Topic 5 Teachers Learners and Teaching in ESL Classrooms.pdf

8/10/2019 Topic 5 Teachers Learners and Teaching in ESL Classrooms.pdf

1/30

INTRODUCTION

Have you ever thought about what makes good teaching? In particular, what are

the factors involved in successful second language teaching? Is it the teacher, theteaching, or the students? These are important issues for teachers to reflect upon

because they can contribute towards the improvement of the teachers currentpractice. As an overview, the key questions covered in this topic include:

(a) What makes a good teacher?

(b) How should teachers interact with students?

(c) How should teachers give instruction?

(d) Who should talk in class?

TTooppiicc

55 Teachers,

Learners andTeaching in ESLClassrooms

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Identify factors involved in good teaching and learning;

2. Describe the characteristics of a good teacher and good languagelearners;

3. Discuss the importance of motivation, proficiency levels, andteacher behaviour in language teaching and learning;

4. Identify the elements of managing teaching and learning inlanguage classrooms.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


2/30

TOPIC 5 TEACHERS, LEARNERS AND TEACHING IN ESL CLASSROOMS 91

(e) What are the best types of lesson?

(f) How important is it to follow a teaching plan?

WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AGOOD TEACHER?

Can you think of some attributes or characteristics of a good teacher?

Harmer (1999) conducted a survey on a group of students who were studying inthe United Kingdom and who came from various countries around the world.Some of the responses to the question What makes a good teacher? include thefollowing:

(a) Teachers should make their lessons interesting so that students in class donot fall asleep.

(b) Teachers who love their jobs will make the lessons more interesting.

(c) Teachers who show their true personalities are seen as real persons.

(d) Teachers who are knowledgeable not only in the subject matter, but whoalso shares her/his interests with the class.

(e) Teachers who are entertainers who can amuse students other than beingserious about teaching/learning.

From the above, it can be inferred that the teacher s character and personality isa crucial factor in the classroom (Figure 5.1). Students seem to think that otherthan providing the facts and knowledge, teachers need to create a warm andtrusting relationship with their students.

Other responses from the students include:

(a) Teachers must be approachable; students should be able to talk to theirteacher when they do not understand their lesson.

(b) Teachers who can identify with the hopes, aspirations, and difficulties oftheir students.

(c) Teachers who are able to draw out the quiet students and control the moretalkative ones.

(d) Teachers who are able to correct students without offending them.

(e) Teachers who are helpful.

(f) Teachers who make an attempt to know their students.

5.1


3/30

TOPIC 5 TEACHERS, LEARNERS AND TEACHING IN ESL CLASSROOMS92

Figure 5.1:A teachers character and personality is a crucial factor in the classroom

Teachers who are genuinely interested in their students welfare and progress areable to control and inspire them. (Figure 5.1) This makes for good classroommanagement that forms one of the fundamental skills of teaching. Researchshows that teachers who care more about their students learning than they doabout their own teaching are often good teachers (Brown and McIntyre, 1993;Harmer, 1999).

1. Reflect on your own experience as students. What were some ofthe characteristics of your favourite teacher? What were some ofher/his strong and weak points?

2. List down some of your own ideas about what makes agood English language teacher. Discuss your ideas with yourclassmates.

3. In your own classroom, conduct a survey on your students onwhat they think makes a good teacher. Discuss your findingswith your course mates.

4. Try this too ask your students to graphically illustrate (e.g.,draw) what a teacher is to them. They can use analogies ormetaphors, e.g., the teacher as gardener, a teacher is like a tree,providing shade and shelter to students, the fruits are thestudents, etc.

ACTIVITY 5.1


4/30


Put simply, good teachers are sincere in their efforts in providing students with aconducive environment for learning. They are not afraid to be themselves and aregenuinely interested to improve their students learning. Teaching, a profession

of conscience, demands that the teacher be first interested in their students in alltheir diversity. An interested and caring teacher starts off on a firm footing andwill inadvertently motivate students to learn. Besides being interested in theirstudents, other factors also play an important role in student learning the firstof which is the nature of teacher-student interaction.

5.1.1 Interacting with Students

Research has shown that parents use a different tone of voice and simplelanguage when talking to young children. Eye contact is more frequent and the

vocabulary used is restricted. This is often done unconsciously. Althoughteachers and students are not exactly parents and children, this unconsciouseffort is seen when teachers attempt to rough-tune the language they use withstudents (Harmer, 1999: 3).

Figure 5.2:Interaction is an essential teaching skill

Teachers rely on a general perception of what students can understand whenspeaking to them. Experienced teachers will usually adjust their language whentalking to students. Novice teachers often use students comprehension todetermine their speaking styles in classrooms. Other than using language,teachers also convey or accentuate language with body movements such asgestures, facial expressions and mime, and even intonation and rhythm of thevoice.


5/30


Interaction in class is more than just talking to students. Brown (2001:165) definesinteraction as the collaborative exchange of thoughts, feelings, or ideas betweentwo or more people, resulting in a reciprocal effect on each other. Wilga Rivers

(1987) proposes that from the very beginning of language study, the classroomshould be interactive (Figure 5.2). Brown (2001:166) outlines seven interactiveprinciples:

(a) AutomaticityIn order to process something automatically without conscious monitoring,learners need to focus on meanings and messages rather than on correctgrammar.

(b) Intrinsic Motivation

When students interact with each other or with the teacher in a relaxed andnon-threatening manner, they gain a sense of self-fulfilment and theirdeepest drives are satisfied.

(c) Strategic InvestmentsIn interacting with others, students practice strategies which could helpthem to negotiate meaning and learn to make decisions in spontaneousface-to-face communication.

(d) Risk TakingInteraction involves taking risks of making wrong responses,interpretations of meanings, of being ridiculed or being shunned orrejected. The learning outcomes are valuable for the language learner.

(e) Language culture ConnectionIn interaction, the interlocutors need to be familiar with the culturalnuances of the language. For instance, in using English, students will learnthe use of appropriate English expressions and language to communicatewith the speaker.

(f) InterlanguageTeacher feedback is important in interaction. The complexity of interactionsis a long process which is marked by errors of production andcomprehension.

(g) Communicative CompetenceIn interacting with others, students will learn the various elementsof communicative competence, such as grammatical, discourse,sociolinguistic, pragmatic and strategic competence. Consult Brown (1994)for a thorough explication of the different types of competence.


6/30


In interacting with students, the teacher has a number of roles to play:

(a) Teacher as Controller

(b) Teacher as Director(c) Teacher as Manager

(d) Teacher as Facilitator

(e) Teacher as Resource

The following are explications of each of the roles mentioned above.

Match the roles with the appropriate statements.

1. The teacher takes the least directive role. Students take theinitiative to consult the teacher who acts as advisor andcounsellor.

2. The teacher is in charge of every moment in class, determineswhat students do, when they should speak, and what languageforms they should use. There is a lack of spontaneity,unrehearsed language and freedom of expression.

3. The teacher plans lessons, modules and courses, and structuresclass time. However, each individual student is allowed to becreative within the parameters set by the teacher.

4. The teacher is like the conductor of an orchestra or director of adrama. As students engage in spontaneous or rehearsed languageperformance, the teacher keeps the process flowing efficientlyand as smoothly as possible. The teacher allows students toexperience improvising language in communicating with others.

5. The teacher attempts to make learning easier for students byproviding guidance and gentle prodding. Learning is based onthe principle of intrinsic motivation. That is, the teacher allowsstudents to discover language pragmatically rather than teachingthem about the language only.

ACTIVITY 5.2


7/30


In addition to the above roles that teachers can adopt in interacting withstudents, the issue of the types of questions used by teachers to prompt studentsresponse plays a crucial role. In initiating interaction, teachers need to be aware

of the effects of the types of questions they use.

Teachers can develop a repertoire of questioning strategies to initiate and sustaininteraction. Appropriate questioning can fulfil a number of functions (Brown,2001: 169171):

(a) Teacher questions act as impetus and opportunity to produce languagecomfortably without students having to start producing language on theirown. In the beginning stages, it can be quite challenging and risky forstudents to offer initial language to begin a conversation or discussion.Appropriate questions can assist more reticent students with a structured

opportunity to communicate in the second language.

(b) Teacher questions can serve as impetus for a chain reaction of studentinteraction. One question can help start a discussion which otherwisestudents may be reluctant to initiate.

(c) Teacher questions provide immediate feedback to the instructor to check oncomprehension. Teachers can diagnose linguistic or content problems basedon subsequent interactions initiated by teacher questions.

(d) Teacher questions help provide students with opportunities to find outabout their thinking via their responses to teacher questions. They alsodiscover their own ideas and opinions of others with regard to the topicdiscussed. This self-discovery method can be helpful in the prewritingstage of a writing lesson.

What kinds of questions are effective to initiate student interactions? Questionsrange from the basic display type to the highly referential question. Displayquestions elicit information already known by the teacher, whereas referentialquestions request information not known by the questioner. However, not allquestions will help initiate interactions. Some questions may even discourageinteractive learning. For example, Kinsella (1991) caution teachers against the

following types of questions:

(a) Using too many display questions. Artificial contexts that do not involvegenuine seeking of information can make students feel bored ordemotivated.

(b) An obvious question with known answers. This can insult studentsintelligence.


8/30


(c) Vague questions posed using abstract or ambiguous language, e.g. Do youpretty much understand more or less what to do?

(d) Questions which are too abstract, complex, or wordy for aural

comprehension.

(e) Use of too many rhetorical questions that the teacher intends to answerherself/himself. Students may think that the teacher wants them to answer

but get confused when the teacher provides the answer instead.

(f) Random questions which are not in logical, well-planned order whichconfuse students.

The following are some common types of classroom questions and questionwords which could foster student interaction (Kinsella, 1991 and Bloom, 1956

cited in Brown, 2001:172):

(a) Knowledge QuestionsEliciting factual answers, testing recall and recognition of information, e.g.,define, tell, list, identify, describe, select, name, point out, label, reproduce.Who? What? Where? When? Answer Yes or No.

(b) Comprehension QuestionsInterpreting, extrapolating, e.g., state in your own words, explain, define,locate, select, indicate, summarise, outline, match.

(c) Application QuestionsApplying information heard or read to new situations, e.g., demonstratehow, use the data to solve, illustrate how, show how, apply, construct,explain. For example: What is used for? What would result? Whatwould happen?

(d) Inference QuestionsForming conclusions that are not directly stated in instructional materials,e.g.: How? Why? What did mean by? What does believe?

What conclusions can you draw from ?

(e) Analysis QuestionsBreaking down into parts, relating parts to the whole, e.g., distinguish,diagram, chart, plan, deduce, arrange, separate, outline, classify, contrast,compare, differentiate, categorise. What is the relationship between ?What is the function of ? What is the motive ? What are theconclusions? What is the main idea?


9/30


(f) Synthesis QuestionsCombining elements into a new pattern, e.g., compose, combine, estimate,invent, choose, hypothesise, build, solve, design, develop. Some types of

questions along this line: What if? How would you test ? What wouldyou have done in this situation? What would happen if ? How canyou improve ? How else would you ?

(g) Evaluation QuestionsMaking a judgment of good and bad, right or wrong, according to some setof criteria and stating why, e.g., evaluate, rate, defend, dispute, decidewhich, select, judge, grade, verify, choose why. Which is best? Which ismore important? Which do you think is more appropriate?

Other than using questions, teachers can also use other interaction- promotingstrategies such as using pair work and group work, giving directions, andlecturing. Teachers can also conduct their own study on the interaction patternsin an English language classroom. They can use an interaction analysis system tocategorise what is observed in terms of teacher talk and student talk.

Moskowitz (1971) provides a detailed foreign language interaction analysissystem (FLINT) which categorises the responses of teachers and students inclassroom interaction.

Another factor to consider in a lesson is the instructional language andprocedures that the teacher adopts.

5.1.2 How Should Teachers Give Instructions?

In talking to students and in initiating interaction, teachers need to also considerthe way they give students instructions to perform tasks. A well-prepared lessonwill not be fruitful if students do not fully understand what they are supposed todo.


10/30


5.1.3 What Makes a Lesson Interesting?

Students boredom is one of the main deterrents to successful teaching. Routine

and predictability of much of classroom time are often two major causes. Otherfactors include drab teaching materials and teacher characteristics.

Students are wise about what occurs in the classroom daily, so much so they cantell what will take place in class. Fanselow (1987) suggests that teachers violatetheir own behaviour patterns so as to break the chain of routine in the classroom.

For instance, if a teacher usually dresses in casual clothes, s/he shouldoccasionally turn up in formal attire; if the teacher normally sits down, s/heshould stand up; if s/he is usually energetic and noisy, s/he should sometimes

be calm and talk slowly.

If students are in a 60-minute writing lesson, a variety of other activities shouldbe included to break the monotony. However, teachers need to create a balance

between predictable safety (e.g., structured tasks familiar to students) andunexpected variety (different tasks on different topics).

Another important issue to consider is the importance of following a pre-arranged plan. An interesting lesson includes incorporating a variety of tasks and

being flexible during the lesson itself. A balance has to be struck between whatteachers intend to achieve and what students are saying or doing. For instance, alesson planned for 45 minutes requires more time because the students might notfinish one of the tasks or the video recorder might not work and so forth.

According to Fanselow (1987), each time the teacher breaks her/his ownrules, s/he sends a ripple through the class surprise and curiosity fosterstudent involvement.


11/30


Good teachers are thus flexible enough to cope with such situations. Because thefocus is on students and their needs, teachers should be able to react quickly toany unplanned events. Good teachers also recognise that their plans are only

prototypes and they may have to abandon some or all of them if things go toofast or too slow in the lesson. Judicious adjustments have to be made to ensurethat eventually students needs are met.

WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AGOOD LANGUAGE LEARNER?

What are attributes of a good language learner?

When considering the qualities or attributes of good language learners, teachersneed to take into account several factors, including learners backgrounds. Why,for instance, is a particular study method appropriate for student A and not forstudent B? Because each student brings a unique personality to the classroom, itis quite often difficult to assess the factors involved.

Research findings do not always tell us what we really want to know. Forexample, a study in Britain wanted to investigate why some children are good atmusical instruments while others are not. The study found that the main factorseemed to be due to the amount of practice the students have put into the lesson.

Teachers often have some commonly-held views about good learners. They attestthat students who do well are those who always do their homework. But, weneed to also consider the question of why some students do homework whileothers do not. Also, why do some exceptional students do well even withoutdoing homework? Is it the homework or the students underlying state of mind?We need to find out about any generalisations which can help us encourage thehabits in students that will make them successful learners.

Rubin and Thompson (1982) conducted a study using tests of psycholinguisticfactors, interviews, and other data analysis on the characteristics of goodlanguage learners. The generalisations are as follows (Brown, 2001: 209):

5.2


12/30


Brown (2001) cautions that the characteristics mentioned above are not all basedon empirical findings, but on the collective observations of teachers and learners.

Therefore, not all successful learners exhibit these characteristics. It is importantthat teachers are aware of these attributes of language learning to help students

become better and efficient language learners.

Good Language Learners

(a) Find their own way, take charge of their own learning.

(b) Organise information about their own language.

(c) Are creative; they develop a feel for the language by experimentingwith its grammar and words.

(d) Create their own opportunities to practice the language inside andoutside the classroom.

(e) Learn to live with uncertainty by not getting flustered and bycontinuing to talk or listen without understanding every word.

(f) Use mnemonics and other memory strategies to recall what has been

learned.(g) Make errors work for them and not against them.

(h) Use linguistics knowledge, including knowledge of their first language,in learning a second language.

(i) Use contextual cues to help them in comprehension.

(j) Learn to make intelligent guesses.

(k) Learn chunks of language as wholes and formalised routines to helpthem perform beyond their competence.

(l) Learn certain tricks that help to keep conversations going.(m) Learn certain production strategies to fill in the gaps in their own

competence

(n) Learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary theirlanguage according to the formality of the situation.


13/30


Some learners are often able to take advantage of what goes on in the classroom.They seem to be more involved in the process of learning than their other peers.Teachers often agree on the following characteristics of successful students

(Harmer, 1999:10):

Willingness to ListenGood learners pay attention to whats going on. They dont just hear,rather they listen attentively to the English being used in class.

Willingness to ExperimentMost good learners are not afraid to take risks, try new things and seehow they work. Not all successful language learners are extroverts, butthe desire to use the language (loudly or silently) is very important.

Willingness to Ask QuestionsStudents who constantly ask difficult or even irrelevant questions cansometimes irritate teachers. But, asking questions is part of a goodlearners language learning strategy. Good teachers frequently invitequestions from students and ask whether they have understoodsomething. Good learners ask questions and learn to judge when it isnecessary to ask questions.

Willingness to Think About How To LearnGood learners bring or invent their own study skills when they come to

class (or when they do self-study). They think about how to recordvocabulary in their notebook; the best way to read a text; the bestmethod of drafting or re-drafting a piece of writing.

Willingness to Accept CorrectionGood learners are prepared to be corrected if it helps them. They are keento get feedback from their teachers and to act on what they are advised.This happens only when the teacher can provide constructive criticismsrather than castigating students for being wrong. Giving feedback meansgiving praises for things students do well and offering them the ability todo things better where they were unsuccessful. Teachers need to make fair

judgments of their students responses to correction in order to actaccordingly.

What are the qualities of a good language learner?

SELF-CHECK 5.1


14/30


MOTIVATION AND STUDENT LEARNING

Do you think motivation play a vital role in second language learning? Why?

Research shows that motivation is one of the factors influencing successfullanguage learning (Cook, 2001). Gardner and Lamberts (1972) famous studysuggested that students who felt positively about a language and who wanted tointegrate into the culture of its speakers were more highly motivated and learnedmore successfully than those who were learning the language as a means to anend. In other words, integrative motivation is more powerful than instrumentalmotivation. But whatever motivation students have, it is clear that a highlymotivated student will often do better than one who is not.

One of the responsibilities of a teacher is to provoke interest and involvement inthe subject matter. It is really up to the teacher to turn things around by choosingthe right topic, activity and linguistic content for the lesson. The teachers attitudeto class participation, her/his conscientiousness, humour and seriousness caninfluence students own attitude and interest to learn. It is by the teacher s own

behaviour and enthusiasm that they can inspire students. Teachers, however, arenot solely responsible for students motivation. They can only encouragestudents and provide the environment to foster a positive language learningexperience. Real motivation comes from within the individual.

Motivation works in two directions. High motivation is a factor that causessuccessful learning; likewise successful learning causes high motivation (Cook,2001). Brown (2001) discusses the difference between instrumental andintegrative motivation in comparison to extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.Instrumental and integrative motivation refers more to the context or purpose oflearning. For example, instrumental motivation or more aptly, orientation,learners learn a language to further a career or academic goal.

In integrative orientation the learner pursues a second language for social orcultural purposes. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations designate a continuum of

possibilities of intensity of feeling or drive, ranging from deeply internal, self-generated rewards to strong externally administered rewards from beyondoneself (Brown, 2001: 76).

There are many activities which could help motivate students. As outlined byBrown (2001:80), activities which could foster intrinsic motivation include:

(a) Teaching writing as a thinking process whereby learners develop their ownideas freely and openly

5.3


15/30


(b) Showing learners certain strategies of reading that enable them to bringtheir own information to the written word

(c) Using language experience approaches in which students create their own

reading material for others to read

(d) Using oral fluency exercises in which learners talk about what they areinterested in and not about a teacher-assigned topic

(e) Listening to an academic lecture in ones area

(f) Using communicative language teaching in which language is taught toenable learners to accomplish certain specific functions

(g) Giving grammatical explanations, if learners see their potential forincreasing their autonomy in a second language

Brown (2001: 8081) further asserts that every technique the teacher uses in theclassroom can be tested to see the extent to which the technique adheres to theabove principles.

The techniques can be checked against the following questions:

(a) Does the technique appeal to the genuine interests of the students? Is itrelevant to their lives?

(b) Is the technique presented in a positive, enthusiastic manner?

(c) Are students clearly aware of the purpose of the techniques?

(d) Do students have a choice in (i) choosing some aspect of the technique? and(ii) determining how they go about fulfilling the goals of the technique?

(e) Does the technique encourage students to develop or use effectivestrategies of learning and communication?

(f) Does it contribute to students ultimate autonomy and independence fromthe teacher?

(g) Does the technique help students discover for themselves certain principles

or rules (rather than being told by the teacher)?(h) Does it foster cooperative negotiation with other students in the class? Is it

truly interactive?

(i) Do students receive sufficient feedback on their performance (from peersand the teacher)?


16/30


You can read the following research article on increasing students motivation:

Dornyei, Zoltan and Csizer, Kata (1998). Ten commandments for motivatinglanguage learners. Language Teaching Research 2: 203229.

Answer the following questions and then discuss them with yourfriends in class.

1. Look at some of the following methods used inteaching language. Consider the extent to which each methodpromotes intrinsic motivation.

(a) Grammar-translation Method

(b) Direct Method

(c) Audiolingual Method

(d) Community language Learning

(e) Suggestopedia

(f) Silent way

(g) Total Physical Response

(h) Natural Approach

(i) Communicative Language Teaching

2. Think of some ways in which a colleague or your ownteacher were successful in increasing students motivation tolearn English. What were some of the techniques they used?Share this with your coursemates.

3. Reflect on your own teaching. Were there occasions in whichstudents were reluctant to learn in your English classroom?What do you think were some of the reasons? How did yousolve the problem?

ACTIVITY 5.3


17/30


PROFICIENCY LEVELS AND LEARNING

In teaching ESL, teachers often distinguish learners on three levels: beginner,

intermediate, and advanced. Harmer (1999:12) defines beginners as students whodo not know any English and advanced students as those whose level of Englishis high enough to enable them to read unsimplified texts and to communicatefluently with native speakers. Intermediate level suggests a basic competence inspeaking and writing and the ability to understand fairly straightforwardlistening and reading in the learner.

A distinction is often made between beginners and false beginners. An exampleof the former is adults who start an English course with virtually no English, andthe latter describes those who cannot use any English but actually know quite a

lot, which needs only to be triggered.

Elementary students are not beginners and can communicate in a basic way.They can put sentences together, construct a simple story, or take part incommunicative interactions. Upper intermediate students are like intermediatestudents, but have a stronger grasp of grammar and skill use. They do not,however, have the accuracy and depth of knowledge of advanced students.Figure 5.3 displays the labels often used to describe the different levels of Englishlanguage proficiency (Harmer, 1999:12):

Figure 5.3:The different levels of English Proficiency

It must be kept in mind that each student is an individual, but it is possible tomake some broad generalisations of the various proficiency levels. Knowing thelevel which a student is at will help the teacher design tasks and activities

appropriate for that particular level.

For a detailed discussion of the various proficiency levels in language teaching,refer to Brown (2001: 96114).

5.4


18/30


MANAGING TEACHING AND LEARNING

What is the best seating arrangement for a learner to gain optimum learning?

This section discusses the factors involved in managing teaching and learning inthe classroom. How the teacher handles teaching and learning event aresignificant efforts toward a successful lesson. Some of these important factors are:(1) How teachers use their physical presence in class; (2) How teachers use theirvoice in class; (3) How stages of a lesson are marked in class; (4) How seats arearranged in class for optimum learning; (5) What types of student grouping can

be used; and (6) How teachers evaluate the success or failure of their lessons(Harmer, 1999: 1523).

5.5.1 How Should Teachers Use Their PhysicalPresence in Class?

A key factor which influences the effective management of a class is the teacher sphysical presence. The way the teacher moves and stands, and how physicallydemonstrative s/he is, play an important role in the conduct of a lesson.Although each teacher has her/his own physical characteristics and habits, thereare some common issues that need to be considered which have a direct effect onstudents perception of the teacher.

According to Harmer (1999:1516), these issues include proximity, appropriacy,movement, and contact.

(a) ProximityTeachers should be aware of how close in physical distance they want to bewith the students. Although this can be a cultural and sensitive issue in thatsome cultures do not encourage physical proximity, there are other cultureswhich welcome closeness. Distance can mean coldness or can even beuncomfortable to others. Teachers need to be aware of these subtle

5.5

Think of your own classroom. How do you prepare your lessons tomeet the different proficiency levels of your students? Provide anexample of activities you have prepared and used to teach a particularlesson (reading, writing, speaking, etc.) which took into account theproficiency levels.

ACTIVITY 5.4


19/30


differences and be able to make the necessary adjustments and be consciousof students reactions. Teachers should consider the cultural conventions interms of whats acceptable. Such factors as gender, religious inclinations,

and age need to be considered.

(b) AppropriacyOften teachers adopt an informal, friendly atmosphere when working withstudents. For instance, some teachers are happy about sitting on the floorwith their students when working on a project. This may be appropriate insome situations. However, some students may possibly be distracted bythis. The positions a teacher takes sitting on the edge of the table, standing

behind a lectern, always sitting at the teacher s table, standing in front ofthe class (never going to the back of the class), standing on a raised dais

make strong statements about the kind of person the teacher is. It isimportant for the teacher to be aware of the kinds of effect all these have onthe students so that the teacher can behave in an appropriate manneracceptable to the students. This is important in the kind of relationship andrapport the teacher wishes to build with the students and for effectiveclassroom management.

(c) Movement

Some teachers tend to spend much of their classroom time in one position inthe classroom; for instance, at the front of the class, on the side, or in themiddle. Others may walk from one side of the class to the other or stridingup the aisles between the rows of chairs. Although this is a matter of personalpreference, it should be remembered that teachers who are motionless can

bore students, while teachers who are constantly in motion will turn thestudents into tennis-match spectators and they will end up exhausted. Again,the teacher must be aware of her/his personal style and try to create a

balance to ensure students are motivated and comfortable to learn.

(d) ContactHow do teachers make contact with their students? How close shouldthat relationship be? To effectively manage a class, teachers need to beaware of what students are doing and how they are feeling. In other words,this means that the teacher has to be watching and listening just as carefullyas teaching. It also means making eye-contact with students (if this isculturally appropriate for the particular group of students), listening towhat they have said, and responding appropriately. In learning a language,it is impossible to not make some form of contact with students. The natureof this contact will vary from teacher to teacher and from class to class.


20/30


5.5.2 How Should Teachers Use Their Voice in Class

The teacher s voice is a fundamental tool in class management. How we speak

and what our voice sounds like have a significant impact on the class. When weconsider the teacher s voice, we have to think about the following three issues,according to Harmer (1999:1617):

(a) AudibilityWe need to be heard. Teachers must ensure that students at the back of theclass can hear them just as clearly as those students sitting in front of theclass (Figure 5.4). Audibility is always related to voice quality. A high-pitched shout is unpleasant. Teachers do not have to shout to be audible.Good teachers try to create a balance between audibility and volume.

(b) VarietyIt is also important for teachers to vary their voice quality and volumedepending on the type of lesson and activity. For example, the kind of voiceused in giving instructions or in introducing a new activity is not the sameas the voice used in an informal conversation and in an informal exchangeof views or information.

Figure 5.4:Students need to hear what the teacher is teaching

Speaking softly is often effective in getting students attention becausewhen students realize that you are talking, they may want to listen in casethey miss anything that is important or interesting. For teachers who neverraise their voice, the occasional loud interjection may have a dramatic effectand can sometimes be useful.


21/30


(c) ConservationBecause teachers spend much of their time in class talking, it is importantthat they take care of their voice. It important to breathe correctly from the

diaphragm so that they do not strain their larynx. Teachers need to varytheir voice throughout the day. Avoid shouting wherever possible toconserve energy!

5.5.3 How Should Teachers Mark the Stages of aLesson

In order for teachers to have variety in their lessons, they need to include stagesin their lessons. In the beginning, the teacher will start the lesson by telling thestudents what they will be doing or what the teacher hopes to achieve.Sometimes, the teacher does not tell students everything about what he/sheplans to do in order to retain an element of surprise in the lesson. Still, it isimportant for the teacher to have a clear start to the lesson.

In addition, to end an activity or to begin another one, the teacher needs to makethis clear through his/her behaviour and what he/she says. It is helpful tostudents to know when an activity is ending and when another should start.Often, teachers need to help refocus students attention, or point it in a newdirection. This can be difficult especially when students are in a speaking activityor working in groups. Some teachers clap their hands, others may say,OKthank younow can I have your attention please? or OK, thanksnowcan we all face the front please? Another strategy is for the teacher to raiseher/his hand.

Finally, at the end of a lesson it helps if the teacher is able to give some kind ofclosure perhaps, a summary of what has happened or an explanation of what isto occur in the next lesson. Some teachers prefer that the students provide thesummary to ensure that they have understood the lesson. Sometimes, the teacheris in the midst of something when the bell rings. It is better for the teacher to thenround the lesson off successfully rather than leave it unfinished, for the latter

would give the lesson a sense of incompleteness.

5.5.4 How Should Teachers Decide on the BestSeating Arrangement for a Class

Classrooms around the world contain a variety of seating arrangements (Figure5.5). The seating arrangement helps to assist in the efficiency of languageactivities conducted by the teacher. The following are some common seatingarrangement that can be found in many language classes (Harmer, 1999: 1820):


22/30


(a) Orderly RowsThere are advantages in students sitting in rows in the classroom. Theteacher has a good view of all students and students too have a clear view

of the teacher. Lecturing becomes easier because the teacher is able toaddress everyone and is able to make eye contact with them. It also makesdiscipline control easier because it is difficult for a student to be disruptivewhen sitting in a row. The teacher can walk up and down the aisle betweenthe rows and maintain personal contact with individual students.

Activities which can be conducted are: explanations of grammar points;watching a video; using the board; and demonstrating text organization onan overhead projector. It is also useful for conducting language practicesuch as pattern-drills. When conducting a lesson with this type of seating

arrangement, the teacher must remember to address the students at theback also and not just those near her/him. The teacher needs to also moveabout the class and questions asked should include students sitting at the

back. This type of seating arrangement can accommodate a large class ofmore than 40 students.

Figure 5.5:Different seating arrangements in class (Harmer, 1999:18)


23/30


(b) Circles and HorseshoesIn a horseshoe arrangement, the teacher is at the open end of thearrangement where the board, overhead projector or tape recorder is

situated. In a circle arrangement, the teacher s position is where the boardis. With a circular arrangement, there seems to be a sense of equality amongthe participants. Even in a horseshoe arrangement, although the teacher hasa central position, s/he can still get close to the students. In this type ofarrangement, the teacher tends to lower the barriers between him/herselfand the students. The students can also see other students clearly. Thisarrangement also provides a more intimate atmosphere whereby studentscan share feelings and information through talking, eye contact orexpressive body movements.

(c) Separate TablesCompared to the previous seating arrangements, an arrangement where thestudents sit in small groups at individual tables is less formal. In such aclassroom, the teacher is able to walk about and check the students work orhelp out if they have problems. This arrangement is less hierarchical and itmakes it easier for the teacher to work at individual tables while the rest aredoing their work. This arrangement has some limitations. It may not always

be that students prefer to work with the same classmates all the time. It alsomakes whole-class teaching more difficult because students are morediffused and separated.

(d) To RecapitulateWe have seen that the seating positions of students can say a lot about thestyle of the teacher or the institution where the lessons occur. Teachersoften would like to change the seating arrangements of their students. Thisis possible when teachers are aware of how they want to conduct the lesson whether involving the whole class, groups, pairs, or individually asexplicated by Harmer (1999). This is discussed in the next section.

(e) Student GroupingsStudent groupings that teachers can use are:

(i) Whole class

(ii) Group work and pair work

(iii) Individual work


24/30


Whole class:Often teachers find working with a class as a whole to be thebest type of organisation. However, this does not mean that students sittingin orderly rows will focus on what the teacher is saying.

Group work and pair work:These types of organisation seem to be popularin language classes. They have many advantages. Group work is acooperative activity. In groups, students are often able to participateequally and can experiment more with language than in a whole classarrangement.

Group work and pair work give students the chance to work moreindependently. Working together without the teacher controllingeverything, students are able to make their own learning decisions, decide

what language to use to in completing a task without the pressure of otherslistening to them. Decisions are arrived at cooperatively and responsibilitiesare shared.

Teachers also get the opportunity to work with individual students ingroup work and pair work arrangements. However, with separate tableseating, students may not always like to work with the person/s they aregrouped with. In any group or pair, there will always be a situation where agroup member or a partner may be more dominant while the others aresilent. In difficult classes, group work can cause more disruption and whenstudents share the same native language (L1), they may revert to the use ofthe L1 instead of the target language (English).

Individual work: An alternative to the above-mentioned arrangements isindividual work. It has some advantages. It allows students to work at theirown pace and gives them some thinking time. In other words, it allowsthem to be individuals. It provides a change from the often group-canterednature of language teaching. Students can consider their own individualneeds and progress.

In summary, classroom organisation is dependent upon teacher style andstudent preferences. Do the students really enjoy pair work? Do theadvantages of group work (cooperation, involvement, autonomy) outweighthat of whole class grouping (clarity, dramatic potential, teacher control)?Do students really work well in individual work sessions?


25/30


Type of Grouping Advantages Disadvantages

Whole class

Group work

Pair work

Individual work

5.5.5 How Can Teachers Evaluate the Success or

Failure of Their LessonsQuestions teachers ask about the activities used in their lessons include thefollowing:

(a) Were the activities successful?

(b) Did the students enjoy them?

(c) Did they learn anything from them?

(d) How could the activities be changed to make them more effective?

A simple way to find out about the effectiveness of an activity is to ask studentssimple questions. Such questions include: Did you like the exercise? Did you findit useful? Of course, not all students will openly discuss the answers, in whichcase the teacher can ask them to write down their responses. Another way to getfeedback is to ask a colleague to observe the activity and get his/her commentsand suggestions. The lesson could also be videotaped.

Good teachers are able to use different class groupings for different activities.They can monitor the effectiveness of each type of groupings by being aware

of students reactions and success in the lessons.

Think of some advantages and disadvantages of the differenttypes of class groupings.

SELF-CHECK 5.2


26/30


Feedback from students is important to help teachers modify the activities usedin lessons. Teachers also need to evaluate how well the students are progressing.This can be done through assignments, speaking activities, and frequent small

progress tests. Good teachers always keep track of their students progress andachievements. Only when teachers keep such progress records can they begin tosee the success or failure of their teaching.

LANGUAGE TEACHING

How do you teach English in your classroom? What are the factors you considerin carrying out your lesson?

We have come to the last section in this topic. This section provides a discussion

and explanation of the nature of language teaching. The issues discussed include:

(a) What Language Study Consist ofIn teaching a new language, four factors are of significance in the languageclassroom: exposure to the language; understanding the meaningassociated with the language; understanding the form of the language; andpracticing the language. In addition, the elements of the language such asits use or skills (e.g., learning strategies) must be included in the classroom;what has been selected must be learned (via teacher s facilitation); andcorrection or feedback must be given to the learners.

(b) HowStudents Should be Exposed to LanguageA major role of teachers in classroom language instruction is to providestudents with maximum exposure to the language being learned (e.g.,English in ESL classrooms). Teachers often start off by exposing students tothe spoken form of the language. For example, they could presentgrammatical structures orally and students are given the opportunity tolisten to explanations before they are asked to see it or produce it in writtenform. This can also be assisted by using tape-recorders, video, and materialsfrom the Internet. Students can be asked to visit a particular website that

has language activities which students could attempt for practice. Activitiesvary depending on the different proficiency levels of the students (seeHarmer (1999: 52-54) for detailed examples of activities for the differentproficiency levels).

5.6


27/30


(c) How We Can Help Students to Understand MeaningThere are various ways to help students to understand meaning accordingto their level of proficiency. For example, for beginners, the teacher may

wish to start by presenting concrete objects through the situational method.This is a pen is illustrated by showing the actual object. To introduce thequestion form, the teacher could use gestures and voice intonation todemonstrate meaning. Thus, in dealing with low proficiency studentsteachers can use objects, pictures, drawings, gesture and expressions to helpstudents understand meaning and simple concepts. For more advancedlevels, students can be asked to do more cognitively complex tasks to helpthem to understand the meaning of the language. For example, studentscan be asked to draw a diagram of the content of a text they are reading.Students could also write a summary to show their understanding.

(d) How We Can Help Students to Understand Language FormsHarmer (1999:56) suggests that other than listening/seeing andunderstanding meaning, students need to know how the particularlanguage form is constructed. Students need to understand the constituentparts the sounds, syllables, words and phrases of the new language. Forexample, in presenting the word pen, the teacher can focus on thepronunciation of the sounds in the words: /p//e//n/pen. Somesounds can be demonstrated by manipulating the mouth and lips. Theteacher can also use intonation and gestures to clarify sound-symbolrelationships. Practice exercises can be developed to help students practicethe new sounds and words learned. Written tasks can be devised toreinforce what was taught.

(e) How Students Should Practice LanguageStudents can be given further practice with new language forms once theyhave heard and understood the meaning and construction of the forms.Practice should not take too much of the students time. Practice has to begeared toward the different levels of proficiency. Beginners could be givenrepetition exercises, sentence construction exercises, etc. Advanced levelstudents can attempt tasks that require a higher level of language skill andcognitive demands such as summarising, making inferences, applicationexercises, and so forth.


28/30


(f) Why Students Make MistakesMaking mistakes is a natural part of language learning. All students makemistakes at various stages of learning. There is a number of possible

reasons why students make mistakes. They are:(i) The students native language may get in the way of learning the L2.

(ii) Grammatical constructions between the L1 and the target languageare different, e.g. Arabic and English writing system.

(iii) Mistakes are part of developmental errors. This often occurs as aresult of overgeneralisation of rules. For instance, having learned theform I have to go, a student may say I must to go.

(iv) Some mistakes are persistent and need constant attention (e.g., thirdperson singular of the simple present tense).

Whatever the mistakes, teachers must realise that all students makemistakes as a natural and useful way of learning. Students need to be madeaware of the types and nature of their mistakes and how to overcome them.

(g) The Role of Error CorrectionFeedbacks from teachers in the form of corrections help to clarify studentsunderstanding of the meaning and construction of language. Teachers needto be sensitive though in making corrections of students mistakes so as notto upset them and make them lose confidence in learning. Other studentscan also help correct their peers mistakes. Again, this has to be plannedwell. Not all peer-corrections are done efficiently. It can even be moredamaging to the students when it affects their self-esteem and confidence.

Current views of language teaching emphasize the importance of feedbackonly when the meanings which students attempt to convey are notunderstood (Crookes & Chaudron, 2001:40). Feedback and correction areimportant to help learner differentiate between acceptable andunacceptable target language use. Teachers need to be knowledgeable interms of what and when feedback in the form of correction is required.

(h) Where Language Study Activities Fit in the Teaching SequenceHarmer (1999) argues that three elements are required in the languageclassroom. He termed them ESA or Engage-Study-Activate. At the engagestage of teaching sequence, the teacher tries to arouse the students interest.Activities which help to engage students include games, music, discussions,stimulating pictures, dramatic stories, and amusing anecdotes.


29/30


30/30


We have discussed issues related to the characteristics of a good teacher, and

the nature of effective interaction between teacher and students to promoteoptimum language learning.

We have also overviewed the techniques and factors required in givinginstructions to students, the culture of talk in the classroom, lesson typeswhich promote learning, and the importance of planning and preparation ofteaching in the ESL classroom.

Automaticity Intrinsic motivation

Documents

Topic 5 Teachers Learners and Teaching in ESL Classrooms.pdf