U.S. PRESIDENTS

U.S. EVENTSWORLD EVENTS

The Cold War The Cold War Begins

758 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

SECTION 1 The Origins of the Cold War

SECTION 2 The Early Cold War Years

SECTION 3 The Cold War and American Society

SECTION 4 Eisenhower’s Cold War Policies

1945 –1960

1945 1950

Truman 1945–1953

Eisenhower 1953–1961

1945• Franklin Roosevelt dies

1947• Truman

Doctrine is declared

1948• Berlin airlift begins

1953• Armistice agreement

is reached in Korea

1949• Communists take

power in China

July 1945• Potsdam

Conference partitions Germany

March 1945• Yalta Conference

is held to plan postwar world

1948• State of

Israel is created

Chapter

The world’s first nuclear artillery shell is test fired on May 25, 1953. Such tests were common during the early cold war.

1950• McCarthy charges

that Communists staff the U.S. State Department

• Korean War begins

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Long-TermCauses

Short-TermCauses

Cold

War

Cau

ses

Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 759

MAKING CONNECTIONS

How Did the Atomic Bomb Change the World?The destructiveness of the atomic bomb raised the stakes in military confl icts. Growing tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union after World War II led to a constant threat of nuclear war.

• How did the atomic bomb change relations between nations?

• Do you think the invention of the atomic bomb made the world safer?

Analyzing Causes Make a Two-Tab Book Foldable that lists the long-term and short-term causes of the Cold War. List the information as you read and review the chapter.

1955 1960

1960• U-2 incident occurs

1956• Hungarians rebel against the

Communist government

1957• Soviet Union

launches Sputnik Chapter Overview Visit glencoe.com to preview Chapter 22.

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Section 1

760 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

Guide to ReadingBig IdeasGovernment and Society Although World War II was nearly over, personal and political differences among Allied leaders and the peoples they repre-sented led to new global challenges.

Content Vocabulary• satellite nations (p. 765)• Iron Curtain (p. 765)

Academic Vocabulary• liberate (p. 760)• equipment (p. 762)

People and Events to Identify• Yalta (p. 760)• Cold War (p. 762)• Potsdam (p. 764)

Reading StrategyCategorizing Complete a graphic organizer similar to the one below by filling in the names of the conferences held among the “Big Three” Allies and the outcomes of each.

Conferences Outcomes

After the war ended, tensions continued to rise over

the amount of freedom the Soviets were going to

allow the nations they controlled. Leaders of Britain, the

United States, and the Soviet Union held conferences

but could not resolve this question.

The Yalta ConferenceMAIN Idea Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met at Yalta to discuss Poland,

Germany, and the rights of liberated Europe.

HISTORY AND YOU Do you remember Wilson’s idealistic Fourteen Points and how they were changed during negotiations after World War I? Read on to learn how negotiations during and after World War II led to results differ-ent from what Roosevelt and Truman wanted.

In February 1945, with the war in Europe almost over, Roosevelt,

Churchill, and Stalin met at Yalta—a Soviet resort on the Black Sea—

to plan the postwar world. Although the conference seemed to go

well, several agreements reached at Yalta later played an important

role in causing the Cold War.

PolandThe first issue discussed at Yalta was what to do about Poland.

Shortly after the Germans invaded Poland, the Polish government

fled to Britain. In 1944, however, Soviet troops drove back the

Germans and entered Poland. As they liberated Poland from

German control, the Soviets encouraged Polish Communists to set

up a new government. This meant there were now two governments

claiming the right to govern Poland: one Communist and one

non-Communist.

President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill both argued

that the Poles should be free to choose their own government. “This

is what we went to war against Germany for,” Churchill explained,

“that Poland should be free and sovereign.”

Stalin quickly responded to Churchill’s comments. According to

Stalin, because Poland was on the Soviet Union’s western border, the

need for its government to be friendly was a matter of “life and death”

from the Soviet point of view. Every time invaders had entered Russia

from the west, they had come through Poland. Eventually, the three

leaders compromised. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to recognize

the Polish government set up by the Soviets. Stalin agreed that the

government would include members of the prewar Polish govern-

ment and that free elections would be held as soon as possible.

The Origins of the Cold War

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BalticSea

NorthSea

Berlin

SWITZ. AUSTRIA

CZECH.

NETH.

BELG.

U.K.

POLAND

FRANCE

ElbeR.

Danube R.

Rhin

eR.

100 miles

100 kilometers

0

0

Albers Equal-Area projection

Allied OccupationZones, 1945–1949

American

British

French

Soviet

Present-dayGermany

N

S

W E 6 miles

6 kilometers

0

0

EastBerlinWest

Berlin

Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 761

The Declaration ofLiberated Europe

After reaching a compromise on Poland,

Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed to

issue the Declaration of Liberated Europe. The

declaration asserted “the right of all people to

choose the form of government under which

they will live.”

The Allies promised that the people of

Europe would be allowed “to create demo-

cratic institutions of their own choice.” They

also promised to create temporary govern-

ments that represented “all democratic ele-

ments” and pledged “the earliest possible

establishment through free elections of gov-

ernments responsive to the will of the

people.”

Dividing GermanyAfter discussing Poland and agreeing to a

set of principles for liberating Europe, the

conference focused on Germany. Roosevelt,

Churchill, and Stalin agreed to divide Germany

into four zones. Great Britain, the United

States, the Soviet Union, and France would

each control one zone. The same four coun-

tries would also divide the German capital city

of Berlin into four zones, even though it was

in the Soviet zone.

The Yalta Conference, 1945

Analyzing VISUALS 1. Specifying In the Declaration of

Liberated Europe, what three things did the Big Three promise to help the peoples of Europe do?

2. Locating In what zone in the divided Germany was Berlin located?

▲ Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin at Yalta

The Declaration of Liberated Europe

At Yalta, the Allies issued the Declaration of Liberated Europe. The Soviet Union’s failure to uphold the Decla-ration contributed to the coming of the Cold War. The Declaration contained the following commitments:• The peoples of Europe will be allowed to create

democratic institutions of their own choice, but must destroy all remaining aspects of Nazism and fascism in their societies.

• The United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union will help the peoples of Europe to do the fol-lowing:

1. Establish peace in their country 2. Provide aid to people in distress 3. Form temporary governments that represent all

democratic elements of the society and hold free elections to choose a government that responds to the will of the people

• The United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union will continue to support the principles expressed in the Atlantic Charter.

The Division of Germany, 1945

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762 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

Although pleased with the decision to

divide Germany, Stalin also demanded that

Germany pay heavy reparations for the war

damage it had caused. Roosevelt agreed, but

he insisted reparations be based on Germany’s

ability to pay. He also suggested, and Stalin

agreed, that Germany pay reparations with

trade goods and products instead of cash. The

Allies would also be allowed to remove indus-

trial machinery, railroad cars, and other equip-

ment from Germany as reparations. This

decision did not resolve the issue. Over the

next few years, arguments about German rep-

arations greatly increased tensions between

the United States and the Soviet Union.

Tensions Begin to Rise The Yalta decisions shaped the expectations

of the United States. Two weeks after Yalta, the

Soviets pressured the king of Romania into

appointing a Communist government. The

United States accused the Soviets of violating

the Declaration of Liberated Europe.

Soon afterward, the Soviets refused to allow

more than three non-Communist Poles to

serve in the 18-member Polish government.

There was also no indication that they intended

to hold free elections in Poland as promised.

On April 1, President Roosevelt informed the

Soviets that their actions in Poland were not

acceptable.

Yalta marked a turning point in Soviet-

American relations. President Roosevelt had

hoped that an Allied victory and the creation

of the United Nations would lead to a more

peaceful world. Instead, as the war came to an

end, the United States and the Soviet Union

became increasingly hostile toward each other.

This led to an era of confrontation and com-

petition between the two nations that lasted

from about 1946 to 1990. This era became

known as the Cold War.

Soviet Security ConcernsThe tensions between the United States

and the Soviet Union led to the Cold War

because the two sides had different goals. As

the war ended, Soviet leaders became con-

cerned about security. They wanted to keep

Germany weak and make sure that the coun-

tries between Germany and the Soviet Union

were under Soviet control.

Although security concerns influenced

their thinking, Soviet leaders were also com-

munists. They believed that communism was

a superior economic system that would even-

tually replace capitalism, and that the Soviet

Union should encourage communism in other

nations. Soviet leaders also accepted Lenin’s

theory that capitalist countries would eventu-

ally try to destroy communism. This made

them suspicious of capitalist nations.

American Economic IssuesWhile Soviet leaders focused on securing

their borders, American leaders focused on

economic problems. Many American officials

believed that the Depression had caused

World War II. Without it, Hitler would never

have come to power, and Japan would not

have wanted to expand its empire.

Did the Soviet Union Cause the Cold War?Many people have debated who was responsible for the Cold War. Most Americans, including diplomat George Kennan who had served in Russia, believed that it was Soviet ideology and insecurity that brought on the Cold War. On the other side, communist leaders, such as Stalin’s adviser Andrei Zhdanov, believed that capitalism and imperialism caused the Cold War.

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Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 763

American advisers also thought that the

Depression became so severe because nations

reduced trade. They believed that when nations

stop trading, they are forced into war to get

resources. By 1945, Roosevelt and his advisers

were convinced that economic growth was the

key to peace. They wanted to promote eco-

nomic growth by increasing world trade.

Similar reasoning convinced American lead-

ers to promote democracy and free enterprise.

They believed that democratic governments

with protections for people’s rights made

countries more stable and peaceful. They also

thought that the free enterprise system, with

private property rights and limited govern-

ment intervention in the economy, was the

best route to prosperity.

Identifying What did the Allies decide at Yalta?

Truman Takes ControlMAIN Idea Although President Truman took a

firm stand against Soviet aggression, Europe remained divided after the war.

HISTORY AND YOU Have you ever had to say no to someone or insist they do something? Read to learn about President Truman’s actions at Potsdam.

Eleven days after confronting the Soviets on

Poland, President Roosevelt died and Harry S.

Truman became president. Truman was

strongly anti-Communist. He also believed

that World War II had begun because Britain

had tried to appease Hitler. He did not intend

to make the same mistake with Stalin. “We

must stand up to the Russians,” he told

Secretary of State Edward Stettinius the day

after taking office.

Andrei ZhdanovAdvisor to Stalin

PRIMARY SOURCE

“The more the war recedes into the past, the more distinct becomes . . . the division of the political forces operating on the international arena into two major camps. . . . The principal driving force of the imperialist camp is the U.S.A. . . . The cardinal purpose of the imperialist camp is to strengthen imperialism, to hatch a new imperialist war, to combat socialism and democracy, and to support reactionary and antidemocratic profascist regimes. . . .

. . . As embodiment of a new and superior social system, the Soviet Union reflects in its foreign policy the aspira-tions of progressive mankind, which desires lasting peace and has nothing to gain from a new war hatched by capitalism.”

—from For a Lasting Peace for a People’s Democracy, no. 1, November 1947

YES

1. Paraphrasing What belief of the Soviets does Kennan say will prevent “permanent peaceful coexistence” with the United States?

2. Identifying Central Issues What does Zhadanov say are the goals of the “imperialist camp” led by the United States?

George F. KennanAmerican Diplomat

PRIMARY SOURCE

[The] USSR still [believes] in antagonistic “capitalist encircle-ment” with which in the long run there can be no permanent peaceful coexistence. . . . At bottom of [the] Kremlin’s neurotic view of world affairs is traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity. . . . And they have learned to seek security only in patient but deadly struggle for total destruction of rival power, never in compacts and compromises with it.

. . . In summary, we have here a political force committed fanatically to the belief that . . . it is desirable and neces-sary that the internal harmony of our society be disrupted, our traditional way of life be destroyed, the international authority of our state be broken, if Soviet power is to be secure.

—Moscow Embassy Telegram #511, 1946

NO

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SPAIN

POLAND

ALBANIA

BULGARIAYUGOSLAVIA

HUNGARYROMANIA

AUSTRIASWITZ.

LUX.FRANCE

BELG.

NETH.

DENMARK

IRELAND

ICELAND

UNITEDKINGDOM

EASTGERMANY

WESTGERMANY

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

NO

RWAY

SW

EDEN

FIN

LAN

D

ITALY

SOVIETUNION

NorthSea

Baltic

Sea

40°N

50°N

60°N

70°N

20°W10°W 10°E 20°E 30°E 40°E 50°E0°

ARCTICCIRCLE

Paris

BernVienna

Madrid

Reykjavik

London

Brussels

Dublin

Helsinki

Berlin

OsloStockholm

WarsawBonn

Copenhagen

TheHague

Prague

Rome

Belgrade

Tiranë

Bucharest

Sofia

Budapest

Moscow

Corsica

Sardinia

Communistcountries

Non-communistcountries

Iron Curtain

400 miles

400 kilometers

0

0

Lambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projectionN

S

W

E

764 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

Ten days later, Truman did exactly that dur-

ing a meeting with Soviet Foreign Minister

Molotov. Truman immediately brought up the

issue of Poland and demanded that Stalin hold

free elections as he had promised at Yalta.

Molotov took the unexpectedly strong mes-

sage back to Stalin. The meeting marked an

important shift in Soviet-American relations

and set the stage for further confrontations.

The Potsdam ConferenceIn July 1945 with the war against Japan still

raging, Truman finally met Stalin at Potsdam,

near Berlin. Both men had come to Potsdam

primarily to work out a deal on Germany.

Truman was now convinced that industry was

critical to Germany’s survival. Unless that nation’s

economy was allowed to revive, the rest of Europe

would never recover, and the German people

might turn to communism out of desperation.

Stalin and his advisers were equally con-

vinced that they needed reparations from

Germany. The war had devastated the Soviet

economy. Soviet troops had begun stripping

their zone in Germany of its machinery and

industrial equipment for use back home, but

Stalin wanted Germany to pay much more.

PRIMARY SOURCE

“A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately light by the Allied victory. . . . From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence, but to a very high and, in some cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow. . . .

The Communist parties, which were very small in all these Eastern States of Europe, have been raised to pre-eminence and power far beyond their numbers and are seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian control. . . .

In front of the iron curtain which lies across Europe are other causes for anxiety . . . in a great number of countries, far from the Russian frontiers and throughout the world, Communist fifth columns are established and work in . . . absolute obedience to the direc-tions they receive from the Communist cen-ter. . . . I do not believe that Soviet Russia desires war. What they desire is the fruits of war and the indefinite expansion of their power and doctrines.”

—Winston Churchill, address to Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri, March 5, 1946

1. Finding the Main Idea What was the “iron curtain,” and why do you think Churchill described it in that way?

2. Identifying Central Issues What “other causes for anxiety” did Churchill say the Soviets were creating?

The Iron Curtain in Europe, 1946

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Section 1 REVIEW

Study Central To review this section, go to glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

765

At the conference, Truman took a firm stand against heavy

reparations. He insisted that Germany’s industry had to be

allowed to recover. Truman suggested that the Soviets take repa-

rations from their zone, while the Allies allowed industry to revive

in the other zones. Stalin opposed this idea since the Soviet zone

was mostly agricultural. It could not provide all the reparations

the Soviets wanted.

To get the Soviets to accept the agreement, Truman offered

Stalin a small amount of German industrial equipment from the

other zones, but required the Soviets to pay for part of it with

food shipments from their zone. He also offered to accept the

new German-Polish border the Soviets had established.

Stalin did not like Truman’s proposal. At Potsdam, Truman

learned that the atomic bomb had been successfully tested, and

he hinted to Stalin that the United States had developed a new,

powerful weapon. Stalin suspected that Truman was trying to

bully him into a deal and that the Americans were trying to limit

reparations to keep the Soviets weak.

Despite his suspicions, Stalin had to accept the terms. American

and British troops controlled Germany’s industrial heartland, and

there was no way for the Soviets to get any reparations except by

cooperating. Nevertheless, the Potsdam conference marked yet

another increase in tensions between the Soviets and the

Americans.

The Iron Curtain DescendsAlthough Truman had won the argument over reparations, he

had less success on other issues at Potsdam. The Soviets refused

to make any stronger commitments to uphold the Declaration of

Liberated Europe. The presence of the Soviet army in Eastern

Europe ensured that pro-Soviet Communist governments would

eventually be established in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary,

and Czechoslovakia. “This war is not as in the past,” Stalin com-

mented. “Whoever occupies a territory also imposes his own

social system. . . . It cannot be otherwise.”

The Communist countries of Eastern Europe came to be

called satellite nations because they were controlled by the

Soviets, as satellites are tied by gravity to the planets they orbit.

These nations had to remain Communist and friendly to the

Soviet Union. They also had to follow policies that the Soviets

approved.

After watching the Communist takeover in Eastern Europe,

Winston Churchill coined a phrase to describe what had hap-

pened. In a 1946 speech delivered in Fulton, Missouri, he referred

to an “iron curtain” falling across Eastern Europe. The press picked

up the term and, for the next 43 years, when someone referred to

the Iron Curtain, they meant the Communist nations of Eastern

Europe and the Soviet Union. With the Iron Curtain separating

the Communist nations of Eastern Europe from the West, the

World War II era had come to an end. The Cold War was about to

begin.

Explaining How did the Potsdam Conference hurt Soviet-American relations?

Vocabulary1. Explain the significance of: Yalta, Cold

War, Potsdam, satellite nations, Iron Curtain.

Main Ideas2. Identifying At Yalta, what agreement

did the “Big Three” come to about Germany’s future after World War II?

3. Summarizing What concerns made the Soviets suspicious of the Western Allies?

4. Explaining How did the Potsdam Conference help bring about the Cold War?

Critical Thinking5. Big Ideas How did different economic

systems cause tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union?

6. Organizing Use a graphic organizer similar to the one below to list events that led to the Cold War.

Events ThatLed to Cold War

7. Analyzing Visuals Study the map on page 764. Why did the Soviet Union want to have control over the countries on its western border?

Writing About History8. Expository Writing Suppose that you

are an adviser to Truman. Write a report explaining your interpretation of Churchill’s “iron curtain” speech.

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766 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

The Early Cold War YearsSection 2

Guide to ReadingBig IdeasTrade, War, and Migration As the Cold War began, the United States struggled to oppose Communist aggres-sion in Europe and Asia through politi-cal, economic, and military measures.

Content Vocabulary• containment (p. 766)• limited war (p. 773)

Academic Vocabulary• insecurity (p. 766)• initially (p. 769)

People and Events to Identify• George Kennan (p. 766)• Long Telegram (p. 766)• Marshall Plan (p. 768) • NATO (p. 769) • SEATO (p. 773)

Reading StrategySequencing Complete a time line similar to the one below by recording the major events related to the Korean War.

1945 1951

President Truman worked to contain communism by

supporting Greece, Iran, and West Germany. When

Communist North Korea invaded South Korea, Truman

and the UN sent troops to aid South Korea.

Containing CommunismMAIN Idea The Truman Doctrine offered aid to any nation resisting

communism; the Marshall Plan aided European countries in rebuilding.

HISTORY AND YOU Is there a conflict in the world today where you think the United States should intervene? Read on to learn how President Truman adopted policies designed to stop the spread of communism.

Despite growing tensions with the Soviet Union, many American

officials continued to believe cooperation with the Soviets was possi-

ble. In late 1945 the foreign ministers of the former wartime Allies

met first in London, then in Moscow, to discuss the future of Europe

and Asia. Although both British and American officials pushed for

free elections in Eastern Europe, the Soviets refused to budge. “Our

relations with the Russians,” the British foreign minister gloomily

concluded, “are drifting into the same condition as that in which we

had found ourselves with Hitler.”

The Long TelegramIncreasingly exasperated by the Soviets’ refusal to cooperate,

officials at the State Department asked the American Embassy in

Moscow to explain Soviet behavior. On February 22, 1946, diplomat

George Kennan responded with what became known as the Long

Telegram, a 5,540-word message explaining his views of the Soviets.

According to Kennan, the Soviets’ view of the world came from a

traditional “Russian sense of insecurity” and fear of the West, intensi-

fied by the communist ideas of Lenin and Stalin. Because commu-

nists believed that they were in a long-term historical struggle

against capitalism, Kennan argued, it was impossible to reach any

permanent settlement with them.

Kennan therefore proposed what became the basic American

policy throughout the Cold War: “a long-term, patient but firm and

vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies.” Kennan

explained that, in his opinion, the Soviet system had several major

economic and political weaknesses. If the United States could keep

the Soviets from expanding their power, it would be only a matter of

time before the Soviet system would fall apart. Communism could be

beaten without going to war. The Long Telegram circulated widely in

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For more of the text of

Truman’s Address to Congress, see page R54 in Documents in American History.

30

18

24

12

6

0

Source: The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later.

Austria

Aid

(mill

ions

)

Marshall Plan Aid to Major Countries

Belg. &

Lux.

Denmark

German

y

Greece Ita

lyU. K

.Neth

.

Norway

Franc

e

Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 767

Truman’s administration. The administration

based its policy of containment—keeping

communism within its present territory

through the use of diplomatic, economic, and

military actions—on this document.

Crisis in IranWhile Truman’s administration discussed

Kennan’s ideas, a series of crises erupted dur-

ing the spring and summer of 1946. These cri-

ses seemed to prove that Kennan was right

about the Soviets. The first crisis began in Iran

in March 1946.

During World War II, the United States had

put troops in southern Iran while Soviet troops

occupied northern Iran to secure a supply line

from the Persian Gulf. After the war, instead of

withdrawing as promised, the Soviet troops

remained in northern Iran. Stalin then began

demanding access to Iran’s oil supplies. To

increase the pressure, Soviet troops helped

local Communists in northern Iran establish a

separate government.

To American officials, these actions signaled

a Soviet push into the Middle East. The secre-

tary of state sent Stalin a strong message

demanding that Soviet forces withdraw. At the

same time, the battleship USS Missouri sailed

into the eastern Mediterranean. The pressure

seemed to work. Soviet forces withdrew, hav-

ing been promised a joint Soviet-Iranian oil

company, although the Iranian parliament

later rejected the plan.

The Truman DoctrineFrustrated in Iran, Stalin turned northwest

to Turkey. There, the straits of the Dardanelles

were a vital route from Soviet Black Sea ports

to the Mediterranean. For centuries, Russia

had wanted to control this strategic route. In

August 1946, Stalin demanded joint control of

the Dardanelles with Turkey.

PRIMARY SOURCE

“The peoples of a number of countries of the world have recently had totalitarian regimes forced upon them against their will. The Government of the United States has made frequent protests against coercion and intimidation, in violation of the Yalta agreement in Poland, Rumania, and Bulgaria. At the present moment in world history nearly every nation must choose between alternative ways of life. The choice is too often not a free one. . . . I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way.”

—Truman’s address to Congress, March 12, 1947

The Truman Doctrine

1. Finding the Main Idea What was the stated goal of the Truman Doctrine?

2. Drawing Conclusions Which nation received the most aid through the Marshall Plan? Why do you think this might be?

▲ President Truman signs the Foreign Aid Assistance Act, providing aid to Greece and Turkey; the use of aid to support nations resisting Communist pressure became known as the Truman Doctrine.

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768 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

Presidential adviser Dean Acheson saw this

move as another move in a Soviet plan to con-

trol the Middle East, and he advised Truman to

make a show of force. The president declared,

“We might as well find out whether the

Russians are bent on world conquest.” He then

ordered the new aircraft carrier Franklin D.

Roosevelt to join the Missouri in protecting

Turkey and the eastern Mediterranean.

While the United States supported Turkey,

Britain tried to help Greece. In August 1946

Greek Communists launched a guerrilla war

against the Greek government. For about six

months, British troops helped the Greeks fight

the guerrillas. The effort strained Britain’s

economy, which was still weak from World

War II. In February 1947 Britain informed the

United States that it could no longer afford to

help Greece.

On March 12, 1947, Truman went before

Congress to ask for $400 million to fight

Communist aggression in Greece and Turkey.

His speech outlined a policy that became

known as the Truman Doctrine. Its goal was to

aid “free peoples who are resisting attempted

subjugation by armed minorities or by outside

pressures.” Its immediate goal was to stabilize

the Greek government and help Turkey resist

Soviet demands. In the long run, it pledged the

United States to fight the spread of commu-

nism worldwide.

The Marshall PlanMeanwhile, postwar Western Europe faced

grave problems. Economies and cities were

ruined, people were nearing starvation, and

political chaos was at hand. The terrible winter

of 1946 made things worse.

In June 1947 Secretary of State George

C. Marshall proposed the European Recovery

Program, or Marshall Plan, which would give

European nations American aid to rebuild their

economies. Truman saw the Marshall Plan

and the Truman Doctrine as “two halves of the

same walnut,” both essential for containment.

Marshall offered help to all nations planning

a recovery program:

PRIMARY SOURCE

“Our policy is not directed against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos. Its purpose should be the revival of a

working economy in the world so as to permit the emergence of political and social conditions in which free institutions can exist. . . .”

—quoted in Marshall: A Hero for Our Times

Although the Marshall Plan was offered to

the Soviet Union and its satellite nations in

Eastern Europe, those nations rejected the

offer. Instead, the Soviets developed their own

economic program. This action further sepa-

rated Europe into competing regions. The

Marshall Plan pumped billions of dollars worth

of supplies, machinery, and food into Western

Europe. Western Europe’s recovery weakened

the appeal of communism and opened new

markets for trade.

The Berlin AirliftPresident Truman and his advisers believed

that Western Europe’s prosperity depended on

Germany’s recovery. The Soviets, however, still

wanted Germany to pay reparations to the

Soviet Union. Eventually, the dispute over

Germany brought the United States and the

Soviet Union to the brink of war.

By early 1948, U.S. officials had concluded

that the Soviets were deliberately trying to

undermine Germany’s economy. In response,

the United States, Great Britain, and France

announced that they were merging their zones

in Germany and allowing the Germans to have

their own government. They also agreed to

merge their zones in Berlin and to make West

Berlin part of the new German republic.

The new nation was officially called the

Federal Republic of Germany, but it became

known as West Germany. The Soviet zone

eventually became the German Democratic

Republic, also known as East Germany. West

Germany was not allowed to have a military,

but in most respects, it was independent.

The decision to create West Germany con-

vinced the Soviets that they would never get

the reparations they wanted. In late June 1948,

Soviet troops cut all road and rail traffic to West

Berlin hoping to force the United States to

either reconsider its decision or abandon West

Berlin. This blockade provoked a crisis.

President Truman sent bombers with atomic

weapons to bases in Britain and the American

commander in Germany warned: “If we mean

to hold Europe against communism, then we

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Student Web Activity Visit glencoe.com and complete the activ-ity on the Berlin Airlift.

SOVIETUNIONPOLANDE.

GER.W.GER.

FRANCE

UNITEDKINGDOM

DENMARK

ICELAND

NORWAY

NETH.

BELG.LUX.

ITALY

PORTUGAL

GREECE

ALB.

ROMANIA

BULGARIA

HUNGARY

CZECH.

TURKEY

NorthSea

Mediterranean Sea

ATLANTICOCEAN

10°W

20°W

30°W

40°N

50°N

60°N

70°N

10°E0°

20°E

30°E

ARCTIC CIRCLE

Founding membersJoined 1952Joined 1955Warsaw Pact

N

S

WE

600 miles

600 kilometers

0

0

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 769

must not budge.” The challenge was to keep

West Berlin alive without provoking war with

the Soviets. Instead of ordering troops to fight

their way to Berlin, and thereby triggering war

with the Soviet Union, Truman ordered the air

force to fly supplies into Berlin instead.

The Berlin airlift began in June 1948 and

continued through the spring of 1949, bringing

in more than 2 million tons of supplies to the

city. Stalin finally lifted the blockade on May

12, 1949. The airlift symbolized American

determination to contain communism and not

give in to Soviet demands.

NATOThe Berlin blockade convinced many

Americans that the Soviets were bent on con-

quest. The public began to support a military

alliance with Western Europe. By April 1949,

an agreement had been reached to create the

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)—

a mutual defense alliance.

NATO initially included 12 countries: the

United States, Canada, Britain, France, Italy,

Belgium, Denmark, Portugal, the Netherlands,

Norway, Luxembourg, and Iceland. NATO

members agreed to come to the aid of any

member who was attacked. For the first time

in its history, the United States had committed

itself to maintaining peace in Europe. Six years

later, NATO allowed West Germany to rearm

and join its organization. This decision alarmed

Soviet leaders. They responded by organizing a

military alliance in Eastern Europe known as

the Warsaw Pact.

Evaluating What triggered the beginning of the Berlin airlift?

After the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, the United States delivered 4,000 tons of food, medicine, coal and other supplies that were needed every day to keep the city functioning. A cargo plane had to land with supplies every three and a half minutes. To keep the airlift running, crews stayed onboard and food was brought to them while the planes were unloaded and refueled. Meanwhile, 20,000 volunteers in Berlin built a third airport, enabling the flow of supplies to increase to 13,000 tons a day.

The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949

Analyzing VISUALS 1. Interpreting Which nations are the

founding members of NATO?

2. Identifying Where did NATO nations share a border with Warsaw Pact nations?

NATO Is Born, 1949

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P‘yongyang

Seoul

Pusan

Inch‘on

YellowSea

Sea of Japan(East Sea)

YaluRive

r

CHINA

NORTHKOREA

SOUTHKOREA

JAPAN125°E

35°N

38°N

40°N

130°E

38th Parallel

N

S

W E

400 miles

400 kilometers

0

0

Miller projection

North Korean-controlled territorySouth Korean-controlled territoryNorth Korean advanceUN counteroffensiveFront lineChinese counteroffensiveArmistice line

770 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

The Korean WarMAIN Idea Attempts to keep South Korea free

from communism led the United States to military intervention.

HISTORY AND YOU What happens to someone who disobeys a coach, employer, or teacher? Read on to learn what happened to General MacArthur when he criticized the president.

The Cold War eventually spread beyond

Europe. Conflicts also emerged in Asia, where

events in China and Korea brought about a

new attitude toward Japan and sent American

troops back into battle in Asia less than five

years after World War II had ended.

The Chinese RevolutionIn China, Communist forces led by Mao

Zedong had been struggling against the

Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai-

shek since the late 1920s. During World War II,

the two sides suspended their war to resist

Japanese occupation. With the end of World

War II, however, civil war broke out again.

Although Mao made great gains, neither side

could win nor agree to a compromise.

To prevent a Communist revolution in Asia,

the United States sent the Nationalist govern-

ment $2 billion in aid beginning in the mid-

1940s, but the Nationalists squandered this

advantage through poor military planning and

corruption. By 1949, the Communists had cap-

tured the Chinese capital of Beijing, while sup-

port for the Nationalists declined.

In August 1949 the U.S. State Department

discontinued aid to the Chinese Nationalists.

The defeated Nationalists then fled to the

small island of Taiwan (Formosa). The victori-

ous Communists established the People’s

Republic of China in October 1949.

China’s fall to communism shocked

Americans. To make matters worse, in

September 1949 the Soviet Union announced

that it had successfully tested its first atomic

weapon. Then, early in 1950, the People’s

Republic of China and the Soviet Union signed

a treaty of friendship and alliance. Many

Western leaders feared that China and the

Soviet Union would support Communist revo-

lutions in other nations.

The United States kept formal diplomatic

relations with only the Nationalist Chinese in

Taiwan. It used its veto power in the UN

Security Council to keep representatives of the

new Communist People’s Republic of China

out of the UN, allowing the Nationalists to

retain their seat.

New Policies in JapanThe Chinese revolution brought about a sig-

nificant change in American policy toward Japan.

At the end of World War II, General Douglas

MacArthur had taken charge of occupied Japan.

His mission was to introduce democracy and

keep Japan from threatening war again. Once

the United States lost China as its chief ally in

Asia, it adopted policies to encourage the rapid

recovery of Japan’s industrial economy. Just as

The Korean War, 1950–1953

▲ June–September 1950

North Korean troops invade South Korea, driving South Korean and UN forces south into a small perimeter around Pusan.

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Seoul

Pusan

YellowSea

YaluRive

r

CHINA

NORTHKOREA

SOUTHKOREA

JAPAN125°E

35°N

38°N 38th Parallel

130°E

N

S

W E

P‘yongyang

Inch‘on

Sea of Japan(East Sea)

40°N

Seoul

Pusan

P‘yongyang

Inch‘on

YellowSea

YaluRive

r

Sea ofJapan

(East Sea)

CHINA

NORTHKOREA

SOUTHKOREA

JAPAN125°E

35°N

38°N 38th Parallel

130°E

40°N

N

S

W E

Seoul

Pusan

Inch‘on

P‘yongyang

YellowSea

YaluRive

r

Sea ofJapan

(East Sea)

CHINA

NORTHKOREA

SOUTHKOREA

JAPAN125°E

35°N

38°N 38th Parallel

130°E

40°N

N

S

W E

Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 771

the United States viewed West Germany as the

key to defending all of Europe against commu-

nism, it saw Japan as the key to defending Asia.

The Korean War BeginsAt the end of World War II, American and

Soviet forces entered Korea to disarm the

Japanese troops stationed there. The Allies

divided Korea at the 38th parallel of latitude.

Soviet troops controlled the north, while

American troops controlled the south.

As the Cold War began, talks to reunify

Korea broke down. A Communist Korean gov-

ernment was organized in the north, while an

American-backed government controlled the

south. Both governments claimed authority

over Korea, and border clashes were common.

The Soviet Union provided military aid to the

North Koreans, who quickly built up an army.

On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops invaded

the south, rapidly driving back the poorly

equipped South Korean forces.

Truman saw the Communist invasion of

South Korea as a test of the containment policy

and ordered United States naval and air power

into action. He then called on the United

Nations to act. Truman succeeded because the

Soviet delegate was boycotting the UN Security

Council over its China policy and was not

present to veto the American proposal. With

the pledge of UN troops, Truman ordered

General MacArthur to send American troops

from Japan to Korea.

▲ September–November 1950

Led by General MacArthur, UN troops land behind North Korean lines at the port of Inchon. North Korean forces fall back rapidly, and the UN forces head north into North Korea

▲ November 1950–January 1951

As UN forces near the Chinese border, Chinese troops cross into North Korea driving the UN back. MacArthur wants to attack Chinese territory. He publicly argues with Truman and is fi red.

▲ January 1951–July 1953

Led by U.S. General Matthew Ridgway, the UN forces push the Chinese and North Korean forces out of South Korea. The war bogs down into a stalemate along the 38th parallel.

Analyzing GEOGRAPHY 1. Human-Environment Interaction What

occurred at the port of Inchon in 1950?

2. Location Where did the Korean War end?

▲ Soldiers of the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division man a machine gun near the Chongchun River in Korea, December 15, 1950.

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772 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

The American and South Korean troops were

driven back into a small pocket of territory near

the port of Pusan. Inside the “Pusan perimeter,”

as it came to be called, the troops stubbornly

resisted the North Korean onslaught, buying

time for MacArthur to organize reinforcements.

On September 15, 1950, MacArthur ordered

a daring invasion behind enemy lines at the

port of Inchon. The Inchon landing took the

North Koreans by surprise. Within weeks they

were in full retreat back across the 38th paral-

lel. Truman then gave the order to pursue the

North Koreans beyond the 38th parallel.

MacArthur pushed the North Koreans north

to the Yalu River, the border with China.

China Enters the War The Communist

People’s Republic of China saw the advancing

UN troops as a threat and warned the forces to

halt their advance. When those warnings were

ignored, China forces crossed the Yalu River in

November. Hundreds of thousands of Chinese

troops flooded across the border, driving the

UN forces back across the 38th parallel.

As his troops fell back, an angry MacArthur

demanded approval to expand the war against

China. He asked for a blockade of Chinese

ports, the use of Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist

forces, and the bombing of Chinese cities with

atomic weapons.

Truman Fires MacArthur President

Truman refused MacArthur’s demands because

he did not want to expand the war into China

or to use the atomic bomb. MacArthur per-

sisted. He publicly criticized the president,

arguing that it was a mistake to keep the war

limited. “There is no substitute for victory,”

MacArthur insisted, by which he meant that if

the United States was going to go to war, it

should use all of its power to win. Keeping a

war limited was, in his view, a form of appease-

ment, and appeasement he argued, “begets

new and bloodier war.”

Determined to maintain control of policy

and to show that the president commanded

the military, an exasperated Truman fired

MacArthur for insubordination in April 1951.

Later, in private conversation, Truman explained:

Truman vs. MacArthur

Analyzing VISUALS1. Identifying Points of View Which of the

cartoons supports President Truman’s decision to fire General MacArthur? Explain.

2. Making Inferences What does the cartoon on the right imply MacArthur was trying to do in Asia?

▲ President Truman, Secretary of State Dean Acheson, and “The Pentagon” are held over the flame of public opinion for firing General MacArthur. “John Q.” refers to “John Q. Public,” or the American people.

▲ Entitled “Not a General’s Job,” this cartoon suggests that MacArthur had overstepped his authority in Korea.

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REVIEW

Study Central To review this section, go to glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

773

“I was sorry to have to reach a parting of the way with the big man

in Asia, but he asked for it and I had to give it to him.”

MacArthur, who remained popular despite being fired, returned

home to parades and a hero’s welcome. Many Americans criti-

cized the president. Congress and other military leaders, how-

ever, supported Truman’s decision and his Korean strategy.

American policy in Asia remained committed to limited war—a

war fought to achieve a limited objective, such as containing

communism. Truman later explained why he favored limited war

in Korea:

PRIMARY SOURCE “The Kremlin [Soviet Union] is trying, and has been trying for a long time, to drive a wedge between us and the other nations. It wants to see us isolated. It wants to see us distrusted. It wants to see us feared and hated by our allies. Our allies agree with us in the course we are follow-ing. They do not believe we should take the initiative to widen the con-flict in the Far East. If the United States were to widen the conflict, we might well have to go it alone.”

—from “Address to the Civil Defense Conference,” May 7, 1951

As Truman also noted, America’s allies in Europe were much

closer to the Soviet Union. If war broke out, Europe would suffer the

most damage and might well be attacked with atomic bombs. This

concern—that all-out war in Korea might lead to nuclear war—was

the main reason why Truman favored limited war. This concern

shaped American foreign policy throughout the Cold War.

Changes in PolicyBy mid-1951, the UN forces had pushed the Chinese and

North Korean forces back across the 38th parallel. The war then

settled down into a series of relatively small battles over hills and

other local objectives. In November 1951, peace negotiations

began, but an armistice would not be signed until July 1953. More

than 33,600 American soldiers died in action in the Korean War,

and more than 2,800 died from accidents or disease.

The Korean War marked an important turning point in the

Cold War. Until 1950, the United States had preferred to use

political pressure and economic aid to contain communism. After

the Korean War began, the United States embarked on a major

military buildup.

The Korean War also helped expand the Cold War to Asia.

Before 1950, the United States had focused on Europe as the

most important area in which to contain communism. After the

Korean War began, the United States became more militarily

involved in Asia. In 1954 the United States signed defense agree-

ments with Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, the Philippines, and

Australia, forming the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization

(SEATO). American aid also began flowing to French forces

fighting Communists in Vietnam.

Analyzing How did President Truman view the Communist invasion of South Korea?

Vocabulary1. Explain the significance of: George

Kennan, Long Telegram, containment, Marshall Plan, NATO, limited war, SEATO.

Main Ideas2. Explaining How did the Truman Doctrine

and the Marshall Plan address the spread of communism?

3. Describing What originally led to the formation of two Koreas?

Critical Thinking4. Big Ideas How did the Long Telegram

influence U.S. foreign policy?

5. Categorizing Use a graphic organizer similar to the one below to list early con-flicts between the Soviet Union and the United States.

ConflictsBetween the USSR

and the U.S.

6. Analyzing Visuals Study the maps of the Korean War on page 771. When did the United Nations control the most territory in Korea? When did both sides finally agree on an armistice line?

Writing About History7. Persuasive Writing Write a letter to

the editor of a newspaper explaining why you agree or disagree with President Truman’s firing of General MacArthur.

Section 2

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774 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

Section 3

The Cold War and American Society

Guide to ReadingBig IdeasStruggles for Rights In the early part of the Cold War, the fear of com-munism led to a hunt for spies and to intolerance and suspicion of people with radical ideas in the United States.

Content Vocabulary• subversion (p. 774)• loyalty review program (p. 774)• perjury (p. 776)• censure (p. 778)• fallout (p. 781)

Academic Vocabulary• manipulate (p. 775) • convince (p. 776)

People and Events to Identify• Red Scare (p. 774)• Alger Hiss (p. 776)• McCarran Act (p. 778)• McCarthyism (p. 778)

Reading StrategySummarizing As you read, summarize the section content by using the major headings to create an outline similar to the one below.

The Cold War and American Society I. A New Red Scare

A. The Loyalty Review ProgramB.C.

Fearing subversive activity, the government tried to

root out Communists in government, Hollywood,

and labor unions, while Americans learned to live with

the threat of nuclear attack.

A New Red ScareMAIN Idea Public accusations and trials followed in the wake of fears of

communism and spies.

HISTORY AND YOU Do you remember reading about the fears of commu-nism during the early twentieth century? Read on to learn of a second major scare in the 1950s.

During the 1950s, thousands of ordinary people—from teachers to

autoworkers to high government officials—shared a disturbing expe-

rience. Rumors and accusations of Communists in the United States

and of Communist infiltration of the government tapped into fears

that Communists were trying to take over the world.

The Red Scare began in September 1945, when a clerk named

Igor Gouzenko walked out of the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, Canada,

and defected. Gouzenko carried documents revealing a massive effort

by the Soviet Union to infiltrate organizations and government agen-

cies in Canada and the United States, with the specific goal of

obtaining information about the atomic bomb.

The Gouzenko case stunned Americans. It implied that spies

had infiltrated the American government. Soon, however, the search

for spies escalated into a general fear of Communist subversion.

Subversion is the effort to weaken a society secretly and overthrow

its government.

The Loyalty Review Program In early 1947, just nine days after his powerful speech announcing

the Truman Doctrine, the president established a loyalty review

program to screen all federal employees. Rather than calm public

suspicion, Truman’s action seemed to confirm fears that Communists

had infiltrated the government and helped to increase the fear of

communism sweeping the nation.

Between 1947 and 1951, more than 6 million federal employees

were screened for their loyalty—a term difficult to define. A person

might become a suspect for reading certain books, belonging to vari-

ous groups, traveling overseas, or even seeing certain foreign films.

About 14,000 employees were subject to scrutiny by the Federal

Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Some 2,000 employees quit their jobs

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Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 775

during the check, many under pressure.

Another 212 were fired for “questionable loy-

alty,” although no actual evidence against them

was uncovered.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

Although the FBI helped screen federal

employees, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover was

not satisfied. In 1947 Hoover went before the

House Un-American Activities Committee

(HUAC). Formed in 1938 to investigate both

Communist and Fascist activities in the United

States, HUAC was a minor committee until

Hoover expanded its importance.

Hoover urged HUAC to hold public hear-

ings on Communist subversion. The commit-

tee, Hoover said, could reveal “the diabolic

machinations of sinister figures engaged in

un-American activities.” Hoover’s aim was to

expose not just Communists but also

“Communist sympathizers” and “fellow travel-

ers.” Under Hoover’s leadership, the FBI sent

agents to infiltrate groups suspected of subver-

sion and wiretapped thousands of telephones.

Hollywood on Trial One of HUAC’s first

hearings in 1947 focused on the film industry

as a powerful cultural force that Communists

might manipulate to spread their ideas and

influence. HUAC’s interviews routinely began,

“Are you now, or have you ever been, a mem-

ber of the Communist Party?” Future American

president Ronald Reagan was head of the

Screen Actors Guild at the time and, when

called before HUAC, he testified that there

were Communists in Hollywood.

The Hunt for Spies, 1947–1954

▲ Hiss v. Chambers, 1948

In 1948, Whittaker Chambers, a TIME magazine editor and former Communist Party member, testifi ed that U.S. diplomat Alger Hiss was a Communist. Hiss denied being a spy or a member of the Communist Party. Evidence provided by Chambers led to Hiss being convicted of perjury.

Analyzing VISUALS 1. Summarizing What were the Rosenbergs

accused of and what was the result?

2. Explaining Why was Robert Oppenheimer’s security clearance suspended?

▲ The Rosenbergs Are Convicted, 1950

In 1950 the hunt for spies who had given U.S. nuclear secrets to the Sovi-ets led to the arrest of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Accused of running a Soviet spy network, the Rosenbergs became the fi rst civilians executed for espionage in 1953. Their case was con-troversial and led to public protests.

▲ Loyalty and Dissent, Oppenheimer, 1953

Although he had led the effort to develop the atomic bomb, Dr. Robert Oppenheimer’s left-wing views and opposition to the hydrogen bomb led to the suspen-sion of his security clearance and controversial public hearings.

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776 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

During the hearings, ten screenwriters,

known as the “Hollywood Ten,” used their Fifth

Amendment right to protect themselves from

self-incrimination and refused to testify. The

incident led producers to blacklist, or agree not

to hire, anyone who was believed to be a

Communist or who refused to cooperate with

the committee. In 1950 a pamphlet called Red

Channels was published, listing 151 blacklisted

actors, directors, broadcasters, and screenwrit-

ers. The blacklist created an atmosphere of dis-

trust and fear.

Alger Hiss In 1948 Whittaker Chambers, a

TIME magazine editor and former Communist

Party member, testified to HUAC that several

government officials were also former

Communists or spies.

The most prominent official named by

Chambers was Alger Hiss, a diplomat who

had served in Roosevelt’s administration,

attended the Yalta conference, and taken part

in organizing the United Nations. After Hiss

sued him for libel, Chambers testified before a

grand jury that, in 1937 and 1938, Hiss had

given him secret documents from the State

Department. Hiss denied being either a spy or

a member of the Communist Party, and he also

denied ever having known Chambers.

The committee was ready to drop the investi-

gation until Representative Richard Nixon of

California convinced his colleagues to continue

the hearings to determine whether Hiss or

Chambers had lied. Chambers produced copies

of secret documents, along with microfilm that

he had hidden in a hollow pumpkin on his farm.

These “pumpkin papers,” Chambers claimed,

proved Hiss was lying. A jury agreed and con-

victed Hiss of perjury, or lying under oath.

The Rosenbergs Another sensational spy

case centered on accusations that American

Communists had sold the secrets of the atomic

bomb to the Soviets. Many people did not

believe that the Soviet Union could have pro-

duced an atomic bomb in 1949 without help.

This belief intensified the hunt for spies.

In 1950 the hunt led to a British scientist

who admitted sending information to the

Soviet Union. After hearing his testimony, the

FBI arrested Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, a New

York couple who were members of the

Communist Party. The government charged

them with heading a Soviet spy ring.

The Rosenbergs denied the charges but

were condemned to death for espionage. Many

people believed that they were not leaders or

spies but victims caught up in the wave of anti-

Communist frenzy. Appeals, public expres-

sions of support, and pleas for clemency failed,

however, and the couple was executed in June

1953.

Project Venona The American public hotly

debated the guilt or innocence of individuals,

like the Rosenbergs, who were accused of

being spies. There was, however, solid evidence

of Soviet espionage, although very few

Americans knew it at the time. In 1946

American and British cryptographers working

for a project code-named “Venona,” cracked

the Soviet spy code of the time, enabling them

to read approximately 3,000 messages between

Moscow and the United States collected

during the Cold War.

The messages collected using Project Venona

confirmed extensive Soviet spying and an

ongoing effort to steal nuclear secrets. The

government did not reveal Project Venona’s

existence until 1995. The Venona documents

provided strong evidence that the Rosenbergs

were indeed guilty.

The Red Scare SpreadsFollowing the federal government’s exam-

ple, many state and local governments, univer-

sities, businesses, unions, churches, and private

organizations began their own efforts to find

Communists. The University of California

required its 11,000 faculty members to take

loyalty oaths and fired 157 who refused to do

so. Many Catholic groups became strongly

anti-Communist and urged their members to

identify Communists within the Church.

The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 required union

leaders to take oaths that they were not

Communists, but many union leaders did not

object. Instead, they launched their own efforts

to purge Communists from their organiza-

tions. The president of the CIO called

Communist sympathizers “skulking cowards”

and “apostles of hate.” The CIO eventually

expelled 11 unions that refused to remove

Communist leaders from their organization.

Explaining What was the pur-pose of the loyalty review boards and HUAC?

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Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 777

McCarthyismMAIN Idea Senator Joseph R. McCarthy used the

fear of communism to increase his own power and destroy the reputations of many people.

HISTORY AND YOU Have you ever known anyone who spread untrue rumors about others? Read on to find out about the rumors that Senator McCarthy spread in the early 1950s.

In 1949 the Red Scare intensified even fur-

ther. In that year, the Soviet Union successfully

tested an atomic bomb, and China fell to com-

munism. To many Americans, these events

seemed to prove that the United States was

losing the Cold War. Deeply concerned, they

wanted to know why their government was

failing. As a result, many continued to believe

that Communists had infiltrated the govern-

ment and remained undetected.

In February 1950, soon after Alger Hiss’s

perjury conviction, a little-known Wisconsin

senator gave a political speech to a Republican

women’s group in West Virginia. Halfway

through his speech, Senator Joseph R.

McCarthy made a surprising statement:

PRIMARY SOURCE

“While I cannot take the time to name all the men in the State Department who have been named as members of the Communist Party and members of a spy ring, I have here in my hand a list of 205 that were known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who never-theless are still working and shaping the policy of the State Department.”

—quoted in The Fifties

The Associated Press picked up the state-

ment and sent it to newspapers nationwide.

While at an airport, reporters asked McCarthy

to see his list of Communists. McCarthy replied

that he would be happy to show it to them, but

unfortunately, it was in his bag on the plane. In

fact, the list never appeared. McCarthy, how-

ever, continued to make charges and draw

attention.

McCarthy’s use of sensationalist charges was

not new. When he ran for the Senate in 1946, he

accused his opponent, Robert M. La Follette, Jr.,

of being “communistically inclined.” McCarthy

did not provide any evidence to support his accu-

sation, but it helped him win the election.

▲ President Eisenhower and CIA Director Allen Dulles try not to make any noise in the hope that the “bull,” Joe McCarthy, will go away without doing much damage.

▲ The wall of the U.S. State Department is smeared by McCarthy.

McCarthyism

Analyzing VISUALS1. Explaining What does the cartoon on the left

imply about President Eisenhower’s leadership dur-ing the McCarthy era?

2. Assessing Which cartoon do you think is more critical of McCarthy? Why?

(r)T

he G

rang

er C

olle

ctio

n, N

ew Y

ork

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778 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

After becoming a senator, McCarthy contin-

ued to proclaim that Communists were a dan-

ger both at home and abroad. To some

audiences, he distributed a booklet called “The

Party of Betrayal,” which accused Democratic

Party leaders of corruption and of protecting

Communists. Secretary of State Dean Acheson

was a frequent target. According to McCarthy,

Acheson was incompetent and a tool of Stalin.

He also wildly accused George C. Marshall,

the former army chief of staff and secretary of

state, of disloyalty as a member of “a conspir-

acy so immense as to dwarf any previous such

ventures in the history of man.”

McCarthy was not alone in making such

charges. In the prevailing mood of anxiety

about communism, many Americans were

ready to believe them.

The McCarran ActIn 1950, with the Korean War underway and

McCarthy and others arousing fears of

Communist spies, Congress passed the Internal

Security Act, usually called the McCarran Act.

Declaring that “world Communism has as its

sole purpose the establishment of a totalitarian

dictatorship in America,” Senator Pat McCarran

of Nevada offered a way to fight “treachery,

infiltration, sabotage, and terrorism.” The act

made it illegal to “combine, conspire, or agree

with any other person to perform any act which

would substantially contribute to . . . the estab-

lishment of a totalitarian government.”

The McCarran Act required all Communist

Party and “Communist-front” organizations to

publish their records and register with the

United States attorney general. Communists

could not have passports to travel abroad and,

in cases of a national emergency, Communists

and Communist sympathizers could be

arrested and detained. Unwilling to punish

people for their opinions, Truman vetoed the

bill, but Congress easily overrode his veto in

1950. Later Supreme Court cases, however,

limited the scope of the McCarran Act.

McCarthy’s TacticsAfter the Republicans won control of

Congress in 1952, McCarthy became chairman

of the Senate subcommittee on investigations.

Using the power of his committee to force

government officials to testify about alleged

Communist influences, McCarthy turned the

investigation into a witch hunt—a search for

disloyalty based on flimsy evidence and irra-

tional fears. His tactic of damaging reputations

with vague and unfounded charges became

known as McCarthyism.

McCarthy’s sensational accusations drew

the attention of the press, which put him in the

headlines and quoted him widely. When he

questioned witnesses, McCarthy would badger

them and then refuse to accept their answers.

His tactics left a cloud of suspicion that

McCarthy and others interpreted as guilt.

Furthermore, people were afraid to challenge

him for fear of becoming targets themselves.

McCarthy’s DownfallIn 1954 McCarthy began to look for Soviet

spies in the United States Army. During weeks

of televised Army-McCarthy hearings, millions

of Americans watched McCarthy question and

bully officers, harassing them about trivial

details and accusing them of misconduct. His

popular support began to fade.

Finally, to strike back at the army’s lawyer,

Joseph Welch, McCarthy brought up the past

of a young lawyer in Welch’s firm who had

been a member of a Communist-front organi-

zation while in law school. Welch, who was

fully aware of the young man’s past, now

exploded at McCarthy for possibly ruining the

young man’s career: “Until this moment, I

think I never really gauged your cruelty or your

recklessness. . . . You have done enough. Have

you no sense of decency, sir, at long last? Have

you left no sense of decency?”

Spectators cheered. Welch had said aloud

what many Americans had been thinking. As

Senator Stuart Symington of Missouri com-

mented, “The American people have had a

look at you for six weeks. You are not fooling

anyone.” McCarthy had lost the power to

arouse fear. Newspaper headlines repeated:

“Have you no sense of decency?”

Later that year, the Senate passed a vote of

censure, or formal disapproval, against

McCarthy—one of the most serious criticisms

it can level against a member. Although he

remained in the Senate, McCarthy had lost all

influence. He died in 1957.

Evaluating What were the effects of McCarthyism?

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Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 779

★ Watkins v. United States, 1957Background to the CaseIn 1954 labor organizer John Watkins testifi ed before the House Un-American Activities Committee. He agreed to discuss his own connections with the Communist Party and to identify people he knew who were still members, but he refused to give information about those who were no longer members. Watkins received a misdemeanor conviction for refusing to answer questions “pertinent to the question under inquiry.” In 1957 he appealed his case to the Supreme Court.

How the Court RuledThe Watkins case raised the question: Is it constitutional for a congressional committee to ask any question or investigate any topic, whether or not it is directly related to Congress’s law-making function? In a 6-to-1 decision—two members did not participate—the Supreme Court held that the activities of HUAC during its investigations were, indeed, beyond the scope of the stated aims of the committee, as well as the authority of congressional powers.

Analyzing Supreme Court Cases

▲ Senator Joseph McCarthy (above) symbolized the fears of the early 1950s, when communist spies were suspected to have infiltrated all aspects of American society. Together, McCarthy’s committee in the Senate and the House Un-American Activities Committee used their power to subpoena people to investigate their loyalty. As a result many reputations were smeared and careers ruined.

Are There Limits on Congressional Power?

PRIMARY SOURCE

The Court’s Opinion“The power of the Congress to conduct investigations is

inherent in the legislative process. That power is broad. . . . But, broad as is this power of inquiry, it is not unlimited. There is no general authority to expose the private affairs of individuals without justifi cation in terms of the functions of the Con-gress. . . . Nor is the Congress a law enforcement or trial agency. These are functions of the executive and judicial departments of government. No inquiry is an end in itself; it must be related to, and in furtherance of, a legitimate task of the Congress. Investigations conducted solely for the personal aggrandize-ment of the investigators or to “punish” those investigated are indefensible.”

—Chief Justice Earl Warren, writing for the majority in Watkins v. United States

PRIMARY SOURCE

Dissenting View“It may be that at times the House Committee on Un-

American Activities has, as the Court says, “conceived of its task in the grand view of its name.” And, perhaps, as the Court indicates, the rules of conduct placed upon the Committee by the House admit of individual abuse and unfairness. But that is none of our affair. So long as the object of a legislative inquiry is legitimate and the questions propounded are pertinent thereto, it is not for the courts to interfere with the committee system of inquiry. To hold otherwise would be an infringement on the power given the Congress to inform itself. . . .”

—Justice Tom Campbell Clark, author of the dissenting opinion in Watkins v. United States

1. Explaining On what does Warren say a congressional inquiry must always be based?

2. Discussing Why does Clark disagree with the majority opinion?

3. Making Inferences What opinion do you think Warren had of HUAC?

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780 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

Life During the Early Cold WarMAIN Idea Obsessed with fear of a nuclear

attack, many Americans took steps to protect themselves.

HISTORY AND YOU Have you ever felt the need to protect yourself from something dangerous or scary? Read to learn more about how Americans tried to deal with their fears during the early 1950s.

The Red Scare and the spread of nuclear

weapons had a profound impact on American

life in the 1950s. Fear of communism and of

nuclear war affected the thinking and choices

of many ordinary Americans, as well as their

leaders in government. Some Americans

responded by preparing to survive a nuclear

attack, while others became active in politics in

an effort to shape government policy. Writers

responded by describing the dangers of

atomic war and the threat of communism—

sometimes to convince people to take action

and sometimes to protest policies they feared

might lead to war.

Facing the BombAlready upset by the first Soviet atomic test

in 1949, Americans were shocked when the

Soviets again successfully tested the much

more powerful hydrogen bomb, or H-bomb,

in 1953. The United States had tested its own

H-bomb less than a year earlier.

Americans prepared for a surprise Soviet

attack. Schools set aside special areas as bomb

shelters. In bomb drills, students learned to

Living with the Bomb in the 1950s▲ Some Americans invested in personal bomb

shelters stocked with food to allow them to survive a bomb blast and the radiation that would follow.

Analyzing VISUALS 1. Explaining What was the purpose of the

“duck-and-cover “drills and bomb shelters?

2. Making Inferences Even if some preparations would not work, why might the government have wanted people to prepare for war?

▲ The Civil Defense Agency set up bomb shelters in cities, and made plans to assist survivors after an attack. Today the Civil Defense Agency is known as FEMA—the Federal Emergency Management Agency.

The Cold War convinced many in American society that they needed to be prepared to survive a nuclear attack. While authorities made Civil Defense plans, individuals took it upon themselves to build bomb shelters and stockpile supplies.

▲

In the 1950s school children took part in “duck-and-cover” drills designed to give them a chance at surviving a nuclear blast if they were far enough from the epicenter.

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Section 3 REVIEW

Study Central To review this section, go to glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

781

duck under their desks, turn away from the windows, and cover

their heads with their hands. These “duck-and-cover” actions

were supposed to protect them from a nuclear bomb blast.

Although “duck-and-cover” might have made people feel safe,

it would not have protected them from deadly nuclear radiation.

According to experts, for every person killed outright by a nuclear

blast, four more would die later from fallout, the radiation left

over after a blast. To protect themselves, some families built back-

yard fallout shelters and stocked them with canned food.

Popular Culture in the Cold WarWorries about nuclear war and Communist infiltration filled

the public’s imagination. Cold War themes soon appeared in films,

plays, television, the titles of dance tunes, and popular fiction.

In 1953 Arthur Miller’s thinly veiled criticism of the Communist

witchhunts, The Crucible, appeared on Broadway. The play remains

popular today as a cautionary tale about how hysteria can lead to

false accusations. Matt Cvetic was an FBI undercover informant

who secretly infiltrated the Communist Party in Pittsburgh,

Pennsylvania. His story captivated magazine readers in the

Saturday Evening Post in 1950 and came to movie screens the next

year as I Was a Communist for the FBI. Another suspense film,

Walk East on Beacon (1951), features the FBI’s activities in an espi-

onage case.

In 1953 television took up the theme with a series about an

undercover FBI counterspy who was also a Communist Party

official. Each week, I Led Three Lives kept television viewers on

edge. Popular tunes such as “Atomic Boogie” and “Atom Bomb

Baby” played on the radio.

In 1954 author Philip Wylie published Tomorrow! This novel

describes the horrific effects of nuclear war on an unprepared

American city. As an adviser on civil defense, Wylie had failed to

convince the federal government to play a strong role in building

bomb shelters. Frustrated, he wrote his novel to educate the pub-

lic about the horrors of atomic war.

One of the most famous and enduring works of this period is

John Hersey’s nonfiction book Hiroshima. Originally published as

the entire contents of the August 1946 edition of The New Yorker

magazine, the book provides the firsthand accounts of six survi-

vors of the U.S. dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima,

Japan. Not only did it make some Americans question the use of

the bomb, Hiroshima also underscored the real and personal hor-

rors of a nuclear attack.

At the same time that these fears were haunting Americans, the

country was enjoying postwar prosperity and optimism. That spirit,

combined with McCarthyism, fears of Communist infiltration, and

the threat of atomic attack, made the early 1950s a time of con-

trasts. As the 1952 election approached, Americans were looking

for someone or something that would make them feel secure.

Describing How did the Cold War affect life in the 1950s?

Vocabulary1. Explain the significance of: Red Scare,

subversion, loyalty review program, Alger Hiss, perjury, McCarran Act, McCarthyism, censure, fallout.

Main Ideas2. Explaining What was the result of

President Truman’s loyalty review program?

3. Analyzing Hearings to investigate Communist subversion in what organiza-tion led to McCarthy’s downfall?

4. Identifying What event made Americans fearful of a nuclear attack by the Soviets?

Critical Thinking5. Big Ideas How did the Red Scare and

McCarthyism change American society and government?

6. Organizing Use a graphic organizer similar to the one below to list the causes and effects of the Red Scare of the 1950s.

Causes Effects

RedScare

7. Analyzing Visuals Study the cartoons on page 777. Which cartoon do you think makes the stronger point? Explain.

Writing About History8. Persuasive Writing Suppose that you

are a newspaper editor during the Army-McCarthy hearings. Write an editorial giv-ing reasons why people should support or condemn Senator McCarthy.

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782 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

Section 4

Guide to ReadingBig IdeasScience and Technology Nuclear technology enabled Eisenhower to change U.S. military policy, while new missile technology marked the begin-ning of the space age.

Content Vocabulary• massive retaliation (p. 783)• brinkmanship (p. 783)• covert (p. 785)• developing nation (p. 785)• military-industrial complex (p. 787)

Academic Vocabulary• imply (p. 786)• response (p. 787)

People and Events to Identify• Central Intelligence Agency (p. 785)• Sputnik (p. 787)

Reading StrategyOrganizing Complete a concept web similar to the one below by filling in aspects of Eisenhower’s “New Look.”

Eisenhower’s “New Look”

Eisenhower’s Cold War Policies

President Eisenhower believed developing new

technology to deliver nuclear weapons would help

prevent war. He also directed the CIA to use covert

operations in the struggle to contain communism.

Massive RetaliationMAIN Idea Eisenhower fought the Cold War by increasing the U.S.

nuclear arsenal and using the threat of nuclear war to end conflicts in Korea, Taiwan, and the Suez.

HISTORY AND YOU Do you know anyone who uses threats to get his or her way? Read further to learn about Eisenhower’s use of nuclear threats to achieve foreign policy goals.

By the end of 1952, many Americans were ready for a change in

leadership. The Cold War had much to do with that attitude. Many

people believed that Truman’s foreign policy was not working. The

Soviet Union had tested an atomic bomb and consolidated its hold

on Eastern Europe. China had fallen to communism, and American

troops were fighting in Korea.

Tired of the criticism and uncertain he could win, Truman decided

not to run again. The Democrats nominated Adlai Stevenson, gover-

nor of Illinois. The Republicans chose Dwight D. Eisenhower, the

general who had organized the D-Day invasion. Stevenson had no

chance against a national hero who had helped win World War II.

Americans wanted someone they could trust to lead the nation in

the Cold War. Eisenhower won in a landslide.

“More Bang for the Buck”The Cold War shaped Eisenhower’s thinking from the moment

he took office. He was convinced that the key to victory in the Cold

War was not simply military might but also a strong economy. The

United States had to show the world that free enterprise could pro-

duce a better society than communism. At the same time, economic

prosperity would prevent Communists from gaining support in the

United States and protect society from subversion.

As a professional soldier, Eisenhower knew the costs associated

with large-scale conventional war. Preparing for that kind of warfare,

he believed, was too expensive. “We cannot defend the nation in a

way which will exhaust our economy,” the president declared. Instead

of maintaining a large and expensive army, the nation “must be pre-

pared to use atomic weapons in all forms.” Nuclear weapons, he said,

gave “more bang for the buck.”

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TECHNOLOGY&HISTORY

Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 783

The Korean War had convinced Eisenhower

that the United States could not contain com-

munism by fighting a series of small wars.

Such wars were unpopular and too expensive.

Instead, wars had to be prevented from hap-

pening in the first place. The best way to do

that seemed to be to threaten to use nuclear

weapons. This policy came to be called

massive retaliation.

The new policy enabled Eisenhower to cut

military spending from $50 billion to $34 bil-

lion. He did this by reducing the size of the

army, which was expensive to maintain. At the

same time, he increased the U.S. nuclear arse-

nal from about 1,000 bombs in 1953 to about

18,000 bombs in 1961.

Brinkmanship President Eisenhower’s willingness to

threaten nuclear war to maintain peace wor-

ried some people. However, Secretary of State

John Foster Dulles, the dominant figure in the

nation’s foreign policy in the 1950s, strongly

defended this approach:

PRIMARY SOURCE

“You have to take chances for peace, just as you must take chances in war. Some say that we were brought to the verge of war. Of course we were brought to the verge of war. The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art. . . . If you try to run away from it, if you are scared to go to the brink, you are lost. We’ve had to look it square in the face. . . . We walked to the brink and we looked it in the face. We took strong action.”

—quoted in Rise to Globalism

Critics called this brinkmanship—the

willingness to go to the brink of war to force

the other side to back down—and argued that

it was too dangerous. During several crises,

however, President Eisenhower felt compelled

to threaten nuclear war.

▲ Long-Range Bombers

In 1955 the U.S. Air Force unveiled the huge B-52 bomber (above), which could fl y across continents to drop nuclear bombs. The B-52 is still in use today.

Cold War Technology President Eisenhower’s emphasis on nuclear weapons required new technology to deliver them. Eisenhower wanted to make sure that the United States could wage nuclear war even if the Soviets destroyed American bases in Europe or Asia. This required tech-nology that would allow the U.S. to strike the USSR without needing bases in Europe.

Sixteen missiles were carried in silos located here.

▲ Missile Submarines

Eisenhower also began a pro-gram to build submarines capable of launching nuclear missiles from underwater. The Polaris submarine (left) launched in 1960 and carried 16 nuclear missiles.

Analyzing VISUALS1. Determining Cause and Effect How did

Eisenhower’s nuclear strategy lead to the development of new technologies?

2. Defining What is an ICBM and what is its purpose?

▲ ICBMs

Because bombers could be shot down, Eisenhower also approved the develop-ment of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that could reach anywhere in the world in less than 30 minutes. The Atlas missile (right) was the fi rst American ICBM. It was also used to launch the fi rst seven U.S. astronauts. It is still used today to launch satellites.

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784 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

The Korean War Ends During his campaign for the presidency,

Eisenhower had said, “I shall go to Korea,”

promising to end the costly and increasingly

unpopular war. On December 4, 1952, he kept

his promise. Bundled against the freezing

Korean winter, the president-elect talked with

frontline commanders and their troops.

Eisenhower became convinced that the

ongoing battle was costing too many lives and

bringing too few victories. He was determined

to bring the war to an end. The president then

quietly let the Chinese know that the United

States might continue the Korean War “under

circumstances of our own choosing”—a hint

at a nuclear attack.

The threat to go to the brink of nuclear war

seemed to work. In July 1953 negotiators

signed an armistice. The battle line between

the two sides in Korea, which was very near

the prewar boundary, became the border

between North Korea and South Korea. A

“demilitarized zone” (DMZ) separated them.

American troops are still based in Korea, help-

ing to defend South Korea’s border. There has

never been a peace treaty to end the war.

The Taiwan CrisisShortly after the Korean War ended, a new

crisis erupted in Asia. Although Communists

had taken power in mainland China, the

Nationalists still controlled Taiwan and several

Sputnik Launches a Space Race

As the United States began to develop ICBMs, Americans were stunned to discover that the Soviet Union already had them. On October 4, 1957, the Soviets demonstrated this technology by launching Sputnik, the first artificial satellite to orbit Earth.

Worried that the United States was falling behind, Congress created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to coordinate missile research and space exploration. It also passed the National Defense Education Act (NDEA), which provided funds for education in science, math, and foreign languages.

Sputnik marked the beginning of a new era—the use of satellites in space. Both nations in the Cold War began launching satellites to assist in communi-cations and to spy on the other nation. Today, satel-lites are a vital part of modern communications and travel. They transmit television and cell phone signals, and the satellites of the Global Positioning System (GPS) help ships and airplanes to navigate. Hikers and drivers can also buy GPS receivers to help determine where they are.

ANALYZING HISTORY Do you think missile and satellite technology helped prevent conflict dur-ing the Cold War or made the Cold War worse? Create a multimedia presentation on the Space Race and how it has changed American society.

▲ Sputnik II, launched only a month after Sputnik, carried the first living creature into orbit—an “astro” dog named Laika.

▲ Scientists prepare the first U.S. satellite, Explorer I for launch in 1958.

▲ Sputnik (above) was the world’s first artificial satellite. It made news around the world and launched the space race.

Student Skill Activity To learn how to create a multimedia presen-tation visit glencoe.com and complete the skill activity.

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Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 785

small islands along China’s coast. In the fall of

1954, China threatened to seize two of the

islands. Eisenhower saw Taiwan as part of the

“anti-Communist barrier” in Asia that needed

to be protected at all costs.

When China began shelling the islands and

announced that Taiwan would be liberated,

Eisenhower asked Congress to authorize the

use of force to defend Taiwan. He then warned

the Chinese that any attack on Taiwan would

be resisted by U.S. naval forces stationed

nearby and hinted that they would use nuclear

weapons to stop an invasion. Soon afterward,

China backed down.

The Suez CrisisThe following year, a serious crisis erupted

in the Middle East. Eisenhower’s goal in that

region was to prevent Arab nations from align-

ing with the Soviet Union. To build support

among Arabs, Secretary of State Dulles offered

to help Egypt finance the construction of a

dam on the Nile River.

The deal ran into trouble in Congress, how-

ever, because Egypt had bought weapons from

Communist Czechoslovakia. Dulles was forced

to withdraw the offer. A week later, Egyptian

troops seized control of the Suez Canal from

the Anglo-French company that had controlled

it. The Egyptians intended to use the canal’s

profits to pay for the dam.

The British and French responded quickly

to the Suez Crisis. In October 1956, British and

French troops invaded Egypt. Eisenhower was

furious with Britain and France. The situation

became even more dangerous when the Soviet

Union threatened rocket attacks on Britain and

France and offered to send troops to help

Egypt. Eisenhower immediately put U.S.

nuclear forces on alert, noting, “If those fellows

start something, we may have to hit them—

and if necessary, with everything in the

bucket.”

Under strong pressure from the United

States, the British and French called off their

invasion. The Soviet Union had won a major

diplomatic victory, however, by supporting

Egypt. Soon afterward, other Arab nations

began accepting Soviet aid as well.

Identifying What was brinkmanship?

Covert OperationsMAIN Idea Eisenhower directed the Central

Intelligence Agency to use covert operations to limit the spread of communism and Soviet influence.

HISTORY AND YOU Do you enjoy reading spy nov-els? Read on to learn of the development and work of a spy agency in the United States.

President Eisenhower relied on brinkman-

ship on several occasions, but he knew it could

not work in all situations. It could prevent war,

but it could not, for example, prevent Com-

munists from staging revolutions within coun-

tries. To prevent Communist uprisings in other

countries, Eisenhower decided to use covert,

or hidden, operations conducted by the Central

Intelligence Agency (CIA).

Many of the CIA’s operations took place in

developing nations—nations with primarily

agricultural economies. Many of these coun-

tries blamed European imperialism and

American capitalism for their problems. Their

leaders looked to the Soviet Union as a model

of how to industrialize their countries. They

often threatened to nationalize, or put under

government control, foreign businesses oper-

ating in their countries.

One way to stop developing nations from

moving into the Communist camp was to pro-

vide them with financial aid, as Eisenhower

had tried to do in Egypt. In some cases, how-

ever, where the threat of communism seemed

stronger, the CIA ran covert operations to

overthrow anti-American leaders and replace

them with pro-American leaders.

Iran and GuatemalaTwo examples of covert operations that

achieved U.S. objectives took place in Iran and

Guatemala. By 1953, Iranian Prime Minister

Mohammed Mossadegh had already national-

ized the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. He

seemed ready to make an oil deal with the

Soviet Union. Mossadegh then moved against

the pro-American shah of Iran, who was tem-

porarily forced into exile. The CIA quickly sent

agents to organize street riots and arrange a

coup that ousted Mossadegh and returned the

shah to power.

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The following year, the CIA intervened in

Guatemala. In 1951, with Communist support,

Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán was elected president

of Guatemala. His land-reform program took

over large estates and plantations, including

those of the U.S.–owned United Fruit Company.

In May 1954, Communist Czechoslovakia

delivered arms to Guatemala. The CIA

responded by arming the Guatemalan opposi-

tion and training them at secret camps in

Nicaragua and Honduras. Shortly after these

CIA-trained forces invaded Guatemala, Arbenz

Guzmán left office.

Trouble in Eastern Europe Covert operations did not always work as

Eisenhower hoped. Stalin died in 1953, and a

power struggle began in the Soviet Union. By

1956, Nikita Khrushchev had emerged as the

leader of the Soviet Union. That year,

Khrushchev delivered a secret speech to Soviet

officials. He attacked Stalin’s policies and

insisted that there were many ways to build a

communist society. Although the speech was

secret, the CIA obtained a copy of it. With

Eisenhower’s permission, the CIA arranged for

it to be broadcast to Eastern Europe.

Many Eastern Europeans had long been

frustrated with Communist rule. Hearing

Khrushchev’s speech further discredited com-

munism. In June 1956 riots erupted in Eastern

Europe. By late October, a full-scale uprising

had begun in Hungary. Although Khrushchev

was willing to tolerate greater freedom in

Eastern Europe, he had never meant to imply

that the Soviets would tolerate an end to com-

munism in the region. Soon after the uprising

began, Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest, the

capital of Hungary, and crushed the rebellion.

The Eisenhower DoctrineThe United States was not the only nation

using covert means to support its foreign policy.

President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt had

emerged from the Suez crisis as a hero to the

Arab people, and by 1957 he had begun working

The U-2 Incident

Analyzing VISUALS 1. Paraphrasing What did Nikita Khrushchev say

would be the result of further U.S. aerial spying?

2. Describing What was Eisenhower’s response to Soviet anger over the incident?

In 1960, the Soviet Union shot down an American U-2 spy plane in Soviet air space. The incident led to a dramatic confrontation at the U.S-Soviet summit in Paris in 1960.

▲

Calling President Eisenhower “a thief caught red-handed,” Soviet Premier Khrushchev warns the Paris summit that further spy flights will lead to war.

▲ The U-2 (above left) was America’s most sophisticated spy plane able to fly higher than any other plane at the time. The pilot, Francis Gary Powers (above right), was captured but later released.

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Section 4 REVIEW

Study Central To review this section, go to glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

787

with Jordan and Syria to spread pan-Arabism—the idea that all Arab

people should be united into one nation. Eisenhower and Dulles

worried about Nasser’s links to the Soviets and feared that he was

laying the groundwork to take control of the Middle East. In late

1957 Eisenhower asked Congress to authorize the use of military

force whenever the president thought it necessary to assist Middle

East nations resisting Communist aggression. The policy came to be

called the Eisenhower Doctrine. It essentially extended the Truman

Doctrine and the policy of containment to the Middle East.

In February 1958 Eisenhower’s concerns appeared to be con-

firmed when left-wing rebels, believed to be backed by Nasser and

the Soviet Union, seized power in Iraq. Fearing that his government

was next, the president of Lebanon asked the United States for help.

Eisenhower immediately ordered 5,000 marines to Lebanon to pro-

tect its capital, Beirut. At the same time, British forces went into

Jordan at the request of King Hussein to protect his government.

Once the situation stabilized, the U.S. forces withdrew.

A Spy Plane Is Shot DownAfter the Hungarian uprising, Khrushchev reasserted Soviet

power and the superiority of communism. Although he had sup-

ported “peaceful coexistence” with capitalism, he began accusing

the “capitalist countries” of starting a “feverish arms race.” In 1957

after the launch of Sputnik, Khrushchev boasted, “We will bury

capitalism. . . . Your grandchildren will live under communism.”

Late the following year, Khrushchev demanded the withdrawal

of Allied troops from West Berlin. Secretary of State Dulles rejected

Khrushchev’s demands. If the Soviets threatened Berlin, Dulles

announced, NATO would respond, “if need be by military force.”

Brinkmanship worked again, and Khrushchev backed down.

At Eisenhower’s invitation, Khrushchev visited the United

States in late 1959. After the success of that visit, the two leaders

agreed to hold a summit in Paris. A summit is a formal face-to-

face meeting of leaders from different countries to discuss impor-

tant issues.

Shortly before the summit was to begin in 1960, the Soviet Union

shot down an American U-2 spy plane. At first, Eisenhower claimed

that the aircraft was a weather plane that had strayed off course.

Then Khrushchev dramatically produced the pilot. Eisenhower

refused to apologize, saying the flights had protected American

security. In response, Khrushchev broke up the summit.

In this climate of heightened tension, President Eisenhower

prepared to leave office. In January 1961 he delivered a farewell

address to the nation. In the address, he pointed out that a new

relationship had developed between the military establishment

and the defense industry. He warned Americans to be on guard

against the influence of this military-industrial complex in a

democracy. Although he had avoided war and kept communism

contained, Eisenhower was also frustrated: “I confess I lay down

my official responsibility in this field with a definite sense of dis-

appointment. . . . I wish I could say that a lasting peace is in sight.”

Explaining In what nations did the United States intervene with covert operations?

Vocabulary 1. Explain the significance of: massive retal-

iation, brinkmanship, covert, Central Intelligence Agency, developing nation, Sputnik, military-industrial complex.

Main Ideas2. Summarizing Why did Eisenhower want

to depend on nuclear weapons over tradi-tional military approaches to war?

3. Defining What was the goal of the Eisenhower Doctrine?

Critical Thinking4. Big Ideas How did technology shape

Eisenhower’s military policy?

5. Organizing Use a graphic organizer sim-ilar to the one below to list Eisenhower’s strategies for containing communism.

Strategies for Containing

Communism

6. Analyzing Visuals Study the photo-graph of Khrushchev on page 786. How does this photograph illustrate the U.S. and Soviet relationship at this point in the Cold War?

Writing About History7. Persuasive Writing Suppose that you

are a member of Eisenhower’s Cabinet. Defend or attack brinkmanship as a for-eign policy tactic. Be sure to provide spe-cific reasons for your opinions.

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Chapter

788 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

VISUAL SUMMARY You can study anywhere, anytime by downloading quizzes and flashcards to your PDA from glencoe.com.

Causes of the Cold WarLong-Range Causes

• Both the United States and the Soviet Union believe their economic and political systems are superior.

• Defeat of Germany creates a power vacuum in Europe and leaves U.S. and Soviet forces occupying parts of Europe.

• The U.S. wants to rebuild Europe’s economy and support democratic governments to ensure peace and security.

• The USSR wants Germany weak and believes nations on its border should have Communist governments to ensure they remain friendly.

Immediate Causes

• At Yalta, Soviets promise to allow free elections in Eastern Europe but instead gradually impose Communist regimes.

• At Potsdam, Soviets want German reparations, but the U.S. supports rebuilding Germany’s economy.

• Soviet troops help Communists in northern Iran, but U.S. pressure forces a withdrawal.

• George Kennan sends the Long Telegram to U.S. offi cials, explaining that the Soviets need to be contained.

• Soviets send aid to Communist rebels in Greece and demand Turkey share control of the Dardanelles with the USSR; Truman issues the Truman Doctrine and sends aid to Greece and Turkey.

▲ The Soviet Union displays its nuclear capabilities in the form of these short-range missiles during celebrations commemorating the 40th anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1957. The nuclear arms race was a part of the Cold War for nearly 40 years.

▲ From left to right: British Prime Minister Clement Atlee, U.S. President Harry Truman, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference in 1945. The conference contributed to the onset of the Cold War because of disagreements over how to handle postwar Europe.

Effects of the Cold WarEffects in Europe

• U.S. launches the Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe.

• Germany is divided into two separate nations.

• The USSR blockades Berlin; U.S. organizes the Berlin Airlift.

• The U.S. creates NATO; the USSR creates the Warsaw Pact.

Global Effects

• When China falls to communism, the U.S. responds by helping Japan build up its economy and military.

• When Communist North Korea invades South Korea, the U.S. organizes an international force to stop the invasion.

Effects on the United States

• Soviet spies are arrested.

• A new Red Scare leads to laws restricting the Communist Party in the U.S. and to investigations by the House Un-American Activities Committee and Senator Joseph McCarthy.

• Americans practice civil defense; some build bomb shelters.

• President Eisenhower orders the development of new rockets, bombers, and submarines that can carry nuclear weapons.

• Eisenhower uses the CIA to covertly contain communism.

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Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 789

ASSESSMENT

TEST-TAKING TIPWhen you first start a test, review it completely so that you can budget your time most efficiently. For example, if there are essay questions at the end, you will want to be sure you leave enough time to write complete answers.

STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE

GO ON

Reviewing VocabularyDirections: Choose the word or words that best complete the sentence.

1. After World War II, the Soviet Union wanted to establish a buffer zone of _______ on its European border.

A developing nations

B capitalist nations

C satellite nations

D demilitarization

2. The policy of _______ became the main approach in U.S. foreign policy toward the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

A democracy

B limited war

C free trade

D containment

3. Once the Soviet Union tested an atomic bomb, Americans began to fear the effects of _______ , assuming they initially survived a nuclear attack.

A fallout

B censure

C subversion

D duck-and-cover

4. In his farewell address, President Eisenhower warned the American people about the dangers of

A the Central Intelligence Agency.

B massive retaliation.

C the military-industrial complex.

D brinkmanship.

Reviewing Main IdeasDirections: Choose the best answer for each of the following questions.

Section 1 (pp. 760–765)

5. Which of the following was a major outcome of the Yalta Conference?

A the division of Germany

B the terms of Germany’s surrender

C the establishment of satellite nations

D the establishment of NATO

6. At Potsdam, the main conflict was over which of the following?

A the United Nations

B the invasion of Japan

C German reparations

D nuclear weapons

Section 2 (pp. 766–773)

7. George Kennan first suggested which foreign policy?

A brinkmanship

B containment

C massive retaliation

D the Marshall Plan

8. Which of the following events set off the Korean War?

A The Japanese invaded South Korea.

B Soviet-controlled North Korea invaded South Korea.

C Chinese-controlled North Korea invaded South Korea.

D The Soviet Union invaded North Korea.

If You Missed Questions . . . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Go to Page . . . 765 766 780–781 787 760–761 764–765 766 771

Need Extra Help?

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790 Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins

Chapter

Checkpoint Charlie

Tempelhof

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WestBerlin

Brandenburg Gate

Checkpoint Charlie

Tempelhof

Tegel

Gatow

Hav

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Spree River

EastBerlin

WestBerlin

American sectorBritish sectorFrench sector

Soviet sectorEast GermanyAirport

N

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Transverse Mercatorprojection

GO ON

9. What was the underlying goal of the Marshall Plan?

A to contain Soviet expansion in the Middle East and Asia

B to rebuild European economies to prevent the spread of communism

C to monitor the growth of the military-industrial complex in the United States

D to Americanize Western European nations

Section 3 (pp. 774–781)

10. After World War II, the purpose of HUAC was to

A hold public hearings on Communist subversion.

B locate chapters of the Communist Party.

C administer the loyalty review program.

D create the McCarran Act.

11. The McCarran Act required

A every government employee to take a loyalty oath.

B all Communist Party chapters to disband.

C all Communist organizations to register with the government.

D the censure of members of Congress who would not support HUAC.

Section 4 (pp. 782–787)

12. Eisenhower’s administration developed an approach to for-eign policy based on the threat of nuclear attack, known as

A containment.

B massive retaliation.

C subversion.

D duck-and-cover.

13. The Eisenhower Doctrine extended the Truman Doctrine to which region?

A Asia

B Eastern Europe

C South America

D the Middle East

Critical ThinkingDirections: Choose the best answers to the following questions.

Base your answers to questions 14 and 15 on the map below and on your knowledge of Chapter 22.

14. Why was Stalin initially able to control access to West Berlin?

A West Berlin was in the Soviet Union.

B West Berlin was ruled by Communists.

C West Berlin was in the Soviet sector of Germany.

D West Berlin had been invaded and occupied by the Red Army.

15. Why did Stalin order a blockade of West Berlin?

A West Berlin was primarily agricultural and would help feed the Soviet army.

B Stalin wanted to unite Berlin and organize free elections for Germany.

C Stalin was afraid of the U.S. nuclear technology and wanted a larger buffer zone.

D Stalin wanted the United States to abandon West Berlin.

If You Missed Questions . . . 9 10 11 12 13 14 15Go to Page . . . 768 775 778 782–783 786–787 768–769 768–769

Need Extra Help?

Berlin After World War II, 1945

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ASSESSMENT

Chapter 22 The Cold War Begins 791

For additional test practice, use Self-Check Quizzes—Chapter 22 at glencoe.com.

STOP

16. One historical lesson from the McCarthy era is the realiza-tion that

A loyalty oaths prevent spying.

B communism is attractive in prosperous times.

C Communist agents had infiltrated all levels of the U.S. government.

D public fear of traitors can lead to intolerance and discrimination.

Analyze the cartoon and answer the question that follows. Base your answer on the cartoon and on your knowledge of Chapter 22.

17. In this cartoon, the cartoonist is expressing

A pride in America’s technological know-how.

B anxiety that America is behind in the space race.

C a wish for larger, more elaborate cars.

D the need to share auto technology with Russia.

Document-Based QuestionsDirections: Analyze the document and answer the short-answer ques-tions that follow the document.

Margaret Chase Smith, a Republican senator from Maine, was a newcomer and the only woman in the Senate. Smith was upset by McCarthy’s behavior and hoped that her colleagues would reprimand him. When they failed to do so, Smith made her “Declaration of Conscience” speech.

“As a United States Senator, I am not proud of the way in which the Senate has been made a publicity platform for irresponsible sensationalism. I am not proud of the reckless abandon in which unproved charges have been hurled from this side of the aisle. I am not proud of the obviously staged, undignified countercharges that have been attempted in retaliation from the other side of the aisle . . . I am not proud of the way we smear outsiders from the Floor of the Senate and hide behind a cloak of congressional immunity. . . .

As an American, I am shocked at the way Republicans and Democrats alike are playing directly into the Communist design of ‘confuse, divide, and conquer’. . . . I want to see our nation recapture the strength and unity it once had when we fought the enemy instead of ourselves.”

—from Declaration of Conscience

18. In the speech, Smith expresses anger with whom? Why?

19. According to Smith, who is really dividing the nation?

Extended Response 20. Many factors contributed to the development of the Cold

War, but could it have been avoided? Write a persuasive essay arguing that actions of the United States or the Soviet Union following World War II might have prevented the Cold War, or that it was inevitable.

If You Missed Questions . . . 16 17 18 19 20Go to Page . . . 777–778 R18 778 778 760–773

Need Extra Help?

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