Total quality management for bridging the expectations gap in systems development

Pergamon International Journal of Project Management Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 115-120, 1996

Copyright © 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd and IPMA Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved

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Total quality management for bridging the expectations gap in systems development

Rajesh Aggarwal Assistant Professor of Computer Information Systems, Middle Tennessee State University, College of Business, Murfreesboro, TN 37132, USA

Zabihoilah Rezaee Associate Professor of Accounting, Middle Tennessee State University, College of Business, Murfreesboro, TN 37132, USA

The expectations gap in systems development is the result of differences between the expectations of end users from computer systems and their actual performance. High expectations of users are caused by vendors' self-serving claims and the glitter of technology, while the low performance of computer systems is the result of inadequacies in systems development. Application of total quality management (TQM) concepts in systems development narrows this expectations gap by meeting users' requirements of functionality and budget constraints. This is achieved by involving users, senior managers and systems developers in systems development. The development process is streamlined with computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools and project management techniques. Copyright © Elsevier Science Ltd and IPMA

Keywords: total quality management, systems development, expectations gap, computer-aided software engineering, information resource management, project management

Growing competition, technological advancement and globalization of markets are encouraging companies to use new technologies to achieve higher productivity and product quality. Management under competitive pressure thinks that computerization is the panacea for all their problems. The perception that the organization is at a competitive disadvantage without computer systems has significantly increased users' expectations of computer systems. The data processing industry has also been under the pressure of worldwide competition to produce high-quality systems quickly and inexpensively to satisfy users' expectations. The expectations gap is the result of differences between the expectations users have of computer systems and the actual performance of such systems.

Total quality management (TQM) is suggested as a means of narrowing this expectations gap by: (1) meeting users requirements; (2) encouraging senior management to establish continuous quality improvement standards; (3) enhancing quality and productivity by adhering to established standards and structured methodology; (4) shortening the time-to-market by automating the development process using computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools; (5) meeting budgetary constraints by improving productivity

of staff; (6) managing the systems development process with project management tools and techniques; (7) monitoring quality attainment and constantly striving to improve the level of quality achieved.

The primary purposes of this paper are to: (1) examine the perceived expectations gap in the systems development process; (2) discuss TQM concepts that are relevant in reducing this perceived expectations gap; (3) explore the need for adopting TQM in systems development process; and (4) discuss the benefits of implementing TQM to the users, information management staff, managers and the organization as a whole.

The perceived expectations gap

Recent progress in telecommunications, computers and transportation has made the world smaller. The entire world has become a single marketplace. In the global marketplace, competitive pressures have intensified, the margins of error have decreased, complexity of business has increased and uncertainty has grown. In such an environment, management is depending on computers more than ever before to achieve and maintain the competitive

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Total quality management for bridging the expectations gap in systems development: R Aggarwal and Z Rezaee

edge. Therefore, the response window for creating and modifying computer systems is becoming more narrowly concentrated. Additionally, the funding for computer-related projects is spiralling as business demands more compre- hensive and timely systems development. The dynamic environment of contemporary business requires continuous improvement in quality, productivity, effectiveness and efficiency of computer systems.

High expectations of users

Expectations of users are also stimulated by media promotion of the latest technological advances, as well as by the ever-increasing introduction of new computer products and services in the marketplace. Vendors, acting in their own self-interest, may make inflated claims about their products t. Media coverage of new technology usually provides a positive picture. Vendors' claims and success stories published in trade journals may be true only for an ideal environment. An ideal environment for systems implementation rarely exists; therefore, systems delivered by a development team may be under-achievers compared to vendors' claims. Inflated vendors' claims and media coverage create a gap between the expectations and the actual performance of computer systems.

End-users and information systems professionals are often misled by the glitter of new technology or by vendors' inflated claims. In such circumstances, their focus shifts from problem solving to working with the latest technology and software packages 2. They are under the impression that new computer systems will solve their problems. Vendors and the media do not make clear that in most worthwhile endeavours more is involved than merely technology. As a result, users expectations are not met.

Inadequacies in systems development

The expectations gap has also resulted from inadequacies in systems development. Several surveys indicate that more than one-third of all software projects commenced routinely overrun their budgeted costs and time schedules 3. Some of these projects are abandoned in mid-stream and others, even if completed, are less effective and efficient than pro- mised and, accordingly, do not meet users' requirements. The system was built for what had been originally intended but the business environment has changed and the system as designed is no longer useful.

Users are often unable to pin-point their needs and seek to develop systems that are too large or too complex. The probability of not meeting users expectations is high for a large system. Software projects are similar to icebergs in at least one attribute. An iceberg is one-tenth above the surface and nine-tenths below the surface. Similarly, for a software project, resource requirements are only one-tenth visible in the initial stages of planning but the nine-tenths invisible requirements come to surface in later phases 4. Invisibility of true resource requirements depends on several factors, including but not limited to, characteristics of the operational environment, type of task and constraints on resources. For most software projects, the operational environment is dynamic in nature as the users' requirements keep on changing with time. This type of task is complex as it requires interaction between several individuals working together to convert an abstract idea into a computer program. The constraints on resources are generally tight

because expectations of users are high and this leaves no margin for errors or delays. In such a dynamic, complex and constrained environment, the probability of meeting users' expectations is low. Figure 1 presents interrelation- ships among factors which contribute to the perceived expectations gap.

Complex tasks that require integration of several activities have a higher probability of overruns in terms of both time and costs. The traditional techniques of estimating the resource requirements are unscientific, unreliable and lack standardization. With these traditional techniques, under- estimation is the rule rather than an exception becauseS: (1) information staff want to develop the system, so they underbid; (2) the user wants the system irrespective of cost because development is done in-house and does not cost users anything; and (3) the resource estimate is done based on available budget, comparable software projects and executive mandate.

Problems of schedule delays and budget overruns are compounded by the high turnover among the project staff. Productivity of the whole team is affected if a team member quits or gets reassigned. Turnover of staff leads to discontinuity. Discontinuity delays the project in two important ways. First, the new team member takes time to become familiar with the project. Second, the new member may not fully agree with the solution proposed by the previous team. Goals of the project may be modified to accom- modate new members. Modifications of goals in later phases may result in undoing or redoing of sub-systems and that will delay the completion of the project.

In the past, the credibility of information systems personnel has suffered because traditional systems development processes could not meet the high expectations of users. Users have developed the negative image that systems staff cannot get anything done on time and within budget. Because of this negative image, user support for future projects becomes increasingly difficult. Therefore, the information systems must devise some strategies to bridge this expectations gap, which has resulted from the following factors: (1) unrealistically high expectations of users in the face of limited resources; (2) unrealistic project completion date coupled with continually changing requirements; (3) long lead time because of backlog problems, complexity of projects and manual developmental techniques; (4) lack of user involvement because of behavioural, organizational and political issues; (5) improper planning, estimating, scheduling and monitoring; (6) inappropriate,

Y Complex

Type of Task l

Simple/ Static

software project

J

i Many Constraints Few ,~_ Dynamic

Operational Environment

Figure 1 Factors responsible for expectation gap

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incomplete and inadequate analysis and design; (7) in- flexibility of design to incorporate unscheduled changes in requirements; and (8) unplanned absence of resources because of breakdowns of equipment and turnover of personnel.

Total quality management (TQM)

TQM is defined in business literature as an integrated effort at gaining competitive advantages by continually improving all aspects of business activities and striving for the goal of 100% satisfied customers. TQM can be broken down into three interrelated components 6. 'Total ' means organization- wide commitment. It indicates that quality is the business of all the stakeholders, that is, users, systems personnel and top management. Everyone should work together to achieve and possibly exceed users' expectations. 'Quality' , accord- ing to Webster's dictionary, is 'a characteristic of high grade of excellence'. Users' satisfaction is achieved by integrating the concept of continuous quality improvement throughout the organization. 'Management' represents the philosophy, leadership, infrastructure and resources which create continuous improvement in the process of systems development and enhancements.

Most successful organizations have become more global, more cost effective and efficient and more focused on customer satisfaction. Many of these organizations have implemented the TQM concept in achieving their goal of continuous quality and productivity improvements in satisfying customer wants and needs. TQM is also applicable to the development and maintenance of a computer system because both users and developers have concerns for the quality of the system. Proper adoption of TQM results in defect-free computer systems that meet users' current requirements and adapt easily to satisfy their future needs and expectations. Continuous improvement in systems development removes the perceived expectations gap by improving quality, shortening the response time, reducing defects, getting all employees involved in quality activities and meeting users' requirements. TQM attributes and characteristics that are directly related to systems development are listed in Table 1. Adoption of these attributes contributes significantly to the achievement of the difficult goal of continuous quality and productivity improvements in systems development.

Role of users in TQM

TQM's concept of continuous improvement is user driven with the goal of satisfying the expectations of internal and external end users. User satisfaction can be measured by objectively analysing data gathered through surveys and interviews with users. Some important questions that need to be answered are the following:

• Are users receiving the required information? • Does the system meet users' specifications (e.g. response

time)? • Is the interface user friendly (e.g. input/output screens)? • Is the documentation complete and easy to understand? • Is the help feature user friendly? • How many requests for design changes were received

during the field tests? • How many requests for design changes have been

received after implementation? • How much are the end users satisfied? • What is the status of the backlog?

TQM concepts strive to meet and exceed the expectations of users. User satisfaction depends on the degree to which the application software meets the users' current needs as well as the ease with which it can adapt to the changing needs of the business. Users are interested in systems that can incorporate new business needs because requirements keep on changing in a dynamic business environment. To meet these changing requirements TQM emphasizes the deployment of technology. Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools are one of the best sets of tools that can implement TQM concepts in systems development. Figure 2 illustrates a set of CASE tools including structured analysis and design tools, code generators, prototyping tools, diagramming tools, repository for data and modules and data modelling tools. These tools automate the step- by-step process of the structured systems development methodology. They help in achieving user needs, time and

Table 1 TQM for systems development

• Adopting TQM philosophy in carrying out day-to-day activities. • Understanding users needs and satisfying their requirements for

functional systems. • Continuous quality improvement of systems by streamlining the

development process using project management techniques and employee involvement.

• Emphasizing teamwork, encouraging the participation of users, developers and senior managers.

• Training, development programs and continuing professional education for users and systems personnel.

• Encouraging compliance with in-house quality control standards proclaimed by IRM committee.

• Developing strategic planning and implementation techniques to achieve short-run as well as long-term quality goals for systems in the organization.

• Promoting management by objectives in performance evaluation, promotion and advancement activities of systems staff.

Figure 2 CASE tools for implementing TQM concepts

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Table 2 Achieving user satisfaction with systems development by implementing TQM concepts using case tools

TQM concepts CASE tool User satisfaction

Employee (user) participation

Continuous process improvement

3. Improved communication

4. Quality of design

5. Deployment of technology

6. Productivity improvement

Prototyping

Structured analysis and design Diagramming

Standardized data modelling Prototyping Detailed documentation

Structured analysis and design Diagramming

CASE tools Project management techniques

Code generation Repository of reusable modules

Improves user involvement

Improves analysis and design

Enhances involvement of users, managers and developers

Improves design

Improves productivity Reduces lead time to market

Satisfaction of users, managers, and developers

financial constraints in systems development. Table 2 sum- marizes the role of CASE tools in implementing TQM concepts. A detailed discussion of TQM concepts and their implementation using CASE tools in achieving goals of systems development follows.

Prototyping to improve users' acceptability. In the past, the lack of a clear and consistent definition of the problems led to the development of systems with which users were dissatisfied. These systems consequently were not used and proved to be 'shelfware'. TQM emphasizes extensive communication between users and developers to create quality software that meets users' requirements. Users' involvement in the planning, development and implementation of a new system assures success. The development process can be improved and users' participation enhanced by automating the development process using computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools.

CASE includes screen painters and report generators that provide prototyping of input/output screens and reports. Even before the software is complete, users can see the form and attributes of the output. Generally, users do not know their own requirements until they use a working model of the system. User needs generally develop over a period of time and come to surface by interacting with prototypes. Users' involvement in the development process by interacting with prototypes convinces them that this is their own project. Establishing the feeling of ownership among users is the goal of TQM as it increases the acceptability of the project and thereby the probability of its Success.

Unfreezing the 'frozen specs '. TQM demands streamlining the development process with automation. CASE, with its extensive prototyping and code generation facilities, can automate the complete development process so that users can develop their own systems. Development of systems by end users significantly reduces the backlog and time-to- market. It also improves the probability that the system will be used at its completion by unfreezing the 'frozen specs'.

In traditional systems development life cycles (SDLC), once the design specifications are finalized, those 'specs are frozen'. Subsequent changes in business needs due to a dynamic environment are generally ignored until the maintenance phase. Enhancements in the maintenance phase are expensive, time consuming and adversely affect the quality of software. To maintain users' enthusiasm and sense of ownership, some of their requested changes have to be

made. In a TQM environment modular design, prototyping tools and automatic code generators make developers responsive to users' needs. 'Specs' are not frozen until very late in the design, because in an accelerated development process the rate of change does not exceed the rate of progress.

Maximizing performance by minimizing defects. The goal of TQM is user satisfaction by developing systems with 'zero' defects. User satisfaction is inversely proportional to the number of defects, because serious and critical defects directly interfere with users' ability to perform their jobs. The number of defects should be tracked during all the phases of development as they reflect on the quality of software. If the trend is downward then it reflects better pretest defect avoidance. Structured analysis and design, prototyping, automatic code generators and inspection aids reduce defects in systems development 7.

TQM advocates that the best approach to minimize defects is to understand user needs. Prototyping and diagramming tools provide efficient communication links between users and developers. Prototyping allows users to evaluate the design and ask for modifications in early phases. Such an approach drastically reduces errors at an early stage. Users' continual involvement in all phases of systems development is the best method to minimize errors and maximize user satisfaction.

To minimize defects, TQM focuses on the design process, the most time consuming activity in the development process. In the design process, defects appear most often and take the most effort to be corrected. Generally higher levels of complexity lead to more design errors. Higher complexity also interferes with the ability to predict and control projects. Design too complex for one person should be decomposed into several modules. The output from each intermediate step should be evaluated by automatic inspection aids. Errors should be detected and corrected before they corrupt the steps higher up in the hierarchy. Standard- ized representation and common terminology allow team members to inspect each other's work products. These inspections by peers expose some defects that are not detected by automated inspection aids. Design inspections can help to reduce defects by 50-75% 8 .

Job satisfaction for systems staff

TQM requires that needs of the systems personnel should be examined to improve the quality of their job performance.

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An important function of the project manager is to staff the project. Therefore, the project manager should be interested not only in user satisfaction but also in job satisfaction of the systems staff. In many instances project staff turnover has forced management to abandon projects. TQM mini- mizes the problem of staff turnover by improving job satisfaction and shortening the project duration. Job satisfaction comes from the better quality of the systems developed as a result of improvements in the development process. For example, automation removes the drudgery of systems development, resulting in greater productivity. More time is available for creative thinking and developing a com- prehensive system. The availability of more time and con- centration reduces the cognitive overload on the development team. This reduces staff turnover and absenteeism. Lower turnover makes the task of maintaining systems easier. The money spent in hiring and training new systems personnel is also saved.

Role of senior management in improving users' satisfaction

TQM requires active involvement of senior managers in improving users' satisfaction. The chief information officer, user managers and other senior managers should form the information resource management (IRM) committee. This committee plans at the strategic level. The main output of the IRM committee is the systems plan report. The systems plan report proposes a set of systems projects after taking into consideration the organizational goals, critical success factors and constraints. The systems plan report is the blueprint which the systems department follows. It not only proposes a set of desired systems projects but also allocates the necessary resources for the projects over the next few years. To resolve the problem of backlog, it prioritizes the allocation of resources among competing systems.

To narrow the expectations gap, information management should report on performance to an IRM committee on a regular basis. The performance report should present the contribution of information systems to the organization. The organization must compare the existing productivity and quality levels with those attained by using new computer systems. The utility of new systems should not be measured against vendors' inflated claims. Gathering information from other organizations that are using similar systems will help in forming reasonable expectations.

Benefits of TQM

The successful implementation of TQM for systems development can be beneficial to a variety of groups, including the users, systems staff and the organization. User satisfaction is the most obvious indicator of a successful TQM program. This satisfaction is the result of the software meeting the users' requirements. TQM produces quality software having zero or very few defects. The number of defects is reduced by involving users in the development process. User involvement with prototyping facilities provides clear definition of the problems. TQM uses effective project management techniques and therefore delivers systems on time and within budgetary constraints. TQM streamlines the development process by using CASE tools to reduce the time-to-market. In short, TQM achieves user satisfaction by:

• meeting user requirements;

• improving communication with and involvement of the users;

• achieving clear definition of the problems and requirements;

• minimizing defects in final software; • delivering projects on time and within budget; • providing flexible applications, easy enhancement and

reusable code; • requiring lower on-going maintenance for systems; • reducing the number of design change requests; • improving debugging with accurate, legible and complete

documentation; • decreasing backlog by faster turnaround time; • satisfying systems staff, resulting in reduced staff turnover.

A second benefactor of TQM is the systems development staff. The efficiency of TQM creates a better work environment. It improves communications with users and among the staff members. Increased satisfaction with the work environment reduces the turnover rate and absenteeism. This is beneficial for both the employees and the organization.

A third benefactor of TQM is the organization as a whole. TQM provides a fundamental shift in the organizational process of generating and disseminating information. Shorter development cycles and reduced maintenance demands improve the proactive potential of the systems development. Unlike reactive systems that are created in response to the functions forced by the environment, proactive systems facilitate automation that improves the organizational effectiveness. Integrated proactive systems make organizations successful by gaining and maintaining a competitive advantage. By keeping up with the needs of users, systems departments can offer new systems as soon as they are required. This will provide a competitive edge over firms that have a longer lead time in systems development.

There are costs involved in the implementation of TQM. "Do the benefits of TQM implementation exceed the costs?" The answer is a definite " y e s " . Start-up costs of the TQM process can be expensive in terms of the time of senior managers, systems staff and users. All of them have to take part in the training session on TQM concepts. Systems staff will need additional training in project management techniques and CASE tools. The payoffs from project management techniques and CASE tools can be dramatic. Productivity improvements often occur with the streamlining of development processes with these tools and techniques of TQM. The cost of preventive maintenance and enhancements is drastically reduced by following techniques to achieve zero defects. It has become essential to utilize the concepts of TQM for the effective and efficient development of systems.

Conclusion

TQM is more than a process of quality control. It is a commitment to the excellence of operations of a business in exceeding customer satisfaction. TQM allows the systems department to focus on its users in order to improve its performance and profitability, as well as reaching its goals of effective and efficient development of systems. It bridges the expectations gap by developing systems that meet users' needs, time requirements and resource constraints. The expectations gap is narrowed by continually improving all

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aspects of the systems development process, striving for the goals of 100% satisfied users and the participation of everyone in an effort to achieve zero defects. The users' participation can be enhanced by automating the systems development process using CASE tools.

There is an established need in today's systems departments to take extra measures to gain the competitive advantage. Quality systems can provide the advantage that users require to outperform competitors. TQM provides the competitive edge by developing systems that not only meet the existing requirements and expectations of users but also satisfy their potential requirements. TQM is the way many businesses, including software developing organizations, are pursuing excellence in their products and services. TQM creates significant benefits for the organization, the systems staff and the users. Although implementation of TQM systems requires a long-term commitment, the future benefits that will result are worth the expense.

References

1 Lederer, Albert L and Mendelow, Aubrey L 'The impact of the environment on the management of information systems' Information Systems Research (June 1990) 205-222

2 Ibid. 3 Lyytinen, K and Hirschheim, R 'Information systems failures--a

survey and classification of the empirical literature' Oxford Surveys in Information Technology 4 (1987) 257-213

4 Synnott, William R and Gruber, William H Information Resource Management, John Wiley & Sons Inc, USA (1981)

5 McComb, David and Smith, Jill Y 'System project failure: the heuristics of risk' J Information Management (Winter 1991) 25-34

6 Stanleigh, Michael 'Accounting for quality' CMA Magazine (October 1992) 40-42

7 Grady, R B Practical Software Metrics For Project Management and Process Improvement Prentice Hall, USA (1992)

8 Ibid.

Rajesh Aggarwal received his PhD degree from the University of Texas at Arlington in December 1987. Dr Aggarwal 's teaching experience spans the full extent of information systems course offerings at the undergraduate level. He has published several articles in a variety of pub- lications. He is an active member of the National Decision Science Institute. Dr Aggarwal is currently an Assistant Professor of Information Systems at the Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee.

Zabihollah Rezaee received his PhD degree from the University of Mississippi in December 1985. Dr Rezaee has had public accounting experience working for Arthur Andersen & Co in lran. Professor Rezaee is an active member of the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA), the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (A1CPA) and the American Accounting Associ- ation (AAA). Dr Rezaee holds four certificates -- CMA, CPA, CFE and CIA. Although his teaching experience spans the full extent of accounting course offerings at both the undergraduate and graduate levels, Dr Rezaee has primary teaching and research interests in accounting education, international, financial and management accounting and auditing. Dr Rezaee has published over 80 articles in a variety of accounting and business journals. He has presented over 60 research papers at regional, national and international conferences. He taught at the University of Alabama in Huntsville, the University of Detroit and currently is an Associate Professor of Accounting at the Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee.

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Total quality management for bridging the expectations gap in systems development