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Tui Needham | Student ID 0290296 | Reflecting on Professional Practice 1 AUCKLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Reflecting on Professional Practice Project Tui Needham Student ID: 0290296 Master of Career Development Program With Dale Furbish 6 June 2014

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Page 1: Tui Needham

Tui Needham | Student ID 0290296 | Reflecting on Professional Practice 1

AUCKLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Reflecting on Professional Practice Project

Tui Needham Student ID: 0290296

Master of Career Development Program With Dale Furbish

6 June 2014

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Exploring the perspectives of Māori university students on the use of social

networking sites (SNS’s) for job search and career development.

INTRODUCTION

This study explores the perspectives Māori university students have on the use of social

networking sites (SNSs) for job seeking and career development. Using SNSs as a strategy for

job search and career development is promoted as being essential for the modern job seeker in

a digital driven era and competitive job market. For example, a career resource written for New

Zealand university students by Massey University, (n.d.), states, “social media tools are an

increasingly important means of building your network of useful contacts, showcasing a

personal brand that you create and maintain online, and accessing job opportunities.” In the

(WIPNZ, 2009) report, it is noted that social networking is becoming an important part of the

online experience for many New Zealanders, furthermore, of all the social media users, 45%

participate in such sites at least daily. Research by Kelly, (2011) identified that many Kiwis

believe being active online is essential for career development, with 27% of men and 21% of

women using their social networks to improve their job prospects. Additionally, 33% of Gen Y

(aged 18-29) respondents stated that social networking is essential to advancing their careers.

The phenomena of social networking and the impact on career practice in the 21st century is

also discussed by (Strehlke, 2010). The writer emphasises the need for career development

practitioners to update their knowledge and approach to networking as a job search strategy

because of the emergence of social networking sites and their increasing popularity with users.

According to (Ryan and Hopkins, 2013) ‘social capital’ also provides interesting perspectives

into the uses of SNSs for career advancement, as stated, “career development practitioners

understand that students need more than educational credentials to successfully manage their

life long career development, they also need social networks or social capital (p. 109).”

Additionally, as (Hooley, 2012) explains, the internet provides individuals with access to a

market-place of opportunities and SNSs provide a space for building social capital.

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Social media usage

It was anticipated that this study would answer some general questions on the use of SNSs,

including skill and extent of use by the represented group. As the researcher, I expected to find

a high level of skill in the general use of SNSs from Māori university students of this age group

(18-29 years). With reference to perspectives on the use of social media for job search, and

career development, it was also hoped that some knowledge and exposure to this idea would

be evident. Potential learning from this study included, identifying typical job search and career

planning behaviours, allies, networks and support systems, as well as, cultural influences on

career development for Māori university students of this age bracket. Larsen (2007) conducted

a study on how young people maintain friendships and thereby continuously work to construct

and co- construct their identity online, with online networking acting as an extension of offline

lives. The writer argues, that social networking sites are simply a continuation of young

people’s normal teenage life. (Heidemann, Klier & Probst, 2012) suggests that ‘‘identity

management’’, i.e., constructing and maintaining a personal profile to present oneself to other

users, is a major motive to use online social networks.

Cultural Influences on career development

It is anticipated that career concerns Māori university students might have towards

transitioning from tertiary education into the world of work are revealed in this study,

additionally, cultural influences on career development. In a study by (Reid, 2010) on the

influence of cultural values on career processes for Māori , a relational orientation was

identified, as stated, “relationships are utilised as a navigational tool to the bigger picture of life

purpose, and higher-order relationships (p. 183).” Metge (1995) defines, whanaungatanga as

kinship in its widest sense, and (Durie, 2001) describes whanau as being more closely related to

the lives and experiences of people in their everyday pursuits. Reid (2010) also comments on

how Māori have extended interrelationships beyond blood ties in adapting to changing cultural

milieu. Lemon (2001), described networking from a Māori perspective as

whakawhanaungatanga; the building of relationships through meetings and the strong word of

mouth as an essential skill in the knowledge economy, a traditional as well as a contemporary

strength for Māori .

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Lifelong Learning

By understanding the perspectives Māori university students have on the use of SNSs for job

search and career development, it is also hoped that specific areas of learning are identified,

principally, gaps in the skills and knowledge required to strategically navigate one’s career in

the 21st century. (Patton & McMahon, 1999) explain that ongoing learning is the only way for

individuals to keep pace with the rapidly changing society, in which we live, as reflected in

technology. Lifelong learning in this respect is broadly defined as learning that is pursued

throughout one’s life: learning that is available at different times and places in life (LLCQ, 2013).

(Patton and McMahon, 2006) view life-long learning as a critical component of the knowledge

economy. (OECD, 2001a), assert that lifelong learning places a strong emphasis not only upon

achieving formal skills and qualifications, but also upon developing the motivation to learn and

the skills to manage one’s own learning. Identifying these gaps in learning would provide a

useful reference for Career Practitioners, Māori Mentors and Student Support personnel who

assist Māori students with job seeking and career development, and, certainly, support Māori

students towards developing lifelong career skills and qualities.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Using social networking sites (SNSs) as a tool for job search and career development is

promoted on renown international blogs such as Forbes, Quintessential Careers, in addition to

international career organisations, Career Thought Leaders, National Career Development

Association, and university career centres. The trend of promoting SNSs for this purpose is also

apparent in New Zealand as exampled by Massey University in providing online career

resources for graduates (Massey, n.d.), in the Career Development Association of New Zealand

Ezine Articles (CDANZ, 2014) and on the Careers New Zealand Facebook page. Additionally, an

article in the New Zealand Herald, (2013) discussed how modern outplacement service

providers in New Zealand offer tools on mastering social media and an online presence.

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Existing studies are examined on the use of SNSs for job search and career development, and to

identity gaps in current research, in addition, and of particular interest is the uptake,

experience and perspectives of Māori university students in alignment with this current study,

and practical strategies to support the work of career professionals. Six themes are discussed in

this review and include: History of Social Media, Online Identity Management, Social Capital,

Kaupapa Māori Perspectives, Human Resources and Social Media, and Strategies for Career

Development Professionals.

Social Media History & Statistics

As reported by (Nielsen, 2012), New Zealanders are embracing social media sites with figures

showing that more than 2.8 million New Zealanders visited social media sites in the month of

October 2012, with 80% of the online New Zealand population visiting the Facebook site. New

Zealand is reported to have the highest proportion of the online population who visit the

Facebook site compared to Australia (74%), the US (69%) and the UK (68%). Blogging ranks the

next highest in terms of unique audience, followed by Twitter, Tublr and WordPress. The

remaining top 10 social media sites with reference to unique audience in New Zealand are

Google+, LinkedIn, Wikia, Squidoo, and Pinterest. Unique audience refers to the total number

of visitors who visit a website or use an application at least once in a given period, (Nielsen,

n.d.). A report on social media usage in New Zealand by (Kelly, 2011), showed Facebook as the

most popular social media site for Gen Y (aged 18-29), LinkedIn is more popular with Gen X

(aged 30-47) and baby boomers (aged 48-65).

Another interesting statistic presented in the (Kelly, 2011) report, is that only 1% of

respondents out of 494 people secured their most recent job through a social media site, the

highest percentage was for ‘online job boards’ at 27%. However, this result is purely

quantitative and based on one question: How did you secure your most recent job?, thus,

prompting a research gap to explore (intrinsic and extrinsic influences) on one’s adoption or

rejection of SNSs as a job search strategy. Intrinsic as in one’s attitudes, beliefs, cultural values,

socio-economic status and knowledge gaps for example, and extrinsic such as influences

associated to the employing industry and one’s geographical location.

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Overall, these statistics provide a useful reference for understanding the extent of social media

usage in New Zealand (NZ) including rankings of the top 10 social media sites. Typically,

statistics on social media usage for US and UK are prolific, however, limited for NZ, making

these sources of research valuable references.

Hooley, (2012), noted that from 1990 the pace of change around internet technologies

accelerated with the development of browsers and search engines. Furthermore, in citing

Watts, (2002), Hooley, (2012) acknowledges that it was not until the late 1990s that the career

field began to make serious use of the internet. According to Hooley, (2012), a further shift

came in 2004 with the development of Web 2.0 by O’Reilly, that is, a new generation of world

wide web sites that use technology beyond static pages and allow for social interaction and

collaboration. As explained by (Hooley, 2012), this period saw the creation of social media tools

such as Myspace (2003) and Facebook (2004). Further progression of internet technologies

presented by Hooley, (2012), included the fact that social network usage passed that of email

in 2009 (Morgan Standley, 2010); Facebook overtook Google as the most popular site on the

web, and in 2010 employers recognised the possibilities that social media offers for recruiting

(Doherty, R., 2010) and screening applicants (Brandenburg, 2008).

A study by Ellison, Steinfield & Lampe (2007) presents global statistics on this social media

phenomenon Facebook, and in doing so, provides a clear presentation of its progression over

time. Since the launch of Facebook in 2004, by 2007, 21 million members were reported. In

2006, as cited by Ellison et al. (2007), Facebook business pages were introduced for commercial

organisations, and as of November 2006, up to 22,000 organisations had Facebook directories

(Smith, 2006). According to (Koetsier, 2013) the total number of business pages hit a new

milestone in 2013, that is, over 15 million, as stated by Dan Levy, Facebook’s Director of small

business, at an advertising conference in New York.

Davison, Maraist & Bing, (2011) reported statistics from a survey by the Society for Human

Resource Management (SHRM, 2008), as follows: in 2006, only 21% of organisations had used

social networking sites as a Human Resources tool, by 2008 this rose to 44%, reflecting rapid

rates of increase. Additionally, 34% of organisations currently use SNSs to recruit or contact

potential applicants, and 19% plan to in the future. Use of these sites for screening applicants is

also growing as reported in (SHRM, 2008), 13% use social networking sites for screening

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applicants and 18% plan to in the future. A research opportunity is promoted from these

statistics, that is, to understand the success rate for organisations using SNSs for recruiting

between 2006 and 2014,success as in the quality of candidates selected, in terms of skills,

experience, organisational fit and tenure.

Online Identity Management

One of the key themes presented in a study, by O’Carroll (2007) on how Rangatahi Māori

(young Māori) use SNSs in general, are concepts of ‘representations and perceptions’, referring

to self-representation and identity negotiation when constructing an online identity using SNSs.

O’Carroll, (2007) explains that several studies indicate that what young people are doing online

is very close to what they do offline and in doing so, blurring and obscuring the line between

online and offline behaviour (Boyd, 2006; Hine, 2000).

Findings from this study by O’Carroll, (2007) suggests that generally, participants worked

towards presenting themselves in a way that they would like to be perceived, moreover, young

women in the study invested considerable thought and time into how they might present

themselves online. More male participants showed concern of the possible impacts the online

profile might have on their chances of being employed, and there was a consciousness amongst

all rangatahi of the consequences of what they post online with regards to future employment.

This study by O’Carroll, (2007) offers valuable insights on the perspectives and experiences of

rangatahi on the use of SNS, and therefore provides a useful reference for this current study. A

recommendation for further research is on Māori identity construction and management on

social networking websites. O’Carroll (2007) explains that existing research on Māori identity

covers broad discussions around identity articulation through spoken language, participation in

community groups and issues that impact on identity, however, virtual spaces where identity

might be formed are not looked at in these studies.

Strehlke, (2010) examined 14 web-based articles that consider the risks and opportunities of

SNSs from a job search perspective. Several articles portrayed a problem of conflict of self

presentation in relation to an individual’s personal and professional lives. For example (Doyle,

n.d.) suggests, that SNSs present a “dilemma for those who want to keep their personal life

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separate from their work life”, another author cites (Athavaley, 2007), stating that we are

moving towards a day and age where what we do in the real world and what we do online are

melding. A key theme in a study by Hooley, (2012), on how the internet changed career, is the

importance of seeing the online environment as an embedded part of life and career. Strehlke,

(2010) also suggests that a person’s online presence is an integral part of their life.

The terms used in the above studies to describe online identity management include notions of

“melding” by (Strehlke, 2010), “blending” by (Hooley, 2012), and (O’Carroll, 2007) used the

word ‘blurring’ referring to the blurring of online and offline spaces. These notions raise

questions on how Career Practitioners (CPs) might assist clients to manage a personal and

professional online identity. As Strehlke, (2010) suggests, CP’s can help client’s to explore

whether changes to his or her online profile(s) are needed during his or her job search.

Social Capital

Ellison et. al. (2007) studied the relationship between the use of Facebook and the formation

and maintenance of social capital, involving 286 undergraduate students. Social capital as cited

by Ellison et. al. (2007, p. 1145) “broadly refers to the resources accumulated through the

relationships among people (Coleman, 1988)”, furthermore, the resources from these

relationships can differ according to the type and purpose of the relationships.

Three types of social capital are referred to by Ellison et. al. (2007) in quoting (Putnam, 2000);

bonding, bridging and maintained, as briefly described below:

1. Bridging social capital: “...what network researchers refer to as ‘weak ties’, which are

loose connections between individuals who may provide useful information or new

perspectives for one another but typically not emotional support.” (Putnam, 2000, p.

1146)

2. Bonding social capital: “...reflects strong ties with family and close friends, who might

be in a position to provide emotional support or access to scarce resources.” (Putnam,

2000, p. 1147)

3. Maintained social capital: “...speaks to the ability to maintain valuable connections as

one progresses through life changes, and whether online network tools enable

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individuals to keep in touch with a social network after physically disconnecting from

it.” (Ellison, et. al., 2007, p. 1147).

Considering social capital from these three perspectives provides a framework of which to

view and assess the type and quality of one’s social networks. This can be done to strategise

ways that these types of social capital might support one’s job search and career development

overall.

On the first dimension ‘bridging social capital’, (Ellison et al., 2007), found that certain activities

on Facebook helped students to build and maintain bridging social capital and also that this

type of social capital is suited to social networking applications because it enables users to

maintain such ties cheaply and easily. Also, worth noting is the interaction between bridging

social capital and subjective well-being measures in this study. According to Ellison, et. al.

(2007), for less intense Facebook users, students who reported low satisfaction with university

life also reported having much lower bridging social capital than those who used Facebook

more intensely. As stated by Ellison, et. al. (2007), “because bridging social capital provides

benefits such as increased information and opportunities, we suspect that participants who use

Facebook in this way are able to get more out of their college experience. (p. 1163)”

As found by Ellison, et. al. (2007), the second dimension of ‘bonding social capital’ was

predicted by high self-esteem, satisfaction with university life, and intense Facebook use.

However, Facebook appears to be much less useful for maintaining or creating bonding social

capital as indicated in this study. An explanation of this as provided by Ellison, et.al. (2007) is

the fact that Facebook can lower barriers to participation and therefore may encourage the

formation of weak ties but not necessarily create the close kinds of relationships that are

associated with bonding social capital, however, it is important to note that this research also

identified a strong coefficient for Facebook intensity which suggests that Facebook use is

important for bonding social capital as well.

Maintained social capital addressed students’ ability to stay connected with members of a

previously inhabited community. As explained by Ellison et. al. (2007), the study sought to

explore whether online network tools enabled individuals to keep in touch with a social

network after physically disconnecting from it. The results of this study suggest that students

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view the primary audience for their profile to be people with whom they share an offline

connection with, this is also evident in responses to items about how students use

Facebook.

As cited by (Strehlke, 2010), Donath and Boyd (2004) argued that computer technology can

support the expansion of a user’s weak tie network, creating new access to information and

resources. This is indeed true, as exampled in the use of LinkedIn; by profiling one’s areas of

expertise in main headlines and using key industry words in the skills section, for example. In

doing so, professional networks are easily formed through ‘weak ties’. People who take an

interest in you, send out invites to connect.

Māori Perspectives on the Use of SNSs

An article by Lemon, (2001) explores the transitional process of Māori communication systems

from the traditional practice of oral communications to written processes, and into what

(Lemon, 2001) terms ‘new media’ referring to technological and online systems for knowledge

sharing and networking. Traditional conceptions of Māori knowledge by tracing stories and

legends that epitomise a Māori worldview are presented in this study by (Lemon, 2001), thus,

providing an explorative approach to understanding the impact of ‘new media on Māori . It was

pleasing to find notions of career emerging in the stories and legends shared by Lemon (2001),

such as with Tane and his quest for knowledge; Māori knowledge or learning is perceived as a

difficult and dangerous for Tane, and the need for resilience is emphasised in this; the search

for knowledge was a lifelong process, and Māori beliefs around the sacred nature of learning is

also apparent.

Three frameworks are used by Lemon, (2001), as tools to assess the impact of ‘new media’ on

Māori : networking, guardianship and self determination.

Networking or whakawhanaungatanga as discussed by Lemon (2001) is a traditional and

contemporary strength for Māori , moreover, the building of relationships and expertise or

know how, as Lemon, (2001) puts it, is an essential skill in the knowledge economy.

Guardianship is a central philosophy that is critically important to Māori according to

Lemon, (2001), and as a framework for this study, refers specifically to knowledge sharing

and ensuring misunderstandings or cultural misappropriation is avoided.

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Self determination as the third framework relates to a strong emphasis on overseeing the

accuracy and appropriateness of cultural transmission of knowledge and responsibly

sharing and managing information.

An overall conclusion of this study as presented by (Lemon, 2001) suggests that “Māori culture

has strong cultural bases that provide a framework for operating efficiently and successfully

within the area of ‘new media’ (p. 2).” Additionally, huge growth potential with the continued

emphasis by Māori on networking or whakawhanaungatanga, as emphasised by Lemon,

(2001), “we will move from te wheiao, (a transitional state) to Te Ao Marama, or the World of

Light (p. 16).”

The study by (O’Carroll, 2007) looked at how young rangatahi are using SNSs for maintaining

networks, the wellbeing benefits and capability that whanau are equipped with for staying

connected with whanau living away from homelands and vise versa. O’Carroll (2007) uses a

framework that encompasses kaupapa Māori principles, using distinct Māori cultural practices

and a Māori worldview as referenced in (Bishop, 1995; Cram, 19912; Moewaka Barnes, 2008;

G. H. Smith, 1997; L. T. Smith, 1999). In addition, the researchers upbringing and tribal

affiliations to acknowledge the unique contributions of the researcher in making meaning of

the research data. Māori language and protocols are also used to holistically define Māori

concepts.

Twelve focus groups were utilised to capture co-constructed dialogue from participants

regarding their experiences, attitudes and understanding of SNSs in the study by (O’Carroll,

2007). The focus groups were made up of mutual friends (54 rangatahi), aged 18 to 25, from

both rural and urban areas of the North Island, Aotearoa, New Zealand. They included 19 male

and 35 female participants.

A thematic analysis was employed to analyse the data and highlighted three major themes:

‘representations and perceptions’ referring to self-representation and identity negotiation

within SNSs, and the impacts of constructing online identity; ‘managing offline and online

relationships’, in particular how relationship management online will affect the offline

relationship (or vice versa); and ‘access to information and people’ highlighting rapid access,

constant connectivity and flow of information sharing.

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Use of Social Media for Human Resources (HR)

According to the Kelly survey (Kelly, 2011, p. 2), “25% of New Zealand men and 22% of women

are worried that material from their social networking sites could adversely impact their

careers”, additionally, in order to prevent career problems, 30% of women and 28% of men,

deliberately censor and edit their personal social network content. As discussed in the (Kelly,

2011) report, SNSs are increasingly becoming an important tool for employers seeking to find

the right people for their organisation.

A study by (Davison, Maraist & Bing, 2011), discusses issues associated with using SNSs for

recruiting, staffing/selection, and discipline/termination. According to (Davison et. al. 2011),

the use of SNSs such as Facebook, MySpace, LinkedIn, and Twitter for recruiting, hiring, or

terminating individuals is relatively new, however, the use for these purposes is clearly growing

while research on these practices is lacking. As stated by Davison et. al. (2011), “these sites can

be valuable ‘‘friends’’ for HR, but also have the potential to be dangerous ‘‘foes’’ if used

improperly. (p. 154).” Statistics presented in this study clearly indicate a growing interest on

the part of management and HR in using SNSs for various HR purposes.

(Strehlke, 2010) asserts that SNSs have the potential to increase the visibility of job seekers,

and that this visibility creates new career challenges, because employers are using SNSs to

research candidates as part of the hiring process. Employers are reportedly using SNSs to

recruit and evaluate candidates. As (Strehlke, 2010) explains, even if individuals choose not to

use SNSs for career-related purposes, they may discover that their personal content available

on the web, can possibly lead to new employment or lost opportunities because of the

employer’s use.

In the study by Davison et. al. (2011) a useful chart on current and potential uses of SNSs in HR

decision making and the current state of research with further recommendations is provided.

Current uses of SNS for recruiting as presented by Davison et al. (2011) include, applicants

researching organisations by following company Facebook pages and tweets, and locating job

postings by organisations on SNSs. With regards to screening and selection, HR professionals

searching social networking sites to gather information about applicants, screen out

individuals, or develop targeted interview questions. On using SNSs for disciplinary action and

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termination, Davison et al. (2011), refer to organisations policies on the use of SNSs by

employees and termination of employees who do not adhere to those policies.

With reference to the current state of research (Davison et. al. 2001) advise that there is almost

no empirical research on the use of SNSs for recruiting by HR other than (DeKay, 2009) study

that found only a small percentage of LinkedIn members were passive job seekers. They also

found that there is limited research on the use of SNSs for ‘screening and selection’ and almost

no research on disciplinary action and termination other than (Balione et al. 2009) on students

neutrality about employers reviewing their SNSs profiles, and (Spanierman & Hughes, 2008), on

courts upholding the firing of employees for inappropriate postings on the Internet.

Strategies for Career Development Professionals.

A study by (Strehlke, 2010) examines the risks and opportunities of SNSs from a career

development perspective. The goal of this research was to identify strategies that practitioners

can integrate into his or her counselling process or assessment framework in order to help

clients examine the effects of SNS on their job search activities. According to Strehlke, (2010),

career practitioners must update their knowledge and approach to networking as a job search

strategy due to the emergence of SNSs and their increasing popularity with users. As cited by

(Strehlke, 2010, p. 60), Patton (2002) observed that career practitioners face the demands of

an “increasingly complex role” such as developing technological knowledge in career practice.

The approach taken in this study by Strehlke, (2010) was to analyse 14 web-based articles

concerning the career influence of SNSs. Articles from popular career websites were analysed

i.e. (About, CareerBuilder, Career Journal, College Grad, Quintessential Careers, Workopolis,

and Yahoo Jobs), in addition news articles featured in (Advertising Age, The New York Times,

The Vancouver Sun, and The Wall Street Journal. It is noted by Strehlke, (2010) that these

articles inform on current understandings of SNSs and present mainstream career advice.

Through the coding process, Strehlke, (2010) identified three concepts for discussion: 1. user

visibility, 2. self-presentation, and 3. network connections.

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Strategies recommended for career practitioners based on the three core concepts identified

by Strehlke, (2010) i.e. user visibility, self-presentation, and network connections, in brief, are

as follows:

User Visibility – Career Practitioners (CP) need to understand how SNSs blur boundaries

between public and private. CP’s can generate conversations regarding the use of SNSs

as part of the job search assessment and support process. According to (Strehlke, 2010),

SNS users take for granted that their information is viewed only by close contacts and

that the site is a safe space for interaction.

Self Presentation –Recommendations for CP’s include discussing self-presentation with

clients and identifying strategies to best manage online images during the job search

process, also discussing privacy settings and designing a strategy to professionalise

one’s profile.

Network Connections – Overall from the analysis of the 14 articles, the structure or

composition of a user’s networks was not considered, and yet, from a career

development perspective, the question according to Strehlke, (2010) is whether the

user’s connections are useful for job search i.e. the quality of one’s network.

According to (Strehlke, 2010, p. 45), (Weddle, 2006), wrote that networking should take place

“where your effort is most likely to connect you with people you have knowledge of or access

to genuine employment opportunities.”

Hooley, (2012) discusses the skills and knowledge that people need to pursue their careers

effectively using the internet and in doing so the concept of digital career literacy is framed into

“The Seven C’s of digital career literacy”, that is, the skills and attributes of digital career

literacy; by description, is broadly described as encompassing technical, cultural, social and

presentational abilities, developed in the context of a career. The Seven C’s present a new set

of learning areas, which according to Hooley, (2012, p. 9), “careers workers need to both

master and be able to support the development of in others.”

Many career practitioners already integrate similar job search strategies in a traditional offline

environment, such as reconnecting with previous contacts, taking a direct approach and cold

calling. Using SNSs as a job search strategy is therefore an area that career practitioners can

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help clients to adapt typical job search behaviours to strategies employing social networking

websites.

Conclusion

The use of social networking websites (SNSs) as a tool for job search and career development is

a strategy that is promoted internationally and also notably in New Zealand. However, what

does the academic literature and studies tell us, in particular, in the New Zealand context, and

the uptake, experience and perspectives of Māori university students. A review of the above

studies was undertaken to explore these questions, in addition, to identify practical strategies

to support the work of career professionals, and identity gaps in current research.

Social networking sites as a job search and career development tool is a fairly new subject in

the careers field, and therefore many opportunities exist for further studies. However, with

relevance to this current study, recommendations for further research include an exploration

of the influences on one’s adoption or rejection of SNSs as a job search strategy, further studies

on Māori identity construction and management online, and research focused on identifying

the success rate for organisations using SNSs for recruiting. Furthermore, adding to the study

by (Hooley, 2012), specifically on how to effectively develop a career in the online context, with

a key goal of providing practical strategies for career practitioners and recommendations for

up-skilling.

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METHODOLOGY

Research approach

Qualitative research is applicable for this study which explores the perspectives of Māori

university students on the use of SNSs for job search and career development. Cultural

considerations are also integral to this study with the application of both Māori and

mainstream research ethics and methods. According to Troyka & Hesse, (2010), “the social

sciences developed qualitative research because those fields are concerned with studying

people within larger social systems and cultures (p. 4).”

An exploratory case study is the mainstream approach taken for this study. Yin, (1994)

describes a case study as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon

within its real-life context (p. 13).” Zucker, (2009) suggests a three stage process: 1.) describing

experience, 2.) describing meaning and 3.) focusing on analysis. In following the three stage

process according to Zucker, (2009), to describe experience, informal interviews were carried

out, to describe meaning by integrating social and situational influences, as well as macro

findings, and focusing on analysis by noting patterns, clustering, seeing plausibility, partitioning

variables, seeing relationships more abstractly and assembling a coherent understanding of

data.

As previously stated the integration of Māori research methods are also applicable to this

study. As cited by Davidson and Tolich, (2003), appropriate methods for Māori research

encompass: a Māori viewpoint and distinctively Māori way of organising knowledge (Durie,

1998). Durie, (1996), and Mead, (1997), explain that this is achieved by encapsulating Māori

ways of knowing as demonstrated in Māori genealogies (whakapapa), the nature of

Mātauranga Māori (Māori knowledge) and Māori centred research. Durie, (1996) asserts that

“Māori centred research deliberately places Māori people and Māori experience at the centre

of the research activity (p. 2).” Ideally, as Durie, (1996) further recommends, research on Māori

by Māori for the obvious reason that a Māori researcher in the best case scenario would bring

Māori knowledge to the project. It is worth noting, therefore, at this point, that I am of Māori

descent on my father’s side, affiliating closely with Nga Puhi and Ngati Kahungungu Iwi. I was

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brought up in a large Māori family who held close to a Māori worldview despite the loss of the

language in my generation.

Data collection

Eight Māori students from the University of Waikato were invited to take part in this study

with the criteria including: (1) Māori , (2) aged 18-29, and (3) engaged in undergraduate or post

graduate study from the chosen university. The limited sample size is due to time and cost

restrictions, as well as, the length and requirements of the essay assignment. Data was

gathered by carrying out semi-structured, informal interviews with each person individually.

These interviews were 35 to 45 minutes long and were audio recorded with the permission of

the students being interviewed. On completion of interviews audio recordings were transcribed

word for word. A questionnaire was developed in order to guide the semi-structured

interviews, which I also defined as ‘conversations’ when introducing the interview format to

each participant. As outlined by Patton, (1980), the informal conversational interview relies on

spontaneous generation of questions and conversations, in a natural, unfolding dialogue

between the researcher and interviewee. I clarified and rephrased questions as needed, to get

the most out of the conversations with students. Impressions through observation in carrying

out the interviews and transcribing recordings were also noted.

Participants are identified as P-1 through to P-8 in the charts.

Socio-demographic profile of participants *Note: All participants in this study are female and have experience in employment.

Iwi Affiliation Age (Years)

Gender (M or F)

Employment Experience

Te Reo Maori

P1 Ngati Toa, Tainui 23 F yes yes

P2 Ngati Kahungungu ki (Wairoa), Ngati Pakeha 21 F yes no

P3 Ngati Kauwhata, Ngati Raukawa,

Ngaiterangi

19 F yes no

P4 Ngati Pourou 19 F yes basics

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Iwi Affiliation Age (Years)

Gender (M or F)

Employment Experience

Te Reo Maori

P5 Nga Puhi, Te Rarawa 22 F yes yes

P6 Ngai Tuhoe, Ngati Tuwharetoa 19 F yes basics

P7 Ngati Maniapoto, Nga Puhi, Ngati Pakeha 19 F yes some

P8 Ngai terangi 21 F yes yes

Study areas and progress of participants

Study Programme Completion (Final Year)

P1 Masters in Political Science, majoring in Public Policy 2014

P2 Bachelor of Science, double major in Biology & Environmental Science 2014

P3 Bachelor of Teaching (Primary) 2015

P4 Bachelor of Social Science, majoring in psychology 2015

P5 Bachelor of Management Studies & Bachelor of Arts (Conjoint), majoring in International Management, Languages & Culture

2014

P6 Bachelor of Science, double major in animal behaviour and biological sciences. 2015

P7 Bachelor of Arts & Social Science (Conjoint), double major in philosophy and psychology

2015

P8 Bachelor of Social Sciences, double major in organisational psychology and HR management

2014

To encourage a conversational format, open-ended questions were asked to allow the

respondent to answer without presented or implied choices. However, important to note, all

participants were aware of the core subject being studied beforehand, even so, participants

were not aware of the questions that would be posed. Introductory questions were first asked

in the interviews in order to explore any cultural, familial or situational factors that may arise

from participants’ views, followed by specific questions associated to the core subject of

research. Starting off with introductory questions also allowed for a warm up, moreover, the

opportunity to establish a relationship and connection or common ground (whanaungatanga)

with the students I interviewed. Whanaungatanga is an important Māori value when meeting

someone for the first time.

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Introductory questions:

Where are you from?

What main Iwi do you affiliate with?

What ways do you typically stay in contact with whanau?

What programme of study are you enrolled in? What is your major?

When do you expect to complete your study?

Questions that merge into the main subject area:

What areas of work or jobs do you hope to move into once you graduate?

How will you go about finding a job in your career field of interest?

Who do you seek help from when it comes to finding a job or advancing your career?

What steps or advice would they give you?

How have you secured jobs in the past? If currently employed, how did you secure your current position?

What other ways would you typically go about finding a job?

Subject specific questions:

What social networking sites or social media (if any) are you familiar with or have used in the past?

What do you use or have you used social media for?

On a daily basis, generally how much time would you spend on social media sites; how many hours a day is typical of your use?

What would you say is your skill level for using social media (no skill, low skill, average, above average or advanced skills)?

What is your knowledge of the use of social media to find a job, for professional networking or for career advancement? With this being a complex and 3 pronged question. I gave examples of each dimension in order to back up the meaning of the question at each level.

What do you think of the idea of using social media to find a job or for career advancement?

How do you think social media might support the process of job seeking or career advancement?

Which social media contacts would be most useful in connecting you to employers in your field? Why?

What do you think prevents you or your peers from using social media for JS or CA?

What do you think might be the perspectives of your peers on this subject?

If you were to seek out tips and advice on the subject of using social media for job search or career advancement, what would you personally like to know?

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DATA ANALYSIS

The interviews provided the majority of the data and I was the sole researcher and collector of

information. In applying a case study approach, all interviews were transcribed word for word

and then analysed to identify word frequencies and any dominant themes. Information was

then systematically organised and charted. All data was considered in view of the questions

asked in the interviews. As explained by Hancock & Algozzine, (2006), “Each new piece of

information needs to be examined in light of these fundamental questions, (p. 56).” As

previously mentioned, participants are identified as P-1 through to P-8 in the charts, and

impressions through observation in carrying out the interviews and transcribing recordings

were also noted.

An example of the case study process is presented in Table 1 (below) outlining participant

responses to the question: How will you go about seeking a job or opportunities in your field

of interest once you graduate? It’s important to note that the interviews were informal and

conversational and due to the extensive collection of data, a selection of statements from

each participant was chosen to reflect the main themes evident in all 8 responses. As

presented in the chart below, what is clearly evident is the importance of whanaungatanga

(relationships and one’s connections), extracurricular activities and the support provided by

the university Māori mentors.

Table 1 – Identifying Initial Themes

Question Posed: How will you go about seeking a job or opportunities in your field of interest once you graduate?

Initial Themes Participant Responses

Maori Mentors P1 - Maori mentors use face book and emails, people (employers/recruiters) tell them and they post it up.”

P2 - “Our Maori support group post scholarships, job opportunities and workshops.”

P4 - “Te Aka Matua, have a lot of career advisors there and they are really good.”

P5 - “....and seek help from Maori mentors.”

P7 - “(person’s name), Māori student mentor, he’s really helpful even when applying for scholarships and things.”

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P8 - “Probably my first point of call would be Te Aka Matua, they helped me so much so far, they’re fantastic.”

Initial Themes Participant Responses

Whanaungatanga (Connections)

P1 - “I have an aunty who was an MP..., (aunty says) oh yep, just come up (P1) and do some .. stuff”

P2 - “I know some people in my whanau that might be able to help me out.”

P3 - “You could ... just talk to other graduate teachers and ask them where they go and what they do.”

P4 - “I know a lot of people, oh I need a job, here you go then, just go and apply for this a couple of jobs back home.”

P5 - “Only going to apply for maybe 2 graduate positions in NZ via Mainfreight and Fonterra. I have friends that work at Fonterra and Mainfreight”

P 6 - “I can pursue people I know in the industry.”

P7 - “I’d also probably talk to my friends in high places, I’ve got a lot of contacts who are already drug and alcohol counsellors.

P8 - “I have a couple of people overseas that could possibly lead me to these positions.

Networking through Extracurricular Activities

P2 - “There’s this group called; um it’s like an Australian conservation group, and I would become a member, there might be a social way of getting to know people and networking and stuff. ”

P5 - “I’ve done a lot of extracurricular things, like Rotary, that’s who I went on my exchange with... I know people from there and people from the organisation I was in at uni.”

P6 - “I was hoping to do some volunteering ... I was hoping that maybe through post graduate I can get those connections....” “I went to a biodiversity day a couple of weeks back ....I got details and contacts.”

P7 - “My friend I was talking to last night said I should volunteer and slot myself into the atmosphere.”

P8 - “I’m joined with the HR association for Waikato University, there’s meetings we can attend to meet somebody or occasionally they post jobs.”

Viewing the data from a macro and Māori worldview is also pertinent to this study on Māori

perspectives. According to (Durie, 2005), “essentially, ‘research at the interface’ aims to

harness the energy from two systems of understanding in order to create new knowledge that

can be used to advance understanding in two worlds (p. 306).”

(Mead, 1996; Rangahau, n.d.) present five fundamental principles of kaupapa Māori research:

principles of (1) whakapapa, (2) te reo, (3) tikanga Māori , (4) rangatiratanga, and (5) whanau.

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Each of these principles has wide ranging, historic and whole systems of beliefs and meanings

that go beyond the scope of this paper, however, with reference to and in the context of

kaupapa Māori research, each principle is briefly defined, by referencing (Mead, 1996).

1. Whakapapa – The concept of whakapapa embraces much of how we see ourselves in

relation to everything else. This relates to participants of a study and the researcher.

2. Tikanga Māori – Importance of tikanga is not taken for granted by Māori researchers

and the principle of tapu in respecting people who share their knowledge applies.

3. Te Reo – Māori world views are embedded in the language; even when English is used,

connections and expressions in Te Reo Māori make a lot more sense.

4. Rangatiratanga – Addressing critical questions about the research such as what the

research is about, who is the research for, what difference will it make, who will carry

out the research.

5. Whanau – This principle is generally regarded as an organisational principle; a way of

working collaboratively with others and a way of connecting with communities and

maintaining positive relationships when managing a research project.

These Māori-research principles as presented by (Mead, 2006), provided guidance for

facilitating this project through all phases; from developing the research idea through to

presenting the findings, also in gaining approval from AUT Ethics Committee(AUTEC), and

garnering advice and support from personnel at the University of Waikato. A whanau approach

was taken in seeking guidance, advice and support from all those involved with the project

including university personnel, these being, the career centre manager, Māori mentors and

social media consultants. Applicable to the principle of Rangatiratanga is how the documents

for this research project were developed and disseminated. A ‘Summary of the Research

Project’, ‘Participant Information Sheet’, and ‘Consent Form’ were disseminated to the

Research Supervisor, AUTEC, Māori students and university personnel. These documents

clearly addressed critical and ethical questions about the research project.

*Refer to Appendix 1 and 2 for a copy of the Participant Information Sheet and Consent Form.

Principles of whakapapa and tikanga were demonstrated in all communications and meetings,

for example, whakawhanaungatanga in making connections through conversations, sharing Iwi

affiliations (whakapapa) and common ground stories, manaakitanga and respect for those

sharing through active-listening, expressions of appreciation verbally and in gifting koha. With

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reference to Te Reo, as the researcher, I speak Te Reo at an elementary level only, however,

interpretations and understanding of the language and Māori knowledge systems is strongly

inherent through my upbringing and exposure to the world of Māori as part of a large whanau,

hapu and Iwi, and in organising and attending marae and community events.

Durie, (1998), made three assumptions about appropriate methodologies for Māori research,

first, a Māori view point and a distinctively Māori way of organising knowledge, as exampled

in the idea of whakapapa. According to Metge, 1995, “one of the functions of whakapapa is to

funnel the relation between past, present and future, and tie it together. (p. 90).” Second is the

nature of Mātauranga Māori and its relationship to other bodies and systems of knowledge

that are quite distinct (Durie, 1998), third, is Māori -centred research that places Māori people

and Māori experience at the centre of the research activity (Durie, 1996), in brief, research

that contributes to Māori development.

On the subject of a Māori psychology, (Durie, 2002) explains that “the clues to meaning are

found less in an examination of component parts and more in imagery, higher order

comparisons, and long memories.” (p.23). The author further explains this as a centrifugal

orientation or focus that moves away from micro dimensions to macro levels, rather than

centripetal, an inward or micro focus. A dynamic interaction of four key categories or Maori

values were identified in the case study process of making meaning from a macro perspective,

and in applying a Māori understanding in viewing the data.

Figure 1 - Maori Perspectives

Whanaungatanga

Māramatanga

Mōhiotanga Mātauranga

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These Māori concepts are defined briefly in this section and further explained in the data

findings section.

1. Whanaungatanga relates to kinship links as well as the wide-ranging connections in a

person being part of a larger whole or wider set of acquaintances that provide support. As

defined by (Te Pou, n.d.), “whanaungatanga is kinship in its broadest sense and concerns

itself with the process of establishing and maintaining links and relationships. (p.6)”

2. Mōhiotanga as stated by (Royal, 2005, p.5), is “when a person understands both in the

mind and in the spirit, then it is said that, that person truly ‘knows’ (mōhio). Mōhiotanga is

also tikanga as exampled by (Rangatahi Tu Rangatira, n.d.) as a principle of practice that

promotes the building up of knowledge and acknowledges how (mōhio) influences new

learning.

3. Mātauranga Māori described in its most simplistic form according to Mead, (2012), refers

to Māori knowledge complete with its culturally embedded values and attitude and is

made up of traditional knowledge and new knowledge, some of which we have added as a

result of new discoveries, some we have borrowed outright from western knowledge, and

from our experiences of living with exponents of other belief and knowledge systems.

4. Māramatanga, as described by Smith, (2012), means enlightenment in discovering the

authentic self, transcending cultural ties and participating effectively on a universal

perspective. According to Mai Review, (2009), “mātauranga is knowledge, Mōhiotanga is

understanding and māramatanga is enlightenment (p. 6).”

The importance of relationships, concepts associated to social learning and lifelong learning,

the influences of one’s beliefs and actions, cultural knowledge and values, and the idea of

discovering and adopting new ideas were clearly apparent in viewing the data holistically.

Table 2, provides an overview of initial themes and macro meanings identified in the case study

process, and Māori understandings of the data.

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Table 2 – Process of Collating Data

Initial themes Macro Perspectives Māori Worldview

manners, or etiquette for professional use of social media

how formal you need to be compared with casual use of social media

would want to keep work separate to pleasure

dividing line between the online personal and professional self

professional guys go hard on linkedin, some take a casual approach

linkedin is a professional way to connect whereas facebook is more social and casual.

Melding of Online Personal & Professional Identity

Four interrelated Maori ways of understanding were identified, as presented in Figure 1. WHANAUNGATANGA Macro view of kinship links as well as the wide-ranging connections in a person being part of a larger whole (Smith & Reid, 2000). MŌHIOTANGA Knowing in one’s mind and heart through learning experiences (what one already knows) brings light to new phases of learning (Royal, 2005). MĀTAURANGA MĀORI Acknowledging the presence of Māori knowledge and one’s potential to accept and deal with new ideas. (MOE, 2010). MĀRAMATANGA Discovering the authentic self, transcending cultural ties and participating on a universal viewpoint (MOJ, n.d.).

networking and building social capital (offline)

using one’s existing connections (offline) gaining industry exposure (offline) word of mouth (offline) taking a direct approach (offline) accessing news feeds via email and

facebook as posted by māori mentors (online)

using (online) vacancy sites typical of graduates (grad connections & student job search) and some specialist sites.

faculty and school as a potential employer

Job Seeking Online & Offline

career confidence, assuredness, timing and readiness

support and influence of parents and whanau

exposure to industry and professional networks through extracurricular activities and employment

university professional networks, relationships and support systems

clubs and professional organisations providing networking opportunities

university culture, support systems and networking opportunities.

external networks accessed via employment and extracurricular activities

Career Readiness & Timing

age life space study progress/timing influence of parents importance of whanau, significant others,

friends and wider connections cultural needs, aspirations, values and

beliefs

Situational, Social & Cultural Influences

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DATA FINDINGS

Whanaungatanga – Connections and Social Networks

The concept of whanaungatanga is found to be a central phenomenon of this study. The

importance of relationships, connections, networking and support systems are consistently

referred to throughout the interviews with all Māori students who participated in this study.

This is not surprising however, when considering the introductory questions and conversations

on the subject of who students seek support from, inevitably prompts discussions that directly

relate to whanaungatanga. Additionally, the research topic ‘social media’ parallels principles of

whanaungatanga, such as participating in or being a part of an online community. However, in

light of the data findings in total, and the cultural context of this study, whanaungatanga from a

micro level and more offline than online (using social media) appears to be an important

strategy employed by Māori students to manage student life and job search, to develop

professional networks and advance one’s career, what’s more, from a macro and Māori

worldview, whanaungatanga is tikanga, conveying a Māori system of belief and way of

knowing, and a cultural value that is inherent in being Māori .

For example, when students were asked: how will you go about finding a job in your career

field, once you graduate?, responses included:

There’s this group called; it’s like an Australian conservation group, and I would become a member, it has other information of people who they work with, there might be a social way of getting to know people and networking and stuff. I know a lot of people I can turn to, careers people/mentors in psychology school they are really good, and my aunty who works in social services. I know a lot of people, oh I need a job, here you go then, just go and apply for this.

The following students talk about how they have secured jobs in the past.

What I’ve done through university, the Māori coordinator would send out regular emails, I look through and then that’s how I got an internship with Tainui; a little summer one. The other internship I got was through my dad he was working with Māori Health providers. I worked part time in early childhood, mums friend opened up the centre, I started as a cleaner and then as a reliever cause I love kids, and they give me work when I ask for it, and farm work. Farm work, early childhood and cafe through who I know, Taumaruni is a small town.

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Mōhiotanga – Current Knowledge

Mōhiotanga, can be defined as ‘internalised or embodied knowing’, as explained by (Royal,

2005), more explicitly, when a person understands both in the mind and in the spirit, then it is

said that, that person truly ‘knows’ (mōhio). As exampled by (Rangatahi Tu Rangatira, n.d.),

Mōhiotanga is also tikanga Māori ; a principle of practice that acknowledges the value of

building on one’s knowledge, that is to say, what a person already knows brings light to new

phases of learning.

Examples of Mōhiotanga are present in statements made about support systems within the

university and externally, also, statements related to whanangatanga, and references to

learning experiences and social learning.

In response to questions about exposure to the use of social media to find a job or to advance

your career? Some students responded:

I know for a fact my mum looks at facebook before she employs someone. So that is always in the back of my mind. Everyone uses it and if it gets enough likes or if it gets enough shares, like so many people can view it, because like when you put this one up, how would I know, somebody on my friends list liked it and it popped up on my news feed. LinkedIn yes definitely (would use it). I went to a career workshop and the guy that ran it wouldn’t stop going on about it. LinkedIn is a professional way to connect to real people, whereas facebook, its more social and casual.

When asked about job seeking once you graduate? Student responses included:

When I finish my thoughts are to throw CV out there and hope to see what comes back. I did some internships and got a little feel for it, so I’ll send CV’s back to those people and their friends. I went to a biodiversity day a couple of weeks back and there were a whole bunch of people that came and taught us and through that I got details and contacts and things.

When asked who do you seek help from when it comes to your career? Some students replied:

The Māori Mentor for the Faculty of Science, he’s posted scholarships, job opportunities and workshops he’s holding, things like that. You wouldn’t really know much of that stuff that’s happening if he didn’t post it up, especially scholarship ones, he keeps it updated. Probably my first point of call would be Te Aka Matua, they helped me so much so far, they’re fantastic. I’d also probably talk to my friends in high places, I’ve got a lot of contacts who are already drug and alcohol counsellors; that’s really helpful.

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Mātauranga Māori – Māori Knowledge

Mātauranga Māori in the context of this study recognises that the students who contributed

to this research bring with them Mātauranga Māori in varying degrees of competence.

Demographic and conversational findings from this study show knowledge of whakapapa,

tikanga and te reo Māori , and close ties with whanau. The idea of dual competencies, or the

merging of knowledge systems is also found in this study. As explained by Mead, (2012),

mātauranga Māori provides a way for Māori to view the world that reinforces positively on his

or her identity as Māori. (Royal, 2005) positions the revival of Mātauranga Māori in a larger

paradigm, one which looks to the wisdom of the past to inspire responses to the challenges of

the present and future, (p. 3)”.

Example statements of close ties to whanau:

I stay in contact with whanu via everything, facebook, skype, phone, email, text. I go to the mount to see my nani and all of them, I try to go as often as I can Nuclear whanau all in Paeroa..we commute when there is a visit to the marae I stay in close contact with whanau, at least once a week. Occasionally go over *East Coast, home+, but not as much as I’d like to. Stay in touch with some of them usually when there is a family event.

Examples statements that reflect the idea of dual competencies:

I do a lot of conservation work here as well, just experience, knowing different technologies and stuff, and methods of monitoring.

I’m interested in Māori development, if they just want research I can slip in there, Māori , Iwi, government or even private ones.

I know a lot of family want me to go and work in hospitals, mental health, helping with kids, family and stuff; always need more Māori psychologists.

When asked where are you from? No hea koe?, and What main Iwi do you affiliate with?

Students responded spontaneously, with confidence and without hesitating and demonstrated

comfort and knowledge in speaking about one’s whakapapa (heritage):

1. East Coast, Gisborne, Ngati Pourou 2. Nga Puhi and Te Rarewa, very far north. 3. I come from the East Coast, Ngai Te Rangi is my Iwi 4. Tuhoe on my mum’s side and on my dad’s side Ngati Tuwharetoa 5. Mum side Ngati Maniapoto, dad is Ngati pakeha. 6. Ngati Kauwhata, Ngat Raukawa-Whakatane, Ngai Te Rangi on my mum’s side. 7. Ngati Toa and Tainui 8. Ngati Kahungungu ki Wairoa

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Responses to the question: Do you speak Te Reo Maori?

P1 I was indeed brought up speaking Te Reo from both kohanga and whanau. Tikanga was an integral part of my upbringing and remains an integral part of my life.

P2 No, did not learn Te reo, grew up on farms

P3 My nanny would sing and sometimes speak to us in Maori but I have never been fluent.

P4 I was not brought up learning Te Reo but I understand the basics

P5 Spoke Te Reo Maori all through school, but loosing it a bit now.

P6 I was brought up with only basic knowledge of Maori, taught through school as well as whanau.

P7 I was brought up around the language and speak some, understand more

P8 I attended Kura Hauraki, did all things Maori at school, kapa haka, Te Reo. Maori was never my first language, learnt it from scratch.

Māramatanga - Understanding

According to Royal, (2005), marmatanga relates to degrees of understanding on a spectrum

where one end indicates no understanding and the other end illumination. This depicts the

quality or experience of understanding that takes place in the receiver of knowledge.

Māramatanga situated in the context of this research refers to the students degree of

understanding including his or her attitudes, perspectives and skills on the subject of the use of

SNSs, a fairly new approach, for job search and career development. In addition, findings from

the ‘case study’ process brought forth concepts of life stage/life space and career readiness in

terms of preparation and planning for career transitions, self understanding and opportunity

awareness.

When asked have you used or been exposed to social media for job search or career

development? Student responses included:

Not necessarily to find a job, no not really.

Yes, used social media to find information about courses etc.

I’m joined with the HR association at Waikato and this is on facebook.

I’m pretty sure that some employers do look at peoples facebook pages.

My good friend is a professional photographer and she uses facebook for that alot.

When asked what do you think about the idea of social media for professional use?, and what

do you think might be the perspectives of your peers? Student responses included:

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For my age group I think they are all at that stage where they are looking for jobs or study, and I think they would all benefit.

I think it’s an awesome idea, most of my life is completed through networking in person, so having it at my hands would be fantastic, it’s so easy.

It’s a good idea to use social media, but they don’t use it as much as they could, like LinkedIn, no information on profiles.

It’s a great idea, mostly everyone in the world is on social media. If you want to find employment or find an employer they are on there.

Although this study is qualitative in its approach, some quantitative data emerged from the conversations related to the personal use of social media by Māori students in this study, as presented in Figure 4.

CONCLUSIONS

This study sought to explore the perspectives of Māori university students on the use of social

networking sites (SNSs) for job search and career development. Using SNSs for this purpose is

promoted as being essential for the modern job seeker in the current knowledge and

technologically driven economy. Using SNSs for job search and career development is also

actively promoted on popular and renown blogs, in university career centres and professional

career development organisations.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Facebook

YouTube

Instagram

SnapChat

Pinterest

Twitter

Tumblr

Viber

Figure 4 - Social Media Apps for Personal Use

Number of Māori Students who Participated in the Study

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A literature review was carried out as part of this study and presents existing studies on this

subject of SNSs and supporting the theoretical framework of this research. Additionally,

practical strategies were suggested to support the work of career professionals, and gaps in

current research identified. Six themes were discussed in the literature review and included:

History of Social Media & Statistics, Online Identity Management, Social Capital, Kaupapa Māori

Perspectives on SNS use, HR Use of Social Media, and Strategies for Career Development

Professionals. Of particular interest in this review is the New Zealand context of the use of SNSs

for job search and career development, and the uptake, experience and perspectives of Māori

university students.

A broader and Māori worldview was also applied in analysing the data, and in doing so, four

main themes, or rather, Māori principles were identified, thus, creating a framework in which

to present the data findings. The first themes is Whanaugnatanga (Connections and Social

Network) which is a central phenomenon in this study that emphasises the importance of

relationships and social networks for Māori university students, and connections including

access to supports systems such as Māori Mentors at the university and other social networks

that support their job search and career development. As previously noted, the research topic

‘social media’ parallels principles of whanaungatanga, as well as introductory questions and

conversations on who students seek support from, inevitably prompted discussions that

directly relate to whanaungatanga. However, in light of the data findings in total

whanaungatanga from a micro and macro or Māori worldview is indeed a central and

important theme in this study.

The second theme is Mōhiotanga (Current Knowledge), what a person truly ‘knows’ (mōhio)

from past learning experiences for example, and also who one knows. As evidenced in this

study, the principle of ‘knowing’ or ‘Mōhiotanga ’ is important to Māori university students in

relation with job search and career development and also acknowledges the value of building

on one’s knowledge, that is to say, what a person already knows, brings light to new phases of

learning.

The third theme, Mātauranga Māori (Māori Knowledge) recognises that the students who

contributed to this research and the researcher brought with them Māori knowledge.

Additionally this principle relates to the idea of dual competencies or the merging of

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knowledge systems, and finding new ways of navigating one’s career. Mātauranga Māori , as in

the traditional cultural values, beliefs and understandings cannot be ignored in the whakapapa,

upbringing and traditions that Māori students and the researcher brought to this project.

The fourth theme, Māramatanga (Understanding), in the context of this study refers to the

students degree or levels of understanding encompassing attitudes, perspectives and skills on

the subject of the use of SNSs for job search and career development.

Although quantitative data was not deliberately sought, it was apparent in the data and

therefore presented, moreover, facts about participant use of SNSs for personal reasons.

Categories identified in the case study process, included concepts associated with actualising

the professional self online, job search behaviours, career readiness and the importance of

social networks and supports systems. Māori students clearly had concerns around etiquette

in terms of a professional profile on SNSs. Informal job search techniques such as social

networking (offline) and taking advantage of university support systems, as well as typical

formal job search of graduates such as using the website Graduate Connections. Career

readiness relates closely to the statements students made about preparing and planning for

the transition from study into the world of work. Super’s life stage theory came to mind, in

terms of the ‘timing’ for students to consider such preparations. Students in the final year of

study appeared more career ready and informed than those in the first or second year.

Increased exposure and opportunities to develop skills and knowledge for using SNSs for job

search and career development is a recommendation for university students, in accordance

with the findings of this study. This could be done in a practical group setting and preferably in

the final year of the student’s study period. For example, creating a LinkedIn profile, learning

techniques on that SNS to connect with potential employers, and to build and maintain one’s

professional network. Another, very simple activity is for students to find and ‘like’ ideal

employers’ Facebook pages. What this means, as with LinkedIn, everything the ideal employer

posts, including vacancies will appear in the news feeds of their personal Facebook pages.

Some respondents in this study were not aware that businesses actually have Facebook pages.

Interesting to note as presented in the data findings, student skills in the use of SNSs for

personal use are stated as being from average, above average to advanced, however for

professional use, from discussions, this appears to be below average to average.

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The phenomena of SNS’s for job search and career development and utility by Māori university

students have been explored in this research project and enhanced by the literature review.

Concepts of social capital, online identity management and the use of SNSs for HR purposes

have also been discussed. With the emergence of social networking sites and popularity with

users, the need for career development practitioners to stay abreast of this approach to job

search, professional networking and career development is also highlighted. As previously

stated, “career development practitioners understand that students need more than

educational credentials to successfully manage their life long career development, they also

need social networks or social capital (Hooley, 2011, p. 109).”

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Appendix Pages

Appendix One – Participant Pg. 40-41 Information Sheet Appendix Two – Consent Form Pg. 42

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APPENDIX ONE

Participant Information Sheet

Date Information Sheet Produced: 07 Feb 2014

Project Title

Exploring the perspectives of Māori university students on the use of Social Networking Sites (SNSs) for job search and career development. SNSs such as (Facebook, LinkedIn, Wordpress, YouTube, Tumblr, Pinterest and Twitter)

An Invitation

Kia ora my name is Tui Needham. I am a Māori Career Practitioner, and a student at AUT studying career development. The paper I am currently working on is a research project. My research interest is to understand the perspectives Māori university students have on the use of Social Networking Sites for job search and career advancement. I am also hoping that the results of this research will be useful in assisting career practitioners to better inform Māori with job seeking and career development, and assist Māori with their job seeking and career advancement efforts. It is also possible that this research will reveal insights and concerns that Māori university students might have towards job seeking and career development overall.

I’d like to invite you to participate in this study. I would value and appreciate your input and the time you give to do this. Participation in this research is voluntary and you may also withdraw at any time prior to the completion of data collection.

What is the purpose of this research? This research project is a requirement of my qualification as a student in the Masters of Career Development programme at AUT. As mentioned, it is also hoped that the results of this research will be useful to career practitioners and of value in helping Māori with their job seeking and career advancement efforts. It is also possible that this research will reveal insights and concerns that Māori university students might have towards job seeking and career development overall.

How was I identified and why am I being invited to participate in this research? The criteria set for participants for this research project includes: Māori students working towards a degree or post-graduate qualification. You have seen an announcement about my project at the University of Waikato Te Puna Tautoko or the Careers Office and have contacted me in order to participate.

What will happen in this research?

You will be asked to sign a Consent Form to participate in my project. We will then meet at mutually convenient time and place. This research will involve a face to face interview and will take 45 minutes to an hour. An open discussion will be facilitated by asking questions about your use of and opinions about the use of social media for job search and career advancement. Consent will be sought in advance to audio record these discussions. The recordings will be used to review, collate and write a report that will be submitted as part of a study assignment. You will not be named or identified in the report and in doing so, confidentiality of participants is maintained.

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What are the discomforts and risks? It is anticipated that no discomforts or risks will be experienced from the semi-informal interviews and questions asked.

How will these discomforts and risks be alleviated? Open-ended questions will be constructed in a way that avoids implying or suggesting right, wrong or embarrassing responses. The questions will be phrased in way that is respectful of participants’ thoughts and feelings.

What are the benefits? The benefits of this research include the researcher submitting a completed study assignment. It is also hoped that this study will help Career Practitioners to better assist Māori with job seeking and career development. Social Network Sites are being promoted as a way of employment seeking and advancing one’s career in the digital era we now live in.

How will my privacy be protected? The recordings of interviews will be password protected on the recording device and accessed only by the researcher. Once the research project is completed all recordings will be deleted. With the written report, participants will not be identified and in doing so, confidentiality is maintained.

What are the costs of participating in this research? It is anticipated that the interviews will take 45 minutes to an hour of your time.

What opportunity do I have to consider this invitation? A participant consent form will be provided and returned to the researcher within a week of receiving the form.

How do I agree to participate in this research? To agree to participate in this research simply complete a Consent Form provided via Te Puna Tautoko and Career Centre staff at the University of Waikato and return to the researcher via email or leave a paper copy left with Te Puna Tautoko or Career Centre staff and the researcher will pick those up at the end of the week.

Will I receive feedback on the results of this research? If you wish to receive a summary of the research please indicate this on the consent form and by providing an email address for this to be sent to.

What do I do if I have concerns about this research? Any concerns regarding the nature of this project should be notified in the first instance to the Project Supervisor, Dale Furbish, [email protected], 09 921 9999 ext 5557. Concerns regarding the conduct of the research should be notified to the Executive Secretary of AUTEC, Kate O’Connor, [email protected], 921 9999 ext 6038.

Whom do I contact for further information about this research? Researcher Contact Details: Tui Needham, [email protected], Project Supervisor Contact Details: Dale Furbish, [email protected], 09 921 9999 ext 5557.

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APPENDIX TWO

Consent Form

Project title: “Exploring the perspectives of Māori university students on the use of Social Networking Sites (SNSs) for job search and career development.” SNSs such as (Facebook, LinkedIn, Wordpress, YouTube, Tumblr, Pinterest and Twitter)

Project Supervisor: Dale Furbish

Researcher: Tui Needham

I have read and understood the information provided about this research project in the Information Sheet dated 07 Feb 2014

I have had an opportunity to ask questions and to have them answered.

I understand that notes will be taken during the interviews and that they will also be audio-taped and transcribed.

I understand that I may withdraw myself or any information that I have provided for this project at any time prior to completion of data collection, without being disadvantaged in any way.

If I withdraw, I understand that all relevant information including tapes and transcripts, or parts thereof, will be destroyed.

I agree to take part in this research.

I wish to receive a copy of the report from the research (please tick one): Yes No

Participant’s signature: .....................................................…………………………………………………………

Participant’s name: .....................................................…………………………………………………………

Participant’s contact details (Your contact details will only be used to confirm interview times/place. Also if you would like to receive a summary of the research, please include an email address):

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………..

Date:

Approved by the Auckland University of Technology Ethics Committee on 6 March 2014, AUTEC Reference number 14/37.

Note: The Participant should retain a copy of this form.