandhealthewoundwithhisointmentsiswortharegiment.[2]700BCCnidosmedicalschoolalsooneatCos500BCDariusIorderstherestorationoftheHouseofLife(Firstrecordofa(mucholder)medicalschool)[2]:47500BCBianQuebecomestheearliestphysicianknowntouseacupunctureandpulsediagnosis500BCtheSushrutaSamhitaispublished,layingtheframeworkforAyurvedicmedicinec490c430Empedoclesfourelements[5]510430BCAlcmaeonofCrotonscientificanatomicdissections.Hestudiedtheopticnervesandthebrain,arguingthatthebrainwastheseatofthesensesandintelligence.Hedistinguishedveinsfromthearteriesandhadatleastvagueunderstandingofthecirculationoftheblood.[2]VariouslydescribedbymodernscholarsasFatherofAnatomyFatherofPhysiologyFatherofEmbryologyFatherofPsychologyCreatorofPsychiatryFounderofGynecologyandastheFatherofMedicineitself.[6]Thereislittleevidencetosupporttheclaimsbutheis,nonetheless,important.[5][7]fl.425BCDiogenesofApollonia[5]c.484425BCHerodotustellsusEgyptiandoctorswerespecialists:Medicineispracticedamongthemonaplanofseparationeachphysiciantreatsasingledisorder,andnomore.Thusthecountryswarmswithmedicalpractitioners,someundertakingtocurediseasesoftheeye,othersofthehead,othersagainoftheteeth,othersoftheintestines,andsome

thosewhicharenotlocal.[2]496405BCSophoclesItisnotalearnedphysicianwhosingsincantationsoverpainswhichshouldbecuredbycutting.[8]420BCHippocratesofCosmaintainsthatdiseaseshavenaturalcausesandputsforththeHippocraticOath.Originofrationalmedicine.MedicineafterHippocratesc.400BC1BCTheHuangdiNeijing(YellowEmperor'sClassicofInternalMedicine)ispublished,layingtheframeworkfortraditionalChinesemedicine4thcenturyBCPhilistionofLocri[5]Praxagorasdistinguishesveinsandarteriesanddeterminesonlyarteriespulse[9]375295BCDioclesofCarystus[1][5][10]354BCCritobulus,extractsanarrowfromPhillipII'seye,treatingthelossoftheeyeballwithoutcausingfacialdisfigurement3rdcenturyBCPhilinusofCosfounderoftheEmpiricistschool.HerophilosandErasistratuspracticeandrotomy.(Dissectingliveanddeadhumanbeings)280BCHerophilusDissection[7]studiesthenervoussystemanddistinguishesbetweensensorynervesandmotornervesandthebrain.alsotheanatomyoftheeyeandmedicalterminologysuchas(inLatintranslation"netlike"becomesretiform/retina.[5]270HuangfuMiwritestheZhenjiuJiayijing(TheABCCompendiumofAcupuncture),thefirsttextbookfocusingsolelyonacupuncture250BCErasistratusstudiesthebrainanddistinguishesbetweenthecerebrumandcerebellumphysiologyofthebrain,heartandeyes,andinthevascular,nervous,respiratoryandreproductivesystems.219ZhangZhongjingpublishesShangHanLun(OnColdDiseaseDamage).200BCtheCharakaSamhitausesarationalapproachtothecausesandcureofdiseaseandusesobjectivemethodsofclinicalexamination12444BCAsclepiadesofBithynia[7]11627B.CMarcusTerentiusVarroGermtheoryofdiseaseNoonepaidanyattentiontoit.[11]1stcenturyADRufusofEphesusMarcellinusaphysicianofthefirstcenturyAD[5]Numisianus[6]23AD79ADPlinytheElderwritesNaturalHistoryca25BCca50ADAulusCorneliusCelsusMedicalencyclopedia[12]5070ADPedaniusDioscorideswritesDeMateriaMedicaaprecursorofmodernpharmacopoeiasthatwasinuseforalmost1600years2ndcenturyADAretaeusofCappadocia[7]98138ADSoranusofEphesus[13]129216ADGalenClinicalmedicinebasedonobservationandexperience.[10]Theresultingtightlyintegratedandcomprehensivesystem,offeringacompletemedicalphilosophydominatedmedicinethroughouttheMiddleAgesanduntilthebeginningofthemodernera.[14]

AfterGalen200AD

d.260GargiliusMartialis,shortLatinhandbookonMedicinesfromVegetablesandFruits[10]

4thcenturyMagnusofNisibis,Alexandriandoctorandprofessorbookonurine[15]325400Oribasius70volumeencyclopedia[3]362Julianordersxenonesbuilt,imitatingChristiancharity(protohospitals)[15]369BasilofCaesareafoundedatCaesareainCappadociaaninstitution(hospital)calledBasilias,withseveralbuildingsforpatients,nurses,physicians,workshops,andschools[13]375EphremtheSyrianopenedahospitalatEdessa[13]Theyspreadoutansspecializednosocomiaforthesick,brephotrophiaforfoundlings,orphanotrophiafororphans,ptochiaforthepoor,xenodochiaforpoororinfirmpilgrims,andgerontochiafortheold.[13]400ThefirsthospitalinLatinChristendomwasfoundedbyFabiolaatRome[13]420CaeliusAurelianusadoctorfromSiccaVeneria(ElKef,Tunisia)handbookOnAcuteandChronicDiseasesinLatin.[10]447CassiusFelixofCirta(Constantine,Ksantina,Algeria),medicalhandbookdrewonGreeksources,MethodistandGalenistinLatin[10]480547BenedictofNursiafounderof"monasticmedicine"[16]fl.511534AnthimusGreek:[17]536SergiusofReshaina(died536)AChristiantheologianphysicianwhotranslatedthirtytwoofGalensworksintoSyriacandwrotemedicaltreatisesofhisown[18]525605AlexanderofTralles[15]AlexanderTrallianus500550AetiusofAmidaEncyclopedia4bookseachdividedinto4sections[3][3][15]secondhalfof6thcenturybuildingofxenodocheions/bimrestnsbytheNestoriansundertheSasanians,wouldevolveintothecomplexsecularIslamichospital,whichcombinedlaypracticeandGalenicteaching[18]550630StephanusofAthens[10][19]560636IsidoreofSevillec.620AaronofAlexandriaSyriac.Hewrote30booksonmedicine,the"Pandects".Hewasthefirstauthorinantiquitywhomentionedthediseasesofsmallpoxandmeasles[20]translatedbyMsarjawaihaSyrianJewandPhysician,intoArabicaboutA.D.683c.630PaulofAeginaEncyclopediain7booksverydetailedsurgeryusedbyAlbucasis[10][15][21]790869LeoItrosophistalsoMathematicianorPhilosopherwrote"EpitomeofMedicine"c.800873AlKindi(Alkindus)DeGradibus820Benedictinehospitalfounded,SchoolofSalernowouldgrowaroundit[3]857dMesuetheelder(YannibnMsawayh)SyriacChristian[14]c.830870HunaynibnIshaq(Johannitius)SyriacspeakingChristianalsoknewGreekandArabic.Translatorandauthorofseveralmedicaltracts.[14]c.838870AliibnSahlRabbanalTabari,writesanencyclopediaofmedicineinArabic.[22]c.910dIshaqibnHunayn9thcenturyYahyaibnSarafyunaSyriacphysicianJohannesSerapion,[14]SerapiontheElderc.865925Rhazespediatrics,[3][23]andmakesthefirstcleardistinctionbetweensmallpoxandmeaslesinhisalHawi.d.955IsaacJudaeusIsqibnSulaymnalIsrlEgyptianbornJewishphysician[14]913982ShabbethaiDonnoloallegedfoundingfatherofSchoolofSalernowroteinHebrew[24]d.982994'Aliibnal'AbbasalMajusiHalyAbbas[3]

1000Albucasis(9361018)surgeryKitabalTasrif,surgicalinstruments.[14]d.1075IbnButlanChristianphysicianofBaghdadTacuinumsanitatistheArabicoriginalandmostoftheLatincopies,areintabularformat[14]10181087MichaelPsellosorPsellusaByzantinemonk,writer,philosopher,politicianandhistorian.severalbooksonmedicine[15]c.1030AvicennaTheCanonofMedicineTheCanonremainsastandardtextbookinMuslimandEuropeanuniversitiesuntilthe18thcentury.c.10711078SimeonSethorSymeonSethan11thcenturyJewishByzantinetranslatedArabicworksintoGreek[15]1084FirstdocumentedhospitalinEnglandCanterbury[13]1087dConstantinetheAfrican[14]10831153AnnaKomnene,LatinizedasComnena1095CongregationoftheAntonines,wasfoundedtotreatvictimsof"St.Anthony'sfire"askindisease.[13]late11thearly12thcenturyTrotula[25]1123StBartholomew'sHospitalfoundedbythecourtjesterRahereAugustinenunsoriginallycaredforthepatients.Mentalpatientswereacceptedalongwithothers[26]1127StephenofAntiochtranslatedtheworkofHalyAbbas11001161AvenzoarTeacherofAverroes[27]1170RogeriusSalernitanuscomposedhisChirurgiaalsoknownasTheSurgeryofRoger11261198Averroes[3]c.1161dMatthaeusPlatearius

12001500

1204InnocentIIIorganizedthehospitalofSantoSpiritoatRomeinspiringothersalloverEuropec.12101277WilliamofSalicetoalsoknownasGuilielmusdeSaliceto12101295TaddeoAlderottiScholasticmedicine[28]1240BartholomeusAnglicus[4]1242IbnanNafissuggeststhattherightandleftventriclesoftheheartareseparateanddiscoversthepulmonarycirculationandcoronarycirculation[14]c.1248IbnalBaitarwroteonbotanyandpharmacy,[14]studiedanimalanatomyandmedicineveterinarymedicine.1249RogerBaconwritesaboutconvexlensspectaclesfortreatinglongsightedness12571316Pietrod'AbanoalsoknownasPetrusDeAponoorAponensis[28]1260LouisIXestablished,LesQuinzevingtoriginallyaretreatfortheblind,itbecameahospitalforeyediseases,andisnowoneofthemostimportantmedicalcentersinParis[13]c.12601316HenrideMondeville1284MansurhospitalofCairo[3]c.1275c.1328JoannesZachariasActuariusaByzantinephysicianwrotethelastgreatcompendiumofByzantinemedicine[15]12751326MondinodeLuzzi"Mundinus"carriedoutthefirstsystematichumandissectionssinceHerophilusofChalcedonandErasistratusofCeos1500yearsearlier.[29][30]1288ThehospitalofSantaMariaNuovafoundedinFlorence,itwasstrictlymedical.[4]1300concavelensspectaclestotreatmyopiadevelopedinItaly.[31]

1310Pietrod'Abano'sConciliator(c.1310)[4]d1348GentiledaFoligno[28]12921350IbnQayyimalJawziya[3]13061390JohnofArderne[29][32][33]d.1368GuydeChauliac[29][34]f.1460HeinrichvonPfolspeundt[29][30][35][36][37]14431502AntonioBenivieni[29][38]Pathologicalanatomy[39]14931541Paracelsus[29]Ontherelationshipbetweenmedicineandsurgery[40]surgerybook[41]

15001800

early16thcentury:Paracelsus,analchemistbytrade,rejectsoccultismandpioneerstheuseofchemicalsandmineralsinmedicine.BurnsthebooksofAvicenna,GalenandHippocrates.[42]HieronymusFabricius[29]His"Surgery"ismostlythatofCelsus,PaulofAegina,andAbulcasisciteingthembyname.[43]CasparStromayrorStromayerSixteenthCentury[29][44]1500?1561PierreFranco[29][37][45][46]AmbroisePare15101590pioneeredthetreatmentofgunshotwounds.[29][47][48]BartholomeoMaggiatBologna,FelixWurtzofZurich,LonardBotalinParis,andtheEnglishmanThomasGale(surgeon),(thediversityoftheirgeographicaloriginsatteststothewidespreadinterestofsurgeonsintheproblem),allpublishedworksurgingsimilartreatmenttoPars.ButitwasParswritingswhichwerethemostinfluential.[49]1518CollegeofPhysiciansfoundednowknownasRoyalCollegeofPhysiciansofLondonisaBritishprofessionalbodyofdoctorsofgeneralmedicineanditssubspecialties.Itreceivedtheroyalcharterin1518[50]15101590AmbroiseParsurgeon[50]15401604WilliamClowes(surgeon)[29][36][51]Surgicalchestformilitarysurgeons[51][52]1543AndreasVesaliuspublishesDeFabricaCorporisHumaniwhichcorrectsGreekmedicalerrorsandrevolutionizesEuropeanmedicine[53][54]1546GirolamoFracastoroproposesthatepidemicdiseasesarecausedbytransferableseedlikeentities15501612PeterLowe[29][52][55]1553MiguelServetodescribesthecirculationofbloodthroughthelungs.Heisaccusedofheresyandburnedatthestake1556AmatoLusitanodescribesvenousvalvesinthezigosvein1559RealdoColombodescribesthecirculationofbloodthroughthelungsindetail1563GarciadeOrtafoundstropicalmedicinewithhistreatiseonIndiandiseasesandtreatments15701643JohnWoodallShipsSurgeonusedlemonjuicetotreatscurvy[52]wrote"TheSurgionsMate"[56]1596LiShizhenpublishesBncoGngmorCompendiumofMateriaMedica1603GirolamoFabricistudieslegveinsandnoticesthattheyhavevalveswhichallowbloodtoflowonlytowardtheheart16211676RichardWiseman[29][36][52][57][58]1628WilliamHarveyexplainsthecirculatorysysteminExercitatioAnatomicadeMotu

CordisetSanguinisinAnimalibus16831758LorenzHeister[29][52][59]16881752WilliamCheselden[29][52][60][61][62]1701GiacomoPylarinigivesthefirstsmallpoxinoculationsinEurope.Theywerewidelypractisedintheeastbeforethen.17141789PercivallPott[29][63][64][65][66]1720LadyMaryWortleyMontagu17281793JohnHunter(surgeon)[29][47][67][68]1736ClaudiusAymandperformsthefirstsuccessfulappendectomy17441795PierreJosephDesault[29][52][69]Firstsurgicalperiodical[70]1747JamesLinddiscoversthatcitrusfruitspreventscurvy17491806BenjaminBellLeadingsurgeonofhistimeandfatherofasurgicaldynasty[29]systemofsurgery[71]17521832AntonioScarpa[29][52][72][73]17631820JohnBell(surgeon)[29][36][74][75]17661842DominiqueJeanLarreySurgeontoNapoleon[29][36][52][76][77][78][79]17681843AstleyCoopersergeon[29][52][72]lectures[80]principlesandpractice[81]17741842CharlesBell,surgeon[29][36][74][82]1774JosephPriestleydiscoversnitrousoxide,nitricoxide,ammonia,hydrogenchlorideandoxygen17771835BaronGuillaumeDupuytren[29]HeadsurgeonatHtelDieudeParis,[83]TheageDupuytren[84][85]1785WilliamWitheringpublishes"AnAccountoftheFoxglove"thefirstsystematicdescriptionofdigitalisintreatingdropsy1790SamuelHahnemannragesagainsttheprevalentpracticeofbloodlettingasauniversalcureandfoundshomeopathy1796EdwardJennerdevelopsasmallpoxvaccinationmethod1799HumphryDavydiscoverstheanestheticpropertiesofnitrousoxide

18001899

1800HumphryDavyannouncestheanaestheticpropertiesofnitrousoxide18131883JamesMarionSimsVesicovaganialsurgery[29][86][87]Fatherofsurgicalgenocology[36]Biography[88]1816ReneLaennecinventsthestethoscope18271912JosephListerAntisepticsurgery[29][52][89]Fatherofmodernsurgery[90]1818JamesBlundellperformsthefirstsuccessfulhumanbloodtransfusion1842CrawfordLongperformsthefirstsurgicaloperationusinganesthesiawithether1846Firstpainlesssurgerywithgeneralanesthetic1847IgnazSemmelweisdiscovershowtopreventpuerperalfever1849ElizabethBlackwellisthefirstwomantogainamedicaldegree1858RudolfCarlVirchow13October18215September1902histheoriesofcellularpathologyspelledtheendofHumoralmedicine1867ListerpublishesAntisepticPrincipleofthePracticeofSurgery,basedpartlyonPasteur'swork1870LouisPasteurandRobertKochestablishthegermtheoryofdisease

1878EllisReynoldsShippgraduatesfromWomansMedicalCollegeofPennsylvaniaandbeginspracticeinUtah1879Firstvaccineforcholera1881LouisPasteurdevelopsananthraxvaccine1882LouisPasteurdevelopsarabiesvaccine1890EmilvonBehringdiscoversantitoxinsandusesthemtodeveloptetanusanddiphtheriavaccines1895WilhelmConradRntgendiscoversmedicaluseofXraysinmedicalimaging

19001999

1901KarlLandsteinerdiscoverstheexistenceofdifferenthumanbloodtypes1901AloisAlzheimeridentifiesthefirstcaseofwhatbecomesknownasAlzheimer'sdisease1903WillemEinthovendiscoverselectrocardiography(ECG/EKG)1906FrederickHopkinssuggeststheexistenceofvitaminsandsuggeststhatalackofvitaminscausesscurvyandrickets1907PaulEhrlichdevelopsachemotherapeuticcureforsleepingsickness1908VictorHorsleyandR.Clarkeinventsthestereotacticmethod1909FirstIntrauterinedevicedescribedbyRichardRichter.[91]1910HansChristianJacobaeusperformsthefirstlaparoscopyonhumans1917JuliusWagnerJaureggdiscoversthemalarialfevershocktherapyforgeneralparesisoftheinsane1921EdwardMellanbydiscoversvitaminDandshowsthatitsabsencecausesrickets1921FrederickBantingandCharlesBestdiscoverinsulinimportantforthetreatmentofdiabetes1921FidelPagspioneersepiduralanesthesia1923FirstvaccineforDiphtheria1926FirstvaccineforPertussis1927FirstvaccineforTuberculosis1927FirstvaccineforTetanus1928AlexanderFlemingdiscoverspenicillin1929HansBergerdiscovershumanelectroencephalography1932GerhardDomagkdevelopsachemotherapeuticcureforstreptococcus1933ManfredSakeldiscoversinsulinshocktherapy1935LadislasJ.Medunadiscoversmetrazolshocktherapy1935FirstvaccineforYellowFever1936EgasMonizdiscoversprefrontallobotomyfortreatingmentaldiseasesEnriqueFinochiettodevelopsthenowubiquitousselfretainingthoracicretractor1938UgoCerlettiandLucioBinidiscoverelectroconvulsivetherapy1943WillemJKolffbuildthefirstdialysismachine1944DisposableCatheterDavidS.Sheridan1946ChemotherapyAlfredG.GilmanandLouisS.Goodman1947DefibrillatorClaudeBeck1948AcetaminophenJuliusAxelrod,BernardBrodie1949Firstimplantofintraocularlens,bySirHaroldRidley

1949mechanicalassistorforanesthesiaJohnEmerson1952JonasSalkdevelopsthefirstpoliovaccine(availablein1955)1952CloningRobertBriggs&ampThomasKing1953HeartLungMachineDrJohnHeyshamGibbon1953MedicalUltrasonographyIngeEdler1954JosephMurrayperformsthefirsthumankidneytransplant(onidenticaltwins)1954VentouseTageMalmstrom1955TetracyclineLloydConover1956MeteredDoseInhaler3M1957WilliamGreyWalterinventsthebrainEEGtopography(toposcope)1958PacemakerRuneElmqvist1959InVitroFertilizationMinChuehChang1960InventionofCardiopulmonaryresuscitation(CPR)1960FirstcombinedoralcontraceptiveapprovedbytheFDA[91]1962HipReplacementJohnCharnley1962BetaBlockerJamesW.Black1962FirstOralPolioVaccine(Sabin)1963ArtificialHeartPaulWinchell1963ThomasStarzlperformsthefirsthumanlivertransplant1963JamesHardyperformsthefirsthumanlungtransplant1963Valium(diazepam)LeoHSternbach1964FirstvaccineforMeasles1965FrankPantridgeinstallsthefirstportabledefibrillator1965Firstcommercialultrasound1966C.WaltonLilleheiperformsthefirsthumanpancreastransplant1966RubellaVaccineHarryMartinMeyerandPaulD.Parkman[92]1967FirstvaccineforMumps1967ChristiaanBarnardperformsthefirsthumanhearttransplant1968PoweredProthesisSamuelAlderson1968ControlledDrugDeliveryAlejandroZaffaron1969InternetAdvancedResearchProjectAgency(ARPA)1969BalloonCatheterThomasFogarty1969CochlearImplantWilliamHouse1970Cyclosporine,thefirsteffectiveimmunosuppressivedrugisintroducedinorgantransplantpractice1971GeneticallyModifiedOrganismsAnandaChakrabart1971MagneticResonanceImagingRaymondVahanDamadian1971ComputedTomography(CTorCATScan)GodfreyHounsfield1971TransdermalPatchesAlejandroZaffaroni1971SirGodfreyHounsfieldinventsthefirstcommercialCTscanner1972InsulinPumpDeanKamen1973LaserEyeSurgery(LASIK)ManiLalBhaumik1974LiposuctionGiorgioFischer1976FirstcommercialPETscanner

1978Lastfatalcaseofsmallpox[93]1979AntiviralDrugsGeorgeHitchings&ampGertrudeElion1980RaymondDamadianbuildsfirstcommercialMRIscanner1980LithotripterDornierResearchGroup1980FirstvaccineforHepatitisBDrBaruchSamuelBlumberg1981ArtificialSkinJohnF.Burke&ampIoannisVYannas1981BruceReitzperformsthefirsthumanheartlungcombinedtransplant1982HumulininsulinEliLillyInterferonCloningSidneyPestka1985AutomatedDNASequencerLeroyHood&ampLloydSmith1985PolymeraseChainReaction(PCR)KaeryMullis1985SurgicalRobotDrYikSanKwoh1985DNAFingerprintingAlecJeffreys1985CapsuleEndoscopyTarunMullick1986FluoxetineHClEliLillyandCo1987BenCarson,leadinga70membermedicalteaminGermany,wasthefirsttoseparateoccipitalcraniopagustwins.1987commerciallyavailableStatinsMerck&ampCo.1987TissueEngineeringJosephVacanti&ampRobertLanger1988IntravascularStentJulioPalmaz1988LaserCataractSurgeryDrPatriciaBath1989PreimplantationGeneticDiagnosis(PGD)AlanHandyside1989DNAMicroarrayStephenFodor1990GamowBagDrIgorGamow1992FirstvaccineforHepatitisAavailable[94]1992Electroactivepolymers(ArtificialMuscle)SRIInternational1992IntracytoplasmicSpermInjection(ICSI)AndrevanSteirteghem1996DollytheSheepcloned1998StemCellTherapyJamesThomson

2000present

26June2000HumanGenomedraftcompleted2001TelesurgeryJacquesMarescaux2003CarloUrbani,ofDoctorswithoutBordersalertedtheWorldHealthOrganizationtothethreatoftheSARSvirus,triggeringthemosteffectiveresponsetoanepidemicinhistory.Urbanisuccumbstothediseasehimselfinlessthanamonth.2005JeanMichelDubernardperformsthefirstpartialfacetransplant2006FirstHPVvaccineapproved2006Secondrotavirusvaccineapproved(firstwaswithdrawn)2007Visualprosthetic(bioniceye)ArgusII2008LaurentLantieriperformsthefirstfullfacetransplant2013FirstkidneygrowninvitrointheU.S.2013FirsthumanlivergrownfromstemcellsinJapan

2014GreatEbolaOutbreakFirstcasesanddeathsinEuropeandAmerica