Maya Sieminski-PosvanczRELS 482Fall 2013Unhidden: The Hulduflk of IcelandIn the capitol city of Reykjavik, down a winding street full of mostly corporate offices and small cafes, there inconspicuously sits a place known as the lfasklinn, or Elf School. It is an archive of sorts, harboring a multitude of accounts of people's experiences with lfar and Hulduflk or, elves and hidden people. These are all typed up on reams of paper in several cabinets. There are figurines and paintings of lfar everywhere. It is easy to see its subject matter from inside, but the place itself is rather unmarked and altogether undetectable from the street. For a tourist like myself trying to locate it, it is extremely difficult, even with the address written down. Several stops at offices in the area yield no results (although it should be noted that no one seems to bat an eye at my eccentric question, Do you know where the elf school is?) It is itself seemingly as hidden as the beings it makes as its focus. It is only after giving up and stopping in a small cafe/convenience store on the same street that I am able to get specific directions. The old woman who runs the business knows exactly how to get there. Three buildings away, up the stairs and to the right. The man who runs the lfasklinn is named Magns Skarphinsson. He is not, as you might expect, a fringe society dweller. In fact, he studied folklore and Icelandic literature at university, and has made his living working as an archivist. To preserve the stories, he tells me. He is rather well known in Iceland, both because of his research, and because of his brother, ssur Skarphinsson, who has held a number of high political positions within the Iceland government, most notably serving as leader of the Social Democratic Alliance and later as Minister for Foreign Affairs. As headmaster of the lfasklinn, Magns conducts two-hour classes, going over the basic descriptions and lore of the Hulduflk. There is a meaty booklet that he has created, both in English and in Swedish, as these are the main languages spoken of the people that come to his classes. These classes are mostly an endeavor for tourists, as a way to teach visitors about the folkloric traditions of Iceland. Icelanders themselves are already well-versed in these stories, and sometimes contact Magns to relay their own stories of encounters or visions with the hidden people. Belief in lfar and Hulduflk is quite strong, despite Iceland's outward embrace of modernity. Although Iceland is now an independent country, prospering technologically, and garnering international attention for its tourist capacity and music scene, Icelanders still report high numbers when asked about belief in supernatural beings. While folk beliefs have faded drastically in other countries such as Norway, Denmark and Ireland, Iceland has kept the belief in lfar and Hulduflk alive and strong. This paper will take a brief look at the origins of these beings, parse out statistical data, take an overview of how these beliefs manifest themselves in modern Icelandic culture, and finally, propose possible hypotheses as to why these beliefs still persist to present day. These hypotheses, or approaches, as I will call them, include the environmental approach, the nationalistic, or cultural heritage approach, and the romanticism of the past approach. These suppositions will culminate in the proposition that the country has created its own uniquely Icelandic form of religious and cultural identity.

StatisticsThere have been many surveys done in the last century tracking the belief in the Hulduflk and lfar in Iceland. These have consistently shown that over half of Icelanders surveyed hold some form of belief in these supernatural beings. Belief in such beings is widely accepted and often expressed publicly. It is important to note that absolute certainty is actually low. It is the larger percentage which believe in the probability or possibility of these beings which is important to consider. It appears that while most Icelanders do not hold an absolute belief in the Hulduflk and lfar, they will not refute their existence altogether.In 1975, a thorough survey on many facets of paranormal and supernatural phenomena was taken.1Vladimar Hafstein. "Academia." The Elves' Point of View Cultural Identity in Contemporary Icelandic Elf-Tradition.

On the question of belief in Hidden folks and fairies, 33% indicated that it was possible, 15% stated that it was probable, and 7% were certain of their existence. 18% indicated it was unlikely, and only 10% of those asked said that their existence was impossible. When asked about sightings of or experiences with hidden people, 10% indicated having had an experience. While this is my own personal speculation, I would suppose that the 10% who claimed having an experience correlates with the 8% who are certain of their existence. This leaves another 48% who still thought that it was possible or probable that Hulduflk exist, despite ever having experienced seeing one. A survey taken in 1998 described 54.4% of responders saying yes to the question posed, Do you believe in elves?2Ibid.

This survey allowed only for a yes or no answer, and therefore has been criticized. However, it is still interesting to note that more Icelanders than not indicated a belief in elves, despite any lack in nuances within the survey.In 2006, another survey was conducted, the results indicating that 55.5% reported some form of belief in the possibility of the existence in Hulduflk and lfar. 8% reported certainty, 16.5% reported that it was likely, and 31% assumed it was possible. 13.5% reported that they thought their existence impossible. In light of the information, Gunnel stated, "There is a little bit more doubt than there used to be, but generally the figures were much the same as they were."3Sveinn Birkir Bjrnsson. "The Reykjavk Grapevine." Elves in Cultural Vocabulary.

At first glance, reports of certainty in the existence of Hulduflk and lfar could be considered low, hovering around the 8% line. However, when one includes the range of belief in the possibility or probability of their existence, the number rises much higher, hovering around or higher than the 50% mark. This indicates that over half of Icelanders will not rule out of the possibility that Hulduflk and lfar exist. As other scholars have noted, it is not so much that a majority of Icelanders believe outright in such things, but that they refuse to rule out their existence. It is a subtle difference perhaps, but one that is crucial to understanding the national mindset on this issue.

Origins, Etymology and Other ParticularsProblems With Names and DistinctionsThe problem with differentiating between the Hulduflk, Vttr, lfar, and others, is that modern definition seems to be somewhat lacking. To some, Hulduflk are the same as lfar, while to others, these are two distinct beings. There is additional distinction between different types of lfar. There will be more discussion of this later. Furthermore, the information becomes confused when one dealing with pagan Old Norse variants considers these as separate or somehow distinct from their post-Christian counterparts. Folklore gathered or created after the Christianization of Iceland in around 1,000 A.D. tends to set old pagan folk beliefs inside an explicitly Christian worldview. The prime example of this is the widely popular story of how the Hulduflk came to be, which will be discussed further in the next section. It is difficult to know how and when to delineate what is pre-Christian and what is post-Christian when looking at textual descriptions. Perhaps is does not matter. Indeed, the syncretism evident is highly interesting, and worth taking a look at. Whether or not this blending of pagan and Christian beliefs makes a difference when describing each supernatural beings is not clear. It seems that pre-Christian understanding fits very well with Christian ideology. The notion of light or good elves and black or bad elves sits comfortably both within Old Norse and Christian tradition, and while perhaps some of these descriptions morphed into what they are today because of Christian influence, some of this language may be seen dating farther back into earlier Norse lore and poetry.

Vttr, lfar and Hulduflk, Oh My!There is tremendous overlap among these supernatural beings, and time has allowed a great evolution of thought about what characterizes each. Additionally, there seems to be little common definition. One Icelander might contend that Hulduflk and lfar are synonymous for the same being, while another might argue that they are wholly different in nature. It can be understood that the lfar were recognized much earlier than the Hulduflk. Indeed, many scholars today propose that the Hulduflk are simply the same as the Ljslfar or light elves of the Eddas. Scholar and author Terry Gunnel has said, "different beliefs could have lived side by side in multicultural settlements in Iceland before they gradually blended into the latter-day Icelandic lfar and Hulduflk.4Marc Vincenz. "The Reykjavk Grapevine." To Be or Not to Be: lfar, Elves, Hulduflk, Fairies and Dwarves: Are They Really All the Same Thing?

Gunnel has also stated that, Hulduflk and lfar undoubtedly arose from the same need. The Norse settlers had the lfar, the Irish slaves had the hill fairies or the Good People. Over time, they became two different beings, but really they are two different sets of folklore that mean the same thing."5Ibid.

Furthermore, sometimes it seems that both can fit under the umbrella category of Vttr, yet Vttr is also sometimes spoken of as a completely separate category of beings. For the sake of clarity, I will attempt to define each being, give examples of where mentions of them may be found, and discuss the ways in which each sometimes overlap with the other. A clearer description of the characteristics of each being may help provide a more comprehensive understanding of their presence and expression in modern Icelandic popular culture.

VttrVttr translates roughly to wights and seems to be a sort of generic term for the many nature spirits that the Old Norse believed in. Under the umbrella term you'll find the lfar, which translates to elves, Dvergar which means dwarves, Jtnar, or giants, and the sir and Vanir, which make up many gods of the Norse pantheon. Because my research focuses on modern belief, and modern Iceland seems to have favored the lfar and their counterparts, the Hulduflk, I will not go into discussion of the other supernatural beings, including trolls, dwarves, giants, and of course, the many gods and goddesses. While references to these other members of the Vttir are still easy to find in Iceland today, they seem to not have the same elevation of popularity as the lfar and Hulduflk.

lfarThe lfar, or the elves of Iceland may surprise and dismay those who traditionally think of these creatures as small, sprightly and mildly mischievous. Perhaps the most identifiable and closely related depiction of the lfar in popular culture may be the elves of Tolkein's infamous Lord of the Rings series, which seem to be based more closely to the notions of elves in the Old Norse tradition. The lfar of Scandinavian origin were human-sized, beautiful, indeed considered a sort of demi-god. It seems they were closely connected to fertility in the past, and of ancestral family. There are many mentions of lfar in such sources as the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda, Scandinavian sagas including, Thidrek's Saga and Saga of Hrolf Kraki, and Old Norse Skaldic poetry, including Hrafnagaldr ins. A delineation between the lfar is made specifically in the Poetic and Prose Eddas, with two (or sometimes three) different types being recognized. Ljslfar, or light elves, are described as, fairer than the sun to look upon, and are often said to live in lfheim.6Snorri Sturluson. Edda. Reykjavik, Iceland: GUDRUN Publishing, 2003.

Dkklfar, or dark elves are said to, live down in the earth and they are unlike the others in appearance and even less like them in character.7Ibid.

Scholars have sometimes interpreted the Dkklfar as similar or perhaps synonymous to dwarves. Some have postulated that the Dkklfar and Ljslfar are each sides of the same proverbial coin, and signify the duality of the natural world. There is question as to whether this distinction among the lfar was something that existed pre-Christianity, or if it was a product of the good-verses-evil ideology of the Christian religion. Because the distinction seems to have been first found in Snorri Sturluson's Eddas, and this was compiled after the Christianization of Iceland, it is perhaps under Christian influence that the distinction was made. There has seemingly been no final conclusion on this debate. The importance of this distinction at first glance seem trivial, but the expansion of the characteristics of the Ljslfar seem to overlap with the characteristics of modern Hulduflk. Additionally, the modern understanding of lfar seems to have blended characteristics of both the Ljslfar and the Dkklfar, being both radiant, good, light-hearted, and yet sometimes highly quarrelsome, especially when crossed.

HulduflkThe term Hulduflk, which roughly translates to the hidden people, is a relatively new term, thought to have first been used around the 18h or 19th century in Icelandic folklore. There is much debate as to whether the Hulduflk are simply lfar under a different moniker, or if they are a completely different creature. There seems to be no consensus amongst modern day Icelanders. What is sure, is that the Hulduflk share many of the same qualities as the Ljslfar, and yet also harbor some contradictory characteristics. For example, unlike the lfar, they are described as being completely human, yet invisible to most. They resemble us in many ways, though they are more spirit-like and invisible, and to see the elves, one must either be given permission by them, or have a special ability.8Haukur Ingi Jnasson. In a land of a living God: The healing imagination and the Icelandic heritage. Page 296.

Like the Ljslfar, they are categorically beautiful, radiant, and generally kind. They often seem to be seen dressed in clothing from the 19h century, even in modern times. They tend to live their lives like that of their non-Hulduflk counterparts, raising families, working, usually in agriculture, and tending to their households. They seem to be understood to be living in a parallel universe to our own. Their lives are generally very good. They are wealthy, successful, beautiful and happy. The hidden people have various human attributes, and even though they live longer than we do, they are born and they die just as we do. They eat and drink, play instruments, have lights in their houses, go fishing, move residences, and keep animals, though they are more productive than those of humans.9Ibid.

Pagan ChristiansPerhaps one of the most well-known pieces of folklore in Iceland is the story of how the Hulduflk came to be. To an outsider, the story might be taken as very strange. For many Icelanders today, the blending of old traditional animistic beliefs with Christianity is very real, and very normal. Yet to some, it might appear strange and impossible to believe both in the Hulduflk and in Jesus Christ. This folk story portrays the very interesting form of syncretism which pervades the popular Icelandic worldview. The tale talks of Adam and Eve, of Biblical fame, and speaks about some other children which they had together. These children were dirty from being out playing, and Eve, being ashamed of them, hid them from God. Lying about them when God asked, God punished Eve and her children by making the children invisible from then on, banishing them to the hills and the rocks. The line, "what man hides from God, God will hide from man." is used frequently in this story. Belief in the lfar and Hulduflk alongside belief in Christ appears to be quite common in Iceland. The conspicuous blending of pagan folk beliefs and Christianity creates a unique religious climate in Iceland. There is much evidence of the merging of two seemingly incompatible worldviews. One can quite easily find small wooden churches, carefully and beautifully painted, left out in the fields and near hills around the country. These are known as lfakirkja, or elf churches. There have been two reasons put forth as to why these are built. The first is that the lfar are pagan, and the churches are there in the hopes that the lfar will convert to Christianity. The second, and, seemingly more popular idea, is that the Ljslfar, or light elves, are close to God, and are assumed to be Christian, and would want churches available to attend. Religiosity in Iceland, like many of its Scandinavian counterparts, is quite low. Although they have a state church (the Church of Iceland, a Lutheran body), regular attendance to church, and reading of Biblical material is reportedly low. A survey conducted in 2004 indicated that 85.5% belonged to the Church of Iceland. However, only 10% reported attending church at least once a month, while 43% indicated that they never attend church. Most interestingly, 26.2% stated that, no god exists.10"Trarlf slendinga." Kirkjan.is.

Contrasted with the 2006 survey which indicated that 55.5% thought that the existence of elves and hidden people was at least possible, a very interesting portrait of Icelandic belief comes into sharp relief.

lfar and Hulduflk In Everyday LifeDoing a web-search on Hulduflk brings a host of news stories about failed or delayed construction projects around Iceland. It seems that the hidden people are ready and willing to fight for their rights and for the places which they call home. Any events which are unexplainable by other means are then attributed to the hidden people. Most notably is a road, now known as Hulduflk 102, which was diverted around a mound of rocks, which, after mysterious incidents such as bulldozers breaking down, was assumed to be home to a number of Hulduflk. Many Icelandic roads conspicuously curve around rock formations and other natural phenomena. Additionally, in Iceland there are mediums, who are able to see and communicate with the Hulduflk. Several have been used over the years to come to some sort of agreements prior to building on a site which may house the hidden people. In 1996, in the town of Kopavogur, problems with trying to turn the conspicuously named, Elf Hill Road from one lane into two lanes ended in a sort of media frenzy. A bulldozer operator, Hjortur Hjartarson, ran into trouble as he tried to raze a suspected elf hill to make way for a graveyard. After two different bulldozers repeatedly and inexplicably malfunctioned, and local television cameras failed when trained on the hill, though they worked elsewhere, the crew halted the project. 'We're going to see whether we can't reach an understanding with the elves,' Jon Ingi, the project supervisor, told Morgunbladid, a Reykjavik newspaper, at the time.11Sarah Lyall. "Building in Iceland? Better Clear It With the Elves First." New York Times International.

Local mediums were called in, and after a long bout of communication, construction resumed, and it was the town's understanding that the Hulduflk, obligingly, had moved. Support for the hidden people seems to be enduringly high among Icelanders. Although commitment to a belief appears to make Icelanders uneasy in theory, affirmation of these folk beliefs seems to be readily expressed in practice. It may be a sort of knee-jerk reaction passed down from generation to generation. Any event unexplainable by other means is then attributed to an act of the hidden people. Furthermore, any feeling of being threatened may stir support for the hidden people. These folk beliefs may be considered a sort of cultural crutch, as a means to protect the nation's history and culture from outside infiltration. In 1982, Icelanders famously gathered at Keflavik airspace to protest in an anti-NATO demonstration, stating that, they were looking for elves who might be endangered by American phantom jets and Awacs reconnaissance planes.12Markham, James. "ICELAND'S ELVES ARE ENLISTED IN ANTI-NATO EFFORT." The New York Times World.

Another story appears in the pamphlet, The Icelandic Road Administration (ICERA) and the Belief in Elves by Viktor Arnar Inglfsson, Chief of the Publishing Unit
The Icelandic Road Administration.13"Fairies." QI Talk Forum.

At the end of the 1970s, preparations got under way for a new construction project, Road No.75, Saudrkrksbraut, over Hegranes in the Skagafjrdur district of northern Iceland. The decision was made to build the road over Trllaskard, The Trolls' Pass, and it was necessary to detonate some rocks in the pass in order to lower the level of the road.
The road was designed by an engineer from the ICERA and a team of local workers under the guidance of the service area supervisor was to complete the project. It so happened that the medium Hafsteinn Bjrnsson held a sance in Saudrkrkur during which the message appeared that the rocks in Trllaskard must not be detonated as the site was cursed. It's worth pointing out that Hafsteinn was renowned throughout the country as a medium and many people believed in his abilities and so his warning weighed rather heavily. There followed further warnings from seers and the area supervisor thought that it had all become a bit too much for him to solve. He then consulted his superiors in Reykjavk and the chartered engineers of the ICERA decided to call a meeting with Mr Bjrnsson to see what the problem was. The situation deteriorated from this point on because although people had tried to keep the meetings in Reykjavk quiet, stories about the curse began to circulate amongst the roadworkers in Skagafjrdur and many had become rather nervous. Amongst them was the site foreman who thought he had portentous dreams. He dreamed twice that he was visited by supernatural beings and he warned against disturbing anything in the pass. Then something started to go wrong with the bulldozer which was to move rocks at the bottom of the slope. At first its engine inexplicably broke down and then started to make the most peculiar noises even though there was nothing wrong with it. The bulldozer was removed from the job and another took its place and later completed the job without any further problems. People thought that the 'hidden people' had had the chance to move away from the site.14"Fairies." QI Talk Forum.

It should be noted that earlier in this pamphlet, Mr. Inglfsson stated that, in recent decades there have been a few alleged incidents of road construction intruding on elf settlements and cursed places. These problems have all been resolved in one way or another and can now be considered a thing of the past. The tales live on, however, both on the written page and orally and frequent questions on this topic come the way of the ICERA. Such queries may stem from journalists, students, professionals and scholars, both home and abroad. This essay is written is to explain this issue clearly since a lot of time goes into answering the same old questions. It is hoped that this text will rectify the situation and it can be looked upon as the author's interpretation of the ICERA's view on the issue. It will not answer the question of whether the ICERA's employees do or do not believe in elves and "hidden people" because opinion differs greatly on this and it tends to be a rather personal matter. However, you may assume that the author severely doubts the existence of such phenomena.15"Fairies." QI Talk Forum.

Despite Inglfsson's stance that these incidents are a thing of the past, each year brings new stories about some sort of complication arising with the hidden folk. In 2010, rni Johnsen, a former member of the Icelandic Parliament, flipped his SUV on an icy road in southwest Iceland, careened off a small cliff, and survived without any major injuries. Later, he credited a group of elves living in a boulder near the wreck with saving his life. When a road was slated for construction over the rock, he insisted the roadmakers 'save it.'16Ryan Jacobs. " Why So Many Icelanders Still Believe in Invisible Elves." The Atlantic.

Later, Johnsen, arranged for the relocation of a 30-ton boulder, which he believes is home to three generations of elves, from Sandskei on Hellisheii in southwest Iceland to his home Hfabl in the Westman Islands today.17"Icelandic MP Moves Elves Boulder to His Home." Iceland Review: Daily News.

In 2011, Hulduflk in Icelandic newspapers were blamed for tumbling rocks and broken equipment during construction in the town of Bolungarvk. An accident occurred when an explosion in a mine in the slope of Mt. Tradarhyrna went wrong, so rocks rained over four residential streets in the town. Vigds Kristn Steinthrsdttir, a nurse, healer and hypnotist, believes hidden people, or elves, who live in the mountain were upset when the tunnel through shld was made and are causing these mishaps. On Wednesdaya day before the mining accidenta meeting was held for that purpose with two of the contractors and seers in attendance, in addition to the local pastor, Rev. Agnes Sigurdardttir, who performed a prayer.18"Angry Elves Said to Have Wreaked Havoc in West Fjords." Iceland Review: Daily News.

Reporting that members of the town council were not in attendance, the Hulduflk may have still been upset or offended, thus causes the trouble.These are just a sample of the sort of stories that make news every day. Perhaps they can be written off as entertainment pieces, or people's interest editorials. Perhaps they are not the bulk of the news, or written with the most serious and journalistic of intentions. But the fact remains that these stories still make it into the local newspapers. This speaks to the popularity of these beliefs which pervades Icelandic culture even today.

Anecdotal SupplementsThere is, perhaps, a sort of conscious press to keep these beliefs alive. Perhaps it is exaggerated by tourists looking for an interesting story. I include the following fragments of conversations only as a supplement to the news articles, as the biases and the subjectivity of them may lessen their impact. While traveling around the country on tour buses, I had several chances to talk with locals about their personal beliefs. The three most extensive conversations I was able to have were with two tour guides, and a taxi driver. Perhaps the tour guides were used to foreigners asking them about hidden people. I cannot say for sure. While public interest is high, it is unclear how conscious tourists are of this phenomena. The people I spoke to did not seem well acquainted with discussing their beliefs with travelers, so perhaps this is not a common conversation for them.The first tour guide I had the pleasure of meeting was named lafur. We were walking around a site in southern Iceland which served as a sort of preservation of old Icelandic culture, complete with a small cluster of thatched roofed cottages and a museum full of Viking artifacts. I bluntly asked lafur if he believed in the Hulduflk. Hulduflk! How do you know about them? He seemed genuinely shocked and was unable to give a clear answer. Like many Icelanders, the belief seems to be almost unconsciously held, and lafur had trouble putting it into words, as many are wont to do with religious ideations. He went on to tell me that though he had never seen one, he thought they probably existed. He told me about one of the many construction mishaps aforementioned. This seemed to prove their existence to him. I think there is more than what we can see, he told me. I think that maybe things were different a long time ago, that people could see things that we can't see anymore. Now only certain people are able to see. He also told me about a friend of his, who claimed to have been visited once by a hidden person. I am very jealous actually. I wish I could also see one. I am always looking out. The next tour guide I spoke with told me that she had been able to see them since she was a little girl. I did not have to bring up the hidden people, for she pointed out a part of the road as we drove by that she thought housed them. I asked her to tell me more about Hulduflk. They are like us, but beautiful, she said. They kind of shine. Maybe like you would think an angel would be like. Except they're more human. I asked her what happens when she sees them. They are kind of shy actually. I think they are getting afraid of us. We are getting too loud and are forgetting about them, and ignoring them. They can't trust us. This was a sentiment that is commonly voiced by Icelanders. There appears to be a great fear in forgetting the past, as the country moves ahead into the modern era. There is great pressure for Iceland to leave behind its recent past, and move forward with technological, economical and cultural advancements. While folk beliefs are still held in high regard, it is a constant danger that newer generations of Icelanders will gradually lose touch with the nation's ancestral identity and belief system, and in a way, lose touch with the Iceland of their forefathers. The conversation I had with a taxi driver was admittedly short, but he was no less willing to tell me about his views. The Hulduflk are definitely around, he said. They sometimes cause accidents when they are angry. I asked him why they would be angry. Because we aren't paying attention, he told me. While all brief, I found these conversations to be highly illuminating into the individual perspectives of modern Icelanders. Not one person I encountered denied the existence of the Hulduflk, even though their was a wide range of actual experience. Everyone seemed to have some kind of story to support their existence.

AnalysisWhile there are arguably many ways in which one could interpret and explain the Icelandic belief in such supernatural beings as lfar and Hulduflk, I have attempted to boil down three of the most common and convincing arguments. These include what I will call the environmental approach, the nationalistic, or cultural heritage approach, and the romanticism of the past approach.

Environmental ApproachIceland is geographically unique, and to this day, still rather untouched compared to most of the world's populated places. It is home to volcanoes, glaciers, sulfur geysers, waterfalls and fields of mossy lava rock. A large portion of the eastern part of the country is virtually uninhabited due to the amount of glacier and mountain present. There are several factors which relate to the geographical landscape of Iceland. One, is that when Viking settlers came, they virtually decimated the lumber population, meaning that the country has an extreme lack of trees, even today. Only recently has there been any concerted effort to replenish the trees which were cut down to build ships and housing during the settlement era. Additionally, the powerful forces of volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and wind storms have kept the Icelandic people in awe of the natural world around them. More than other places in the world, Icelanders are at the complete will of nature. They build their towns beneath active volcanoes, and have had a long history of disastrous consequences from living on such an active island. The 17th and 18th centuries were littered with catastrophe after catastrophe, as volcanoes erupted, earthquakes wrecked towns, and widespread famine due to the die-off of livestock further endangered the communities. Icelanders are well aware of their relationship to and vulnerability to the natural world around them. Many have proposed the possibility that belief in lfar and Hulduflk arose out of this extreme exposure to the elements. "When one's life is conditioned by a landscape dominated by rocks twisted by volcanic action, wind and water into ferocious and alarming shapes, the imagination fastens on these natural phenomena."19B. S. Benedikz. "Basic Themes in Icelandic Folklore."

It may have been a consequence of trying to explain how and why certain natural phenomena occur. The Hulduflk are not so much supernatural as ultranatural, representing not an overcoming of nature in the hope of a better deal beyond but a deep reverence for the land and the mysterious powers able to cause fertility or famine.20Michael Strmiska. "satr in Iceland: The Rebirth of Nordic Paganism?"

Belief in beings who lived in the hills and mountains also may have had a more practical purpose. Oral tales concerning Icelandic elves and trolls no doubt served as warning fables. They prevented many children from wandering away from human habitations, taught Iceland's topographical history, and instilled fear and respect for the harsh powers of nature.21lina Thorvarardttir. "Spirits of the Land: A Tool for Social Education."

In modern day Iceland, most natural phenomena certainly can be explained by scientific means. It is understood that a volcano erupts because of the activity under the earth, not because someone angered a hidden person. Yet these beliefs still pervade the collective consciousness of Icelanders. A possible reason for this is that these beliefs can be used as a means to preserve the nature of the country.In an age of rapid industrialization, there has been as much pressure in Iceland than there has in the rest of the world to build, expand, and progress. To some, paving over ancient mountainsides to build shopping malls seems like a much more economically viable option than to leave the nature preserved and untouched. Pressures to keep up with the rest of the world both technologically and economically have posed a difficult position for Icelanders. While progress is certainly understood to be important, preservation of the unique and coveted wilderness is also paramount. While disputes over land preservation and construction occur all of the world, it seems to have become a particularly sensitive subject in Iceland. There is a strong urge to resist the temptations of modernity, and ensure that the country remains as similar as possible as it was when it was settled. The numerous accounts of problems interrupting construction in Iceland points to the pervasive discomfort with building over Iceland's natural landscape. As Icelandic pop singer Bjrk recently stated on American television show, The Colbert Report, "It's all about respect."22Carl Williot. "Bjork Chats With Stephen Colbert About Elves." MTV Hive.

It is this underlining reverence for the natural world, due to the close proximity and relationship Icelanders have with it, that has perhaps perpetuated the ancient belief in supernatural beings who live within its wonders.

Cultural Heritage ApproachedThe inhabitants of Iceland have been, for most of their history, quite isolated as a people. Viking settlers were unkind to outside travelers, and their lack of lumber led to an eventual inability to leave the island. Under rule of the Danish, the Icelandic people suffered an extended period of technological and economical instability. Coupled with the high amount of natural disasters during the 16th and 17th centuries, and one can begin to see how some might propose that Iceland grew in a sort of cultural vacuum. In the 19th century, Icelandic nationalism began to grow, due to increased influence of nationalism in other parts of Europe. During this time, and continuing up to present day, Old Norse folklore and mythology have been widely popular, and held at a sort of reverential status. Even the Icelandic Coat of Arms pays tribute to the Old Norse creatures of myth. The four landvttir are now regarded as the protectors of the four quarters of Iceland: the dragon (Dreki) in the east, the eagle or griffin (Gammur) in the north, the bull (Griungur) in the west, and the giant (Bergrisi) in the south.23"Heinibk - Norseman's Codex of Heathenism: Landvttir." Heinibk.

These beings are also depicted on Icelandic Krna coins. Furthermore, when Iceland gained independence in 1944, all things tied to being Icelandic were held in high esteem. Because Iceland's natural beauty was a popular theme for early Iceland Romantic artists and poets, nature became tightly linked to Icelandic nationalism. After being under Danish rule for 700 years, nationalism is, of extreme importance to modern Icelanders. One of the key ways in which Icelandic identity has been conceptualised is through its landscape, and the close connection between Iceland and nature.24Umit Koseoglu. "We Are The Earth Intruders: Images of nature and Iceland in Bjrk's music videos." Academia.edu.

The end of colonial Iceland spurred a dramatic increase in nationalistic ideology. When my generation came along we started to ask ourselves what it meant to be Icelandic and how to be proud of it, singer Bjrk has stated.25Stephen Collings. "Close-Up Film Reviews-S." Close-Up Film.

By both believing in the spiritual beings of Iceland's past, and using these beliefs as a means to preserve the treasured natural landscape of the country, modern day Icelanders have perhaps found a way to protect what is considered almost sacred to the identity of Iceland itself.

Romanticism of the Past ApproachAlong the same lines as nationalism, this hypothesis proposes that Icelander's belief in the Hulduflk is an expression of their longing for and love of the recent past. Most Icelanders who have reported seeing Hulduflk almost always describe them as being dressed in 19th century clothing. Without understanding the romanticized viewpoint Icelanders seem to have for this era, one might miss the significance. Alongside the other reasons postulated, this further supports the picture of a newly independent country trying to find it's voice and identity in a quickly changing world. The Hulduflk, who seem to always be dressed in old-fashioned clothing, often in green like the natural world around them, and said to dislike electricity, support notions of Iceland's current growing pains. The recent past is being romanticized into an era of prosperity, simplicity and happiness. The agricultural lifestyle of the past is put under a soft light while modern Icelanders are pressured to give in the modernity, technology and expansion. The Hulduflk seem in many ways to represent the Icelander's dreams of a more perfect and happy existence," states scholar Terry Gunnel. Stories about them abounded during the 18th century, a tie when Iceland was wrought with disaster, disease and devastation. The Hulduflk were always described as, beautiful, powerful, alluring, and free from care, while the Icelanders were often starving and struggling for existence.26J. M. Bedell. Hildur, queen of the elves: and other Icelandic legends.

The Hulduflk became a sort of outlet, a place to define an idealized Iceland. The tradition of glorifying the past, and what is considered purely Icelandic has been kept up until present day. One may get the sense that this preservation of old beliefs is as conscious and as important as Icelander's fight to preserve nature. The traditions and culture of this small island nation have been kept alive for over a thousand years, and it appears that now more than ever, the preservation and integration of the its rich history and body of belief will play an important role in shaping the country's future. In an age of modernization, Icelanders will have to maneuver their way through pressures to build, expand, exploit and forget. Without a conscious preservation of these folk beliefs, the Hulduflk may eventually be hidden away for good. But perhaps the nation will find ways to incorporate modernity into the old belief system, much in the same way Christianity was blended into traditional folk belief. Iceland is a land of contrasts: of fire and ice, of pagan and Christian, of old and of new. Perhaps this sense of integration is the ultimate tradition which will be carried forth into Iceland's future.

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