Uicn Tourism, Ecotourism Protected Areas - 1

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2. Tourism and the environment

The term environment can be defined as all the conditions, circumstances, and influences surrounding,and affecting the development of an organism or group of organisms. In this definition both biophysicaland socio-economic factors are included.

In the long term, tourism depends on the quality of the environment. Indeed, the quality of anenvironment, or some particular feature of it, is frequently the primary attraction for tourists. And today,tourists of all kinds are becoming more sensitive to polluted or environmentally degraded conditions attheir different travel destinations. Thus in some areas that until quite recently were very popular, tourismhas declined because of environmental problems. For example:

algal blooms in the Adriatic have made the water impenetrable and hence unattractive toswimmers

beaches have been closed in the UK as a result of radioactivity, and in Haiti due to sewage pollution

600 tourism lodges in Canada face closure since acid rain has led to a decline in salmon stocks

and the number of tourists seeking recreational fishing in Mexico City, air pollution levels have led to a drop in the number of international visitors.

But as these examples show, a decline in tourism is not always caused by tourism itself. Rather, it is the pattern of industrial growth, exploitation of natural resources and consumerism, in brief, the unsustainabledevelopment that characterizes contemporary Western civilization, that are to blame.

In fact, tourism may have positive effects on the environment. Since tourist operators have a vestedinterest in maintaining the environmental quality of tourist destinations they are becoming increasinglyinterested in collaborating with those who work to protect the environment. Income from tourism can alsoassist in the development and improvement of facilities, such as sanitation systems, for residents andtourists alike. The recent World Fair in Seville provided a good example of this. Expo-Seville, built

mainly as a world tourist attraction also provided an opportunity for the city and its inhabitants to carryout a sorely needed upgrade of public services. Seville is now assured of adequate public services until atleast the year 2025.

Nature-based tourism and ecotourism

Nature tourism denotes all tourism directly dependent on the use of natural resources in a relativelyundeveloped state, including scenery, topography, water features, vegetation and wildlife. Thus itincludes hunting, countryside motorbiking, and white-water rafting, even if the use of the naturalresources by the tourist is neither wise nor sustainable (Butler, 1992; Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1986; Healy,1992b). Like traditional tourism, it can be negatively influenced by various external factors. This accounts

for its instability as a source of income.

Nevertheless, nature-based tourism (which includes ecotourism), is a rapidly growing sector of thetourism economy. Its global value for 1988 has been estimated to have been as high as US$1 trillion(Filion et al ., 1992). So it has often proved to be a powerful incentive for conservation in many parts ofthe world.

But at the same time, uncontrolled mass tourism has and continues to contribute to the degradation ofmany areas of natural and cultural significance, entailing the loss of biological and cultural diversity, as

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well as of important sources of income. Clearly, what is needed is an environmentally responsibleapproach to tourism, or "sustainable tourism".

Sustainable tourism, as defined by Travis and Ceballos-Lascuráin, is tourism that is developed andmanaged in such a way that all tourism activity — which in some way focuses on a heritage resource (beit natural or cultural) — can continue indefinitely. In other words it does not detract from efforts to

maintain that resource in perpetuity (FNNPE, 1992). De Kadt also uses "sustainable tourism" as the broadest descriptor, employed to denote all types of tourism, whether based on natural or human-maderesources, that contribute to sustainable development (1990, cited by Healy, 1992b).

In recent years a specific category of nature-based tourism has developed along these lines. "Ecologicaltourism", or "ecotourism" as defined by IUCN's Ecotourism Programme is "environmentally responsibletravel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (andany accompanying cultural features — both past and present) that promotes conservation, has low visitorimpact, and provides for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local populations" (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1993a). The Ecotourism Society's definition is similar: "ecotourism is responsible travel tonatural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local people" (Blangy andWood, 1992). In both definitions, ecotourism denotes nature tourism with a normative element. A

response to the desire to permit access to areas of natural beauty, ecotourism's underlying premise is thatthe enjoyment of future generations should not be affected negatively by that of today's visitors.

Farrel and Runyan (1991) distinguish between nature tourism and ecotourism by describing the latter as"more exclusively purposeful and focused on the enhancement or maintenance of natural systems". Thuswe can distinguish between, for example, traditional tour operators and principled ecotourism operators.The former frequently show no commitment to conservation or natural area management, merely offeringclients an opportunity to experience exotic places and people before they change or disappear. Ecotourismoperators, on the other hand, have begun to form partnerships with protected area managers and local people, with the intention of contributing to the long-term protection of wildlands and local development,and in the hope of improving mutual understanding between residents and visitors (Wallace, 1992).

When Héctor Ceballos-Lascuráin coined the term "ecotourism" in 1983, it was not the only one beingused to describe the new form of nature travel that was developing (Butler, 1992). Scace et al. haveidentified 35 terms that "may possess links to ecotourism" (1991, cited by Butler, 1992). Among the best-known of these are: nature tourism, nature-based or nature-oriented tourism, wilderness tourism,adventure tourism, green tourism, alternative tourism, sustainable tourism, appropriate tourism, naturevacations, study tourism, scientific tourism, cultural tourism, low-impact tourism, agro-tourism, ruraltourism, and soft tourism. These terms share some general concepts (particularly in that they are analternative to mass consumptive tourism), but they are not synonymous. To assume that they are would beto make ecotourism a catch-all term to be applied indiscriminately to almost any activity linking tourismand nature (Farrell and Runyan, 1991, cited by Butler, 1992).

And as Norris (1992) points out, such activities cannot be equated with ecotourism unless they directly produce better protection. Thus, for example, although participants in wilderness or adventure travel maygain a deeper understanding of the natural places they visit, their appreciation does not necessarily helpthose areas, and so cannot be defined as ecotourism. Perhaps the best illustration is the Himalayas. Before1965, fewer than 10 000 tourists a year visited Nepal. But this number has since jumped to 250 000. Inthe two major nature sanctuaries of Annapurna and Sagarmatha, the local treeline has risen by severalhundred feet, as a result of local residents harvesting firewood to sell to trekkers and lodge operators.Ridges cloaked in rhododendron five years ago now are barren. Populations of goral, pheasant, and nagdeer have declined. Trails are littered. Thus, although visitors may have considered themselves to have











































been nature tourists, they were not ecotourists, since their visits ultimately degraded or destroyed naturalresources.

Another illustration of what ecotourism is not comes from the Khumbu area of Nepal. A surveyconducted there revealed that many Western visitors consider that tourism development had enhanced thematerial quality of life of the local communities, but had also resulted in loss of traditional employment

systems, acculturation, and social disruption (Robinson, 1992).

Thus ecotourism appears to have much in common with the concept of "alternative tourism" or"appropriate tourism" which has been discussed within the tourism industry for over a decade. Forinstance, it provides its greatest benefits (especially if applied at local level) through pursuit of awidespread but controlled "small is beautiful" philosophy.

However, De Kadt argues that policymakers should not simply distinguish between alternative tourism,which must meet high standards of social and environmental impact, and tourism in general, the negativeimpacts of which they might allow to continue. He contends that "rather than contrasting alternative and'mass' tourism, policy-makers concerned with tourism development should strive to make theconventional more sustainable". De Kadt suggests they take a cue from the more general literature on"alternative" development, which proposes styles of development for the entire economy and which tendto be more community-responsive, smaller in scale, and ecologically sustainable than traditional modes ofdevelopment (1990, cited by Healy, 1992b). As Kutay (1989) remarks, ecotourism can be seen as a modelof development in which natural areas are planned as part of the tourism economic base, and biologicalresources and ecological processes clearly linked to social and economic sectors.

Evidently, ecotourism is a broad term, open to complex interpretation. According to Ziffer (1989), ecotourism "has eluded firm definition because it...ambitiously attempts to describe an activity, set forth a philosophy and espouse a model of development...'Nature tourism' is grounded in the behaviour andmotivation of the individual [tourist] whereas 'ecotourism' is a more comprehensive concept which is based on a planned approach by a host country or region designed to achieve societal objectives beyond(but including) those of the individual." Ziffer goes on to say that the concept of ecotourism "establishestough standards for a program or destination to qualify as ecotourism. It may seem overly complex. Theneeds of conservation and development, however, are inherently complex and successful approaches willneed to be multi-faceted." Therefore, in this book, "nature tourism" and "nature-based tourism" are usedinterchangeably to denote tourism dependent on relatively undeveloped natural resources. "Ecotourism" isused to describe tourism only when an additional, normative characterisation is intended — tourism thathelps society achieve sustainable development (Healy, 1992b).

Evolution of ecotourism

The origins of nature travel are truly remote. We might say that Herodotus was one of the first naturetourists. His extensive travels included visits to the Black Sea, Egypt, southern Italy, Athens and the

Aegean Sea. Inferences drawn from his remarks show that he was deeply interested not only in history, but also in geography, the natural environment and ancient monuments (such as the pyramids of Egypt).Aristotle also practised nature tourism. After he failed to become master of the Academy followingPlato's death in 347 BC, he went to the island of Lesbos in the Aegean Sea where he spent his timestudying marine animals. Other notable precursors of ecotourism include Pytheas, Strabo and Pliny theElder, all of whom travelled, moved by a desire to see the natural and cultural environments of the worldin which they lived.






















In later times, Marco Polo, Ibn Batuta, Bernardino de Sahagún, Joseph de Acosta and Eusebio Kino haveleft us vivid accounts of the new lands they discovered. More recently, savants and explorers such asCharles de la Condamine, James Cook, Alexander von Humboldt, Louis-Antoine de Bougainville,Charles Darwin, John L. Stephens, Henry Bates, Alfred Russell Wallace, David Livingstone, Sven Hedin,and Carl Lumholtz dedicated themselves to travel to remote areas with the fundamental purpose ofdiscovering, studying and describing landscapes, life forms and different cultures (Ceballos-Lascuráin,

1989).

However, the globetrotters and explorers of the past were exceptional people, endowed with formidableenergy and willpower, who undertook their journeys in a highly individual manner, often experiencingmany privations and difficulties. Nature travel as a popular pastime cannot be considered to have trulydeveloped until the late 19th Century, following advances in mass travel.

Nature travel during the 19th Century was essentially a quest for spectacular and unique scenery. Duringthis time, the national park concept was created; and while the founders of national parks wanted to protect the environment rather than provide resorts, it was the tourist who "provided the economic and political rationale needed to translate philosophy into accomplishment" (Jakle, 1985, cited by Butler,1992). Not until the mid-20th Century did worldwide travel become possible for more than just an elite.

The technological revolution in communication and transport now permits an ever-growing number of people from different parts of the world to undertake trips to remote destinations previously inaccessibleto the common traveller.

The first tours organized around some special interest began to appear in the Twenties, especially inEurope. Castles, cathedrals, museums, gardens, mountainous areas, and gastronomy became popular focifor such tours.

After World War II, the tourism industry exploded worldwide. But as the numbers increased, the image oftourism deteriorated. In the Fifties and Sixties, Americans were ridiculed for their insensitive and boorish behaviour when touring in foreign countries; they became the "Ugly Tourist". For some time it wasthought that this was just a result of particular American traits. However, in the Seventies it was the turnof the Germans to be seen as the Ugly Tourist in Europe and East Africa and in the Nineties, the Japanese.The Ugly Tourist phenomenon is not based on actual personality traits, but rather is a result of the feelingof invasion by people who are different from the host community. It does not even require different ethnicgroups. (Residents of Banff, Canada, often view travellers from Edmonton — less than six hours away bycar — as Ugly Tourists.) It is part of the nature of mass tourism (or is it simply human nature?). And ithas been accompanied by over-development and local disruption of cultural values and economies suchthat tourism has developed a very bad name indeed (Butler, 1992).

As mass tourism exploded in the 20th Century, another type of tourist emerged — in a smaller way — butwith a different reputation. During the Sixties, public concern (mainly in industrialized countries) aboutthe environment increased. Conservation organizations were formed to lobby governments to set asideland not just for tourists or for certain animals, but to preserve the natural integrity of whole ecosystems.The whale-watching industry in the USA developed at this time in response to a concern about theworldwide depletion in whale populations. By 1966, publicity from these activities and from scientistscreated enough public pressure that the Humpback whale was made a wholly protected species, followed by protection of the Blue whale in 1967. This period marks the birth of the ecotourist (Butler, 1992).

Support for conservation activities was of course stronger if people had experienced an area orendangered species at first hand. A protected area, for example, needs a constituency of supporters whoappreciate and understand it if its long-term survival is to be assured. Ironically, though, increased interest






















in nature and nature travel can lead to problems of overuse and disruption. Indeed, overuse, resulting indegradation of the environment, loss of economic benefits due to damage to the resource or the localcommunity, and disruption of local cultures and/or values, are often cited as drawbacks to ecotourism.But if tourism is damaging a natural resource (whether it be a species or a protected area), then it is notecotourism. True ecotourism can in fact be one of the most powerful tools for protecting the environment.

A wide variety of natural and cultural features attract ecotourists: zebras and wildebeests, NgorongoroWorld Heritage Site, Tanzania (3); the isolation and rural setting of the Romanesque hermitage church of

Eunate, Navarre, Spain (4); and marine iguanas at the Galápagos World Heritage Site, Ecuador (5).

Ecotourism and the new environmental paradigm

During recent years the popularity of ecotourism has increased greatly as evidenced by the coverage it hasreceived in a variety of publications. Even the New York Times Sunday travel section has devoted entireissues to ecotourism (q.v. February 21, 1993).

Swanson (1992) uses social paradigms to explain this popularity. In the 1950s and 1960s the dominantsocial paradigm of the day held that progress and prosperity were more important than nature, consideredrisk acceptable if it might lead to the attainment of wealth, recognized no limits to growth, believed thatthe then existing society was superior to all societies that had preceded it, and exhibited a heavy relianceon experts and marketplace development and expansion.

Swanson then goes on to describe a new environmental paradigm, that emerged in the 1970s, largely inreaction to the disappointments and failures engendered by the 1950s and 1960s paradigm. It focuses onfive major constructs:

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valuing nature for its own sake

planning and acting to control risk, both personal and universal

recognizing real limits to growth believing in the needs of a new society

encouraging the participation of individuals who are not necessarily involved in the marketplaceor government.

Swanson believes that ecotourism has the potential to embody the new environmental paradigm. In particular, by recognizing and involving four groups — ecotourism operators, opponents to ecotourism,the ecotourists themselves and protected area managers — ecotourism could become an important forcefor responsible conservation and development.

For example, it could be a useful component of locally directed and participatory rural development and protection of natural resources. Nevertheless, Swanson recognizes that ecotourism can only be oneelement of the manifold conservation/development scene (Swanson, 1992). It cannot be a panacea.

Promotion of tourism to protected areas, natural and cultural sites

Despite the general lack of attention paid to environmental management of tourism, it is rare to see anational tourism brochure or magazine advertisement that does not include photographs or otherreferences to natural areas. Nevertheless, until very recently, advertising campaigns that built explicitly onnature tourism were uncommon. Exceptions included Costa Rica, Kenya, New Zealand, and Australia.The Commonwealth of Dominica, which is blessed with abundant forests but which has comparatively poor quality beaches, has compensated for the latter by promoting itself as the "Nature Island of theCaribbean". Costa Rica, with an internationally acclaimed national park system and many ecotourismentrepreneurs, has used the advertising slogans "Costa Rica: It's Only Natural", "Costa Rica, a NaturalMuseum" and "Costa Rica, Naturally Thrilling".

But more and more governments are now actively promoting tourism to areas that are the best examples

— usually protected areas

— of their countries' biological and cultural riches. And in the USA, for

example, it is not only the federal government that is committed to fostering tourism in protected areas.Alaska, the largest state in the Union — with 60% of the USA's national park acreage and 30% of allstate-managed protected areas — lists both recreation and tourism along with protection of significantnatural and cultural areas as the objectives of its state park system (Johannsen, 1992).

The US Department of the Interior, through its National Park Service (NPS), is also assigning a high priority to nature tourism. For nearly 75 years, the NPS has been trying to ensure that US parks could beenjoyed by the public, and at the same time preserved for the equal enjoyment of future visitors. This isno small task. Yellowstone National Park for instance has been seen as a "pleasure ground" for theenjoyment of the travelling public ever since its creation in 1872. Annual recreation visits to the national park system exceeded 400 million in 1989 (making it the USA's biggest tourist attraction). Annual

expenditure for operations, construction and land acquisition exceed US$1 billion each year. Recognizingthe importance of tourism, the NPS therefore created a Tourism Department in 1981, the activities ofwhich largely concern park manager training, communications and marketing (Milne, 1990). The NPShas also recognized the need for strengthening partnerships with the private sector.

In Australia, the Tourism Commission of New South Wales is very much aware of the importance thatnational parks, state recreation areas and historic sites have as major tourist attractions. Its role is primarily to promote tourism in that state and to coordinate development of tourism-related ventures. Butit is very mindful of the need to balance development of tourist assets with conservation of the very















values that attract visitors. In 1989, the Commission reviewed its marketing operations. Rather than promoting regions such as the Golden West, the North West Country, or the South Coast, a product-oriented approach was adopted. This involved identifying those products of value to the consumer(through research), and then marketing them. One of the major product lines to be promoted was the"national parks experience" (Crombie, 1989).

Tourism in protected areas is also becoming a particularly important component of government policy inmany developing countries, since it has tremendous potential as a mechanism for helping to conserve thenatural and cultural heritage. For example, in practically every Central American country, NationalEcotourism Councils (NECs) have been set up to establish specific ecotourism policies and guidelines. NECs are made up of representatives of the various sectors involved in the ecotourism process:government (especially the tourism and environment boards), private sector, NGOs, university andresearch organizations, and local communities. The Councils provide these sectors with the opportunity towork together and take decisions jointly on tourism issues. In particular, the tourism and environmental bureaux, which prior to this, were in direct opposition, are now often able to harmonize their differentobjectives. It is quite likely that many other Latin American and other developing countries will alsoestablish NECs.

Box 2: Requir ements for ecotour ismK

If an activity is to qualify as ecotourism, it must demonstrate the following 9 characteristics.

1.

It promotes positive environmental ethics and fosters "preferred" behaviour in its

participants. 2.

It does not degrade the resource. In other words, it does not involve consumptive erosion of thenatural environment. (Hunting for sport, and fishing, may be classified as wildland (green)tourism, but they are most aptly classified as adventure tourism, rather than ecotourism.)

3.

It concentrates on intrinsic rather than extrinsic values. Facilities and services may facilitatethe encounter with the intrinsic resource, but never become attractions in their own right, and donot detract from the resource.

4.

It is oriented around the environment in question and not around man. Ecotourists acceptthe environment as it is, neither expecting it to change or to be modified for their convenience.

5.

It must benefit the wildlife and environment. The question of whether or not the environment(not just people) has received "benefits" can be measured socially, economically, scientifically,managerially, and politically. At the very least, the environment must attain a net benefit,contributing to its sustainability and ecological integrity.

6. It provides a first-hand encounter with the natural environment (and with any accompanying

cultural elements found in undeveloped areas). Zoological parks do not constitute an ecotourismexperience (although they may contribute to the development of a person's interest inecotourism). Visitor centres and on-site interpretive slide shows can be considered to form part ofan ecotourism activity only if they direct people to a first-hand experience.

7. It actively involves the local communities in the tourism process so that they may benefit from

it, thereby contributing to a better valuation of the natural resources in that locality.8.

Its level of gratification is measured in terms of education and/or appreciation rather than inthrill-seeking or physical achievement; the latter is more characteristic of adventure tourism.

9.

It involves considerable preparation and demands in-depth knowledge on the part of both

leaders and participants. The satisfaction derived from the experience is felt and expressedstrongly in emotional and inspirational ways.

Source: Adapted and expanded from Butler in Scace et al., 1991, as cited by Butler, 1992.












The Central American countries (with the assistance of WTO, UNDP and IUCN) also recently drew up aregional ecotourism strategy, for the entire Central American isthmus, as well as Mexico and theCaribbean. This strategy incorporates marketing, planning and regulation and is a sign of the trendtowards regional approaches to trade. Tourism (including ecotourism) cannot ignore this trend and mustexplore international linkages and regional promotional strategies. In Central America, three projects ofinternational scope with important ecotourism components have recently been carried out: Paseo Pantera,

Mundo Maya and the WTO/UNDP Ecotourism Strategy for Central America (Ceballos-Lascuráin,1993b).

What are protected areas?

Generally, a country's prime areas of natural and cultural interest have been assigned protected area statusat national and sometimes also international level. Therefore, much tourism, and particularly ecotourism,involves visits to protected areas.

IUCN (1991) defines a protected area as an area dedicated primarily to the protection and enjoyment ofnatural or cultural heritage, to maintenance of biodiversity, and/or to maintenance of ecological life-

support services. The creation of such an area is now the most universally adopted means of conserving anatural ecosystem and/or relevant cultural heritage for a broad range of human values. Over 130 nationshave established some 6,900 major legally protected areas, covering nearly 5% of the planet's land surface(roughly equivalent to twice the area of India) (McNeely, 1992). However, if other areas that do not havelegal protection status but that are nevertheless under some form of conservation management procedureare included, the number of protected areas rises to more than 30,000 worldwide, covering nearly 10% ofthe earth's land surface, in nearly all countries (Thorsell, 1992). Evidently these areas are not of equalvalue. Some are but small remnants of once-extensive areas of habitat, others are not big enough tocontribute substantially to conservation, many exist only on paper, and relatively few are sufficiently wellmanaged to achieve their conservation objectives.

Traditionally, the national park has been the most common and well-known type of protected area. But

national parks can be complemented by other categories of protected area. And in practice, most countriesfind it advantageous to have several categories of protected area, covering a range of managementobjectives and levels of use and manipulation. Such a range of options can increase the level of protectionfor strictly protected categories by in effect transferring human pressures to those areas which can sustainheavier use. This means, therefore, that the creation of a protected area system should be seen as animportant element of comprehensive land use planning, to be undertaken systematically and balancingsuch divergent factors as protection of endangered species, watershed conservation, provision ofrecreational opportunities, and generation of tourism income (Heyman, 1992a). Recognizing the level ofexpertise required for such planning, some developing countries now request donor agencies to providetechnical and/or financial assistance in preparing protected area plans.

IUCN's Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) serves as the principal source of

technical advice on all aspects of the selection, planning and management of protected areas around theworld. CNPPA is also specifically responsible for promoting the establishment of a worldwide network ofeffectively managed terrestrial and marine protected areas. It recognizes that while there is a bewilderingnumber of different names describing protected areas in different countries, there are relatively few basicobjectives for which areas are established and managed. Accordingly, IUCN has defined 6 managementcategories, according to management objectives (see Box 4).
















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Three examples of protected areas: Category I: Monarch Butterfly Sanctuary, Sierra de Chincua,

Michoacán, Mexico (6); Category II: Teide National Park, Canary Islands, Spain (7); Category IV:Golfito Wildlife Refuge, Costa Rica (8).

These categories provide the basis for incorporating conservation into development. Each category shouldin principle relate to one or several of the major components of a nation's development plan: nutrition,education, housing, water, science, technology, tourism, defence, and national identity. Viewed in this

way, protected area categories become means for sustainable development.

While Categories I (strict nature reserve) and II (national park) are well known and broadly applied, someof the other categories are not so well understood. Ideally, objectives and activities should be related toenvironmental protection and to socio-economic development, whatever the category applied. Eachcategory has a different role to play. Thus protected areas of each category are required if national andglobal resource management needs are to be met.

The prime areas for nature-based tourism — including ecotourism — are evidently those that are legally protected, since they offer the best guarantee for maintaining their attractions in the long term. The mostcommonly used category for tourism purposes around the world is the national park.

A special mention should be made of World Heritage Sites, which do not constitute a managementcategory but are internationally recognized as "of outstanding universal significance". Accordingly, theyhave enormous ecotourism potential. There are currently 358 World Heritage Sites; this number includessites listed for either natural and/or cultural reasons. Such sites should be models of effective managementand conservation. Unfortunately, the high standards expected of these unique areas are not alwaysattainable under current conditions. But strictly controlled and environmentally responsible visitation andtourism to these sites could provide much-needed funding for many of them, and contribute to their long-term preservation.






A selection of World Heritage Sites: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia (9); Machu Picchu, Peru(10); Meteora, Greece (11).

Box 3: Protected areas in history

In 1122 BC an edict was promulgated in China that made provision for the conservation of a forest, and in252 BC, Asoka, Emperor of India, passed an edict for the protection of animals, fish and forests. Thesemay be among the earliest documented instances of the creation of what we now call protected areas.However, the practice of setting aside sacred areas as religious sanctuaries or exclusive hunting reservesis actually much older, and one that is still followed by many widely different cultures.

The first natural reserve in the Western world was probably that created near Venice in the 8th Century bythe community of the city, as a sanctuary for deer and boar. In 1084 AD, King William I of Englandordered the preparation of the Domesday Book — an inventory of all the lands, forests, fishing and

agricultural areas, hunting preserves and productive resources of his kingdom —

as the first step indrawing up rational plans for the management and development of England's natural resources.

During the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, natural sanctuaries were created by princes who perceived that populations of game were declining as a result of demographic expansion andimprovements in weapons, traps, and hunting methods.






In pre-Hispanic Mexico, nature was deeply revered. A keen awareness of the need to conserve naturalresources was demonstrated by two rulers. Nezahualcóyotl ordered sabinos ("ahuehuetes") to be plantedin various places in or near present-day Mexico City, some of which (Chapultepec, Molino de Flores, andContador) remain to this day. Moctezuma II, Emperor of the Aztecs, created zoological parks and botanical gardens — containing a spectacular array of species from the different corners of his Empire — and provided for adequate management of these areas.

In many "game preserves" of the 19th Century, game multiplication was controlled by royal or domainguards; for example, in the forests of France, the United Kingdom, Italy and central Europe. A similarroyal preserve was established in Rwanda, in Central Africa, in which only the Mwami were allowed tohunt.

In the 19th Century in the USA, the ever-increasing deterioration, pollution, and spoliation of naturalresources somewhat paradoxically led to the emergence around 1870 of a new concept: the moral duty ofeach generation to take measures to preserve areas of outstanding beauty or interest from over-exploitation, and to set these aside for the benefit of the entire nation and future generations. Yellowstone,the world's first national park, was created in 1872 when US President Ulysses S. Grant signed a bill passed by Congress. In 1916 the US National Park Service (the first such institution in the world) was

established.

The creation of national parks followed in other countries: the Royal National Park was established inAustralia in 1879, El Chico National Park in Mexico in 1898, Nahuel Huapi in Argentina in 1903, andAbisko National Park in Sweden 1909.

Sources: Curry-Lindahl, 1972; MacKinnon et al., 1986 ; Tassi, 1982; Thorsell, 1992.

Issues facing protected areas

With the rate of environmental change increasing rapidly in the remaining years of the 20th Century, the

maintenance of biological and cultural diversity assumes greater and greater urgency. Genetic, speciesand ecosystem diversity provide the raw materials for adaptation to changing conditions. Yet erosion ofthe planet's life-support systems is likely to continue until humankind manages to bring its aspirations intoline with nature's resource capacities. This means that conservation problems can no longer be separatedfrom the larger issues of socioeconomic development.

Growing public concern about the environment is convincing politicians and other decision-makers thatthe issue is not whether conservation is a good idea, but rather how it can be implemented within currentsocial, economic, and political constraints. We are at a crossroads in the history of human civilization.Our actions over the next few years will determine whether we move towards a chaotic futurecharacterized by over-exploitation and abuse of our natural resources, or towards maintenance of diversityand sustainable use of renewable resources (IUCN, 1992).

In February 1992 the IV World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas (IV WC), organized byIUCN, was held in order to promote effective management of representative samples of the world'snatural habitats for the sustainable benefit of both people and nature. (See Appendices II to V for detailsof the IV Worlds Park Congress.)

A glance at the programme contents of the IV WC, reveals the wide range of issues linking national parksand protected areas and human sustainable development. Issues dealt with included the following:















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Social, economic and political issues such as: community-based management of protected areas

indigenous attitudes towards protected areas demographic change

conflict resolution

protected areas, war, and civil strife

drug production and protected areas protected areas and the arts international legal instruments in protected area management

building a new partnership between business interests and protected areas

the role of tourism in expanding support for protected areas funding mechanisms

protected areas and foreign debt.

Scientific issues such as: monitoring and research in protected areas

restoration ecology

reintroduction of displaced species problems with introduced ("exotic") species

managing endangered species and small populations of wildlife in protected areas impacts of environmental change and pollution on protected areas.

Regional planning and development issues such as: protected areas and the coastal zone protected area management by private organizations fostering stewardship

forestry and protected areas legal strategies for integrating ecosystem conservation into land-use planning

protected area systems plans expanding the world's network of protected areas corridors, transition zones, and buffer zones

transboundary protected areas

data management for planning cross-sectoral approaches biosphere reserves of UNESCO.

Management issues ("the challenge within") such as: an international review system for protected areas training of park managers

site management architecture in protected areas

marine protected area management tools

management for conservation of genetic resources managing tourism in protected areas

managing sustainable utilization in protected areas

interpretation in protected areas hunting and fishing in protected areas

institutional options for management revenue enhancement and cost recovery

data management the role of universities

historical and cultural heritage in protected areas

environmental impact assessment in protected areas.



Mutual benefits for tourism and protected areas

Ever since the origins of tourism, travellers have been moved by, and drawn to, nature. Protected areasare obviously among the prime natural attractions for tourists.

The first English travellers who started visiting Europe in the late 18th and early 19th Centuries were asinterested in obtaining a first-hand knowledge of the cultural features of "the Continent" (its towns andvillages, architecture and people) as of its natural ones, including "romantic" landscapes, preferably withhigh mountains (since these are conspicuously absent from the British scene) and lush forests. The Alps proved to be one of the most popular natural destinations. The Swiss, aware of the growing numbers ofEnglishmen visiting their country, as part of their "Grand Tour", began to offer the first modern tourismfacilities in natural settings (chalets, hotels, restaurants, even narrow-gauge railways in the more sceniclocalities). Soon tourism (mostly nature-based, but also with a significant number of folkloric attractions) became one of Switzerland's most important economic activities. In order to ensure that their integritywas maintained and hence their attractiveness to tourists assured, natural areas became protected areas.This ensured that they were maintained. In fact, ever since Yellowstone National Park in the USA wascreated, one of the chief motivations for establishing protected areas has been to provide the public withopportunities for recreation and inspiration in an attractive setting.

On the other hand, tourism is vitally important for protected areas. The opportunity that they provide tosee, touch and experience the natural world frequently "converts" their visitors into faithful and activesupporters. This is a benefit in addition to that of tourism revenue (from entrance fees, concessions fortourism services, selling of souvenirs, guidebooks, etc.). The latter, if handled correctly, can bechannelled into maintenance of the protected area, and used to pay the salaries of rangers, for road andtrail maintenance, for interpretation, to fund research, build appropriate tourism facilities, and so on.Tourism can also serve to preserve and strengthen indigenous cultural identity, while at the same timemaking a positive contribution to economic development.

Unfortunately, tourism also poses an implicit threat to the areas under protection, particularly if these are

very fragile. Unfortunately too, some communities or countries turn to tourism to generate economic benefits as a last resort, after other options have been exhausted, and without adequate planning.

In short, tourists need protected areas, protected areas need the revenue tourism generates and theexposure tourists bring: but both must be managed if serious adverse impacts are to be avoided.

In the 50 years following the creation of Yellowstone, the USA's (and the world's) first national park, the jewels of the country's present-day national park system were set aside: Yosemite, Grand Canyon, CraterLake, and Glacier National Parks. Forty parks were established in all — but received little funding, andhad no administrative system, management plans, or personnel.




Millions of people visit protected areas each year. Among the many subjects of interest are: greykangaroos, Yanchep National Park, Western Australia (12); giant cardon cacti, El Vizcaíno Biosphere

Reserve, Baja California, Mexico (13); ancient Roman ruins, Volubilis, Morocco (14); and the fumarolesof Poás Volcano, Costa Rica (15).

US Congress mandated from the beginning that US parks should serve as "pleasure grounds" for visitorsand travellers. Thus the US national parks "grew up" with tourism (Wood, 1992). Early Western settlers perceived matters differently, however. For them the parks represented rich timber and ore resources,ready for plundering. No single, centralized federal agency had the power to protect the national parksagainst such encroachment or abuse. And since the parks were far removed (at that time) from existingcentres of population, it was relatively easy for miners, poachers and squatters to exploit the newlydesignated public lands with impunity. No funds were available to help reverse this situation, which wassoon out of control. Cavalrymen were sent into Yellowstone to protect that particular park from rampant poaching, and loggers prohibited from carrying out any further logging in the area. But to little avail.

Then in 1911 Congressional hearings concerning the establishment of a national park service began,although it was not until 1916 that the US National Park Service Act was passed. Much of the campaignto get the bill through Congress was financed by the railroad companies. No less than 17 of the westernrailroads contributed US$43,000 in 1916 towards publication of the National Parks Portfolio, a stunning publicity volume that was sent to every Senator. At last, in August 1916, the US National Park ServiceAct was signed into law.









Box 4: Protected area management categories

CATEGORY I Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area: protected area managed mainly for science orwilderness protection

CATEGORY

Ia

Strict Nature Reserve: protected area managed mainly for science

Definition Area of land/or sea possessing some outstanding or representative ecosystems, geologicalor physiological features and/or species, available primarily for scientific research and/orenvironmental monitoring.

CATEGORYIb

Wilderness Area: protected area managed mainly for wilderness protection

Definition Large area of unmodified or slightly modified land, and/or sea, retaining its naturalcharacter and influence, without permanent or significant habitation, which is protectedand managed so as to preserve its natural condition.

CATEGORYII

National Park: protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation

Definition Natural area of land and/or sea, designated to (a) protect the ecological integrity of one ofmore ecosystems for present and future generations, (b) exclude exploitation oroccupation inimical to the purposes of designation of the area and (c) provide afoundation for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities, allof which must be environmentally and culturally compatible.

CATEGORYIII

Natural Monument: protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific naturalfeatures

Definition Area containing one, or more, specific natural or natural/cultural feature which is ofoutstanding or unique value because of its inherent rarity, representative or aestheticqualities or cultural significance.

CATEGORYIV

Habitat/Species Management Area: protected area managed mainly for conservationthrough management intervention

Definition Area of land and/or sea subject to active intervention for management purposes so as toensure the maintenance of habitats and/or to meet the requirements of specific species.

CATEGORYV

Protected Landscape/Seascape: protected area managed mainly for landscape/ seascapeconservation and recreation

Definition Area of land, with coast and sea as appropriate, where the interaction of people andnature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant aesthetic,ecological and/or cultural value, and often with high biological diversity. Safeguardingthe integrity of this traditional interaction is vital to the protection, maintenance andevolution of such an area.

CATEGORYVI

Managed Resource Protected Area: protected area managed mainly for the sustainableuse of natural ecosystems

Definition Area containing predominantly unmodified natural systems, managed to ensure long term protection and maintenance of biological diversity, while providing at the same time asustainable flow of natural products and services to meet community needs.

Source: IUCN (1994). 1993 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas

Research has shown that the transcontinental rail lines played a key role in expanding support for the protection of US national parks at the turn of the century (Runte, 1990, cited by Wood, 1992). Thus






Yellowstone National Park began to gain popularity (and public support) only after the Northern PacificRailroad had built a series of hotels in the area, close to the park's primary attractions, and offeredconvenient transport to the park's gateway. Illustrated guidebooks were prepared for Yellowstone by the Northern Pacific as early as 1885. By 1893 the Northern Pacific was identifying itself as The Yellowstone National Park Line.

Soon most of the railroad companies were involved in establishing tourism services in the parks(including Yosemite, Grand Canyon and Glacier); a legacy that remains to this day. As a result, railroads put park conservation on the agenda for national policy makers. The railroads' campaign was nothingmore than enlightened self-interest. But as the popularity of railroad travel grew, tourism provided the parks with a solid economic justification for their existence. "No argument was more vital in a nation stillunwilling to pursue scenic preservation at the cost of business achievement" (ibid.).

However, even after they had been created, the areas contained within national parks were not "safe".Hetch Hetchy Valley, for example, located in the heart of Yosemite National Park, was destroyed in 1913,during the construction of a dam. Proponents of the dam were able to show that only a few hundred"nature lovers" enjoyed the valley each year, while half a million thirsty San Francisco residents neededwater. Conservationists concluded therefore that only if more Americans could be induced to visit these

scenic treasure houses would the public come to appreciate their value and stand firmly in their defence.Thus tourism came to be seen by conservationists as "the most dignified exploitation of the national parks" (ibid.)





A three-toed sloth in Canaima National Park, Venezuela (16); features of the Parc des Volcans

d'Auvergne, France (17); and coastal palm trees in the Dominican Republic (18) all provide reasons fornature lovers to travel far and wide.

Tourism to protected areas brings significant economic benefits to many countries, as in the case of

Fiordland National Park, New Zealand (19); Tikal World Heritage Site, Guatemala (20); and GalápagosWorld Heritage Site, Ecuador (21).

The marriage of tourism and the US national park system is a classic example of how tourism works todefine the value of land designated for protection. By the late 1980s, US protected areas had become thecountry's number one tourist attraction. In 1991 they hosted some 260 million tourists. Revenuesgenerated by tourism for the US national park system totalled US$3 billion for the same year ( Norris,1992).

National parks are also important components of the tourism trade elsewhere. Parks in Kenya are the principal reason why 750,000 tourists travel there each year. Costa Rica too has become an important













tourist destination largely on the basis of its excellent park system. This is not to say that all protectedareas are intended to be tourist destinations. In the USA, many protected areas are assigned otherfunctions. For example, some are set aside as timber reserves, others as wildlife habitats and yet others for protection of watersheds. And of course, many protected areas have several functions, only one of whichmay be to encourage tourism.

Documents

Uicn Tourism, Ecotourism Protected Areas - 1