Unit 11 12 13 14

8/12/2019 Unit 11 12 13 14

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Unit 11

COMPUTERS

AIM:

To recognize the English technical terms related to prototype computingdevices and the first stages in the evolution of computers;

OBJECTIVES:

On successfully completing this unit the student should be able to:

● identify correctly the terms describing the basic functions performed bycomputers;

● recognise the specific terms related to early types of computingmachines;

● describe the operation principles of these rudimentary computers;

● identify the types of equipment used for performing the variouscomputational operations;

● describe the evolutionary path in this domain;

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● assimilate at least 30 terms specific of prototype computing devicesand the functions they ere able to provide;

KEY TERMS:

calculation, electronic communication, instruction, program, to retrieve, to process, to store, to

route, output device, video display monitors printer, bar code, scanner, embedded, electroniccircuitry, appliances, control, security system, videocassette recorders (VCRs), digitized sound,

stereo systems, digitally encoded laser disc, computer applications, advanced calculus,

computer-controlled projection unit, graphics, , sound, animation, to encode, to unscramble

messages, analogue machine, logarithm tables, add, subtract, , multiply, divide, digit, devise,

silk loom, punched cards, early mechanical computer, difference engine, mathematician,analytical engine, arithmetic operations, programming language, capacity to store instructions,

primitive memory, computational time, Computing-abulating-Recording Company, !nternational "usiness #achines (!"#), e$uations, uring machine, automatic type%riter,

universal machine, modern digital computer, computational theorist, #ark ! calculating

machine, solid state transistor, binary numbers, computer science program, data, programinstruction, &lectronic 'iscrete Variable utomatic Computer (&'VC), the &lectronic

umerical !ntegrator nd Computer (&!C), utomatic Computer (*!VC), prototype

computing device+

COMPUTERS11. 1. IntroductionComputer, machine that performs tasks, such as calculations or electronic communication, under

the control of a set of instructions called a program. Programs usually reside within the computerand are retrieved and processed by the computer’s electronics. The program results are stored or

routed to output devices, such as video display monitors or printers. Computers perform a wide

variety of activities reliably, accurately, and quickly.

11.2. Uses of ComputersPeople use computers in many ways. In business, computers track inventories with bar codes and

scanners, check the credit status of customers, and transfer funds electronically. In homes, tiny

computers embedded in the electronic circuitry of most appliances control the indoortemperature, operate home security systems, tell the time, and turn videocassette recorders

!C"s# on and off. Computers in automobiles regulate the flow of fuel, thereby increasing gas

mileage. Computers also entertain, creating digiti$ed sound on stereo systems or computer%animated features from a digitally encoded laser disc. Computer programs, or applications, e&ist

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to aid every level of education, from programs that teach simple addition or sentence

construction to programs that teach advanced calculus. 'ducators use computers to track grades

and communicate with students( with computer%controlled pro)ection units, they can addgraphics, sound, and animation to their communications see Computer%*ided Instruction#.

Computers are used e&tensively in scientific research to solve mathematical problems,

investigate complicated data, or model systems that are too costly or impractical to build, such astesting the air flow around the ne&t generation of aircraft. The military employs computers in

sophisticated communications to encode and unscramble messages, and to keep track of

personnel and supplies.

11.3 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

11.3.1 Beginning

The history of computing began with an analogue machine. In +- /erman scientist 0ilhelm1chikard invented a machine that used ++ complete and incomplete sprocket wheels that could

add, and with the aid of logarithm tables, multiply and divide.

2rench philosopher, mathematician, and physicist 3laise Pascal invented a machine in +4- that

added and subtracted, automatically carrying and borrowing digits from column to column.Pascal built 56 copies of his machine, but most served as curiosities in parlours of the wealthy.

1eventeenth%century /erman mathematician /ottfried 7eibni$ designed a special gearing systemto enable multiplication on Pascal’s machine.

11.3.2. Firt Punc! C"rdIn the early +8th century 2rench inventor 9oseph%:arie 9acquard devised a speciali$ed type ofcomputer; a silk loom. 9acquard’s loom used punched cards to program patterns that helped the

loom create woven fabrics. *lthough 9acquard was rewarded and admired by 2rench emperor

<apoleon I for his work, he fled for his life from the city of 7yon pursued by weavers who

feared their )obs were in )eopardy due to 9acquard’s invention. The loom prevailed, however;0hen 9acquard died, more than 6,666 of his looms e&isted in 7yon. The looms are still used

today, especially in the manufacture of fine furniture fabrics.

11.3.3. Preursor to Mo!ern Computer

*nother early mechanical computer was the =ifference 'ngine, designed in the early +>-6s by

3ritish mathematician and scientist Charles 3abbage. *lthough never completed by 3abbage,

the =ifference 'ngine was intended to be a machine with a -6%decimal capacity that could solvemathematical problems. 3abbage also made plans for another machine, the *nalytical 'ngine,

considered the mechanical precursor of the modern computer. The *nalytical 'ngine was

designed to perform all arithmetic operations efficiently( however, 3abbage’s lack of political

skills kept him from obtaining the approval and funds to build it.*ugusta *da 3yron, countess of 7ovelace, was a personal friend and student of 3abbage. 1he

was the daughter of the famous poet 7ord 3yron and one of only a few woman mathematicians

of her time. 1he prepared e&tensive notes concerning 3abbage’s ideas and the *nalytical 'ngine.7ovelace’s conceptual programs for the machine led to the naming of a programming language

*da# in her honour. *lthough the *nalytical 'ngine was never built, its key concepts, such as

the capacity to store instructions, the use of punched cards as a primitive memory, and the abilityto print, can be found in many modern computers.

11.". #e$e%opments in t&e 2't& Centur(

11.".1. E)r%( E%etroni C)%u%)tors

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?erman ?ollerith, an *merican inventor, used an idea similar to 9acquard’s loom when he

combined the use of punched cards with devices that created and electronically read the cards.?ollerith’s tabulator was used for the +>86 @.1. census, and it made the computational time three

to four times shorter than the time previously needed for hand counts. ?ollerith’s Tabulating

:achine Company eventually merged with two companies to form the Computing%Tabulating%"ecording Company. In +8-4 the company changed its name to International 3usiness :achines

I3:#.

In +8 3ritish mathematician *lan Turing proposed the idea of a machine that could processequations without human direction. The machine now known as a Turing machine# resembled

an automatic typewriter that used symbols for math and logic instead of letters. Turing intended

the device to be a Auniversal machineB that could be used to duplicate or represent the function

of any other e&isting machine. Turing’s machine was the theoretical precursor to the moderndigital computer. The Turing machine model is still used by modern computational theorists.

In the +86s *merican mathematician ?oward *iken developed the :ark I calculating machine,

which was built by I3:. This electronic calculating machine used relays and electromagnetic

components to replace mechanical components. In later machines, *iken used vacuum tubes and solid state transistors tiny electrical switches# to manipulate the binary numbers. *iken also

introduced computers to universities by establishing the first computer science program at?arvard @niversity in Cambridge, :assachusetts. *iken obsessively mistrusted the concept of

storing a program within the computer, insisting that the integrity of the machine could be

maintained only through a strict separation of program instructions from data. ?is computer hadto read instructions from punched cards, which could be stored away from the computer. ?e also

urged the <ational 3ureau of 1tandards not to support the development of computers, insisting

that there would never be a need for more than five or si& of them nationwide.

11.".2. E#*+C, E-I+C, )n! U-I*+C

*t the Institute for *dvanced 1tudy in Princeton, <ew 9ersey, ?ungarian%*merican

mathematician 9ohn von <eumann developed one of the first computers used to solve problems

in mathematics, meteorology, economics, and hydrodynamics. !on <eumanns +845 design forthe 'lectronic =iscrete !ariable *utomatic Computer '=!*C#Din stark contrast to the

designs of *iken, his contemporaryDwas the first electronic computer design to incorporate a

program stored entirely within its memory. This machine led to several others, some with clevernames like I77I*C, 9E?<<I*C, and :*<I*C.

*merican physicist 9ohn :auchly proposed the electronic digital computer called '<I*C, the

'lectronic <umerical Integrator *nd Computer. ?e helped build it along with *merican

engineer 9ohn Presper 'ckert, 9r., at the :oore 1chool of 'ngineering at the @niversity ofPennsylvania in Philadelphia. '<I*C was operational in +845 and introduced to the public in

+84. It is regarded as the first successful, general digital computer. It occupied +F sq m +,>66

sq ft#, weighed more than -F,666 kg 6,666 lb#, and contained more than +>,666 vacuum tubes."oughly -,666 of the computer’s vacuum tubes were replaced each month by a team of si&

technicians. :any of '<I*C’s first tasks were for military purposes, such as calculating ballistic

firing tables and designing atomic weapons. 1ince '<I*C was initially not a stored programmachine, it had to be reprogrammed for each task.

'ckert and :auchly eventually formed their own company, which was then bought by the "and

Corporation. They produced the @niversal *utomatic Computer @<I!*C#, which was used for

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9" 8n the !730s merican mathematician 2oard i-en developed the 4ar- 8calculating machine, hich as built by 8/4" This electronic calculating machine usedrelays and mechanical components to replace electromagnetic components"" merican physicist <ohn 4auchly proposed the electronic digital computer calledE=8+, the Electronic =umerical 8ntegrator nd +omputer"

7" Electronic >iscrete ?ariable utomatic +omputer %E>?+& is regarded as the firstsuccessful, general digital computer and it occupied !19 sq m %!,00 sq ft&, eighedmore than '9,000 -g %10,000 lb&, and contained more than !,000 vacuum tubes"!0" tanasoffs device as the second computer to separate data processing frommemory, but it is not clear hether a functional version as ever built"B. VOCABU8ARY 9ORKT!) uro) o+ t!) +o**o%in& ))rci) i to ro#ot) t!) "cuiition o+ n)%*)ic"* it)# '$ ro-idin& co**oc"tion0 t)r# +o**o%)d '$ r)oition *)ic"*)t "nd tr"n*"tion o+ t!) t)r# conid)r)d r)*)-"nt to t!) toic.B.1. M"tc! )"c! o+ t!) t)r# in co*u#n A %it! " %ord in co*u#n B:A B

to retrieveto processto storeto routeoutput deviceselectronic circuitryadvanced calculusgraphicsanalogue machinelogarithm tablesto add

to subtractmultiplyto dividedigital computer

a @nmulAicircuitele electronicea @nmagazinaa direcAionagraficBaparat analogicperiferice de ieCirea scBdeacalculator digitala @mpBrAia @nmulAi

tabele logaritmicecalcul matematic speciala recupera

a procesa

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d)-)*o#)nt

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B.3. Ent)r t!) +o**o%in& in+or#"tion und)r t!) "rori"t) !)"din& in t!) t"'*)')*o%:8it 11.1.! "roughly ',000 of the computers vacuum tubes ere replaced each month by a teamof si* technicians;

'" first electronic computer design to incorporate a program stored entirely ithin itsmemory;3" is regarded as the first successful, general digital computer;it occupied !19 sq m %!,00 sq ft&, eighed more than '9,000 -g %10,000 lb&, andcontained more than !,000 vacuum tubes; T"'*) 11.2.

E5VAC E6IAC U6IVAC

C. 8A6,UA,E FOCUS: E4EMP8IFICATIO6

T!) uro) o+ t!) +o**o%in& ))rci) i to d)-)*o *"n&u"&) "%"r)n) int)r# o+ ))#*i+ic"tion. C.1. It i o+t)n u)+u* to &i-) )"#*) %!)n d)cri'in&0 d)+inin& orc*"i+$in&. T!i "ction i (no%n " ))#*i+ic"tion /or ))#*i+$in& ).&. i t!)"''r)-i"tion #)"nin& +or )"#*). R)"d )ction 11.1. "nd )ction 11. 3.3. "ndid)nti+$ t!) t)r# u)d +or ))#*i+ic"tion. C.2. U) t!) +o**o%in& t)r# in )nt)nc) d)cri'in& )"r*$ co#utin&d)-ic). M"() ur) t!) *"tt)r "rt i '")d uon t!) in+or#"tion cont"in)d in t!)+or#)r "rt o+ t!) )nt)nc).A6 I88USTRATIO6 OF0 FOR E4AMP8E0 FOR I6STA6CE0 A CASE I6 POI6T0 SUC7AS0 A6 E4AMP8E0 PARTICU8AR8Y

5. TRA6S8ATIO6T!) uro) o+ t!i ))rci) i to d)-)*o tr"n*"tin& (i**.5.1. Tr"n*"t) )ction 11.1. t)t into Ro#"ni"n:E. SPEAKI6,T!) uro) o+ t!)) ))rci) i to d)-)*o )"(in& (i** %it! " +ocu onr))ntin& t!) c!rono*o&ic"* )-o*ution o+ co#utin& d)-ic) "nd ))#*i+$in&.E.2. Pr))nt"tionT"(in& turn0 r))nt )"c! t"&) in t!) d)-)*o#)nt o+ )"r*$ co#ut)r "nd &i-))"#*) o+ rotot$) co#utin& d)-ic).

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Unit 12

RECE6T 5EVE8OPME6TS A65 T7EFUTURE OF COMPUTI6,

AIM:

To recognize the English technical terms related to recent developmentsand the future of computing;

OBJECTIVES:


● identify correctly the terms defining recent developments in computerarchitecture and design;

● recognise the specific terms related to transistor and integratedcircuits technology;

● characterise the main transformations brought about by transistorsand integrated circuits;

● identify the types of equipment used for increasing computer poer

and versatility;

● describe possible future improvements in computer technology andthe applications aimed at;

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● assimilate at least 30 terms specific of integrated circuit technology;

KEY TERMS:

electric s%itch, transistor, integrated circuits, miniaturize, single computer circuit,

microprocessor, integrated circuit technology, personal computers (Cs), -bit !ntel ..

microprocessor, R#, input, s%itches, front panel, output, display, light-emitting diode (/&'s),

storage device, C*, computational abilities, graphical user interface (0*!), sophisticatedoperating system, 1indo%s, #ac 23, /inu4, supercomputer, to compute, parallel processing

machine, #oore5s /a%, po%er, versatility, virus, %orms, malfunction, digital revolution, speech

recognition, virtual reality, virtual-reality program languages, Virtual Reality #odelling

/anguage (VR#/), biological computing, molecular computing, future computational platforms,limitation+

RECE-T #E*EOPME-TS +-# THE FUTURE OF COMPUTI-/12.1. T&e Tr)nsistor )n! Integr)te! Ciruits Tr)nsform Computing

In +84>, at 3ell Telephone 7aboratories, *merican physicists 0alter ?ouser 3rattain, 9ohn

3ardeen, and 0illiam 3radford 1hockley developed the transistor, a device that can act as an

electric switch. The transistor had a tremendous impact on computer design, replacing costly,energy%inefficient, and unreliable vacuum tubes.

In the late +86s integrated circuits tiny transistors and other electrical components arranged on

a single chip of silicon# replaced individual transistors in computers. Integrated circuits resultedfrom the simultaneous, independent work of 9ack Gilby at Te&as Instruments and "obert <oyce

of the 2airchild 1emiconductor Corporation in the late +856s. *s integrated circuits became

miniaturi$ed, more components could be designed into a single computer circuit. In the +8F6s

refinements in integrated circuit technology led to the development of the modernmicroprocessor, integrated circuits that contained thousands of transistors. :odern

microprocessors can contain more than 46 million transistors.

:anufacturers used integrated circuit technology to build smaller and cheaper computers. Thefirst of these so%called personal computers PCs#Dthe *ltair >>66Dappeared in +8F5, sold by

:icro Instrumentation Telemetry 1ystems :IT1#. The *ltair used an >%bit Intel >6>6

microprocessor, had -5 bytes of "*:, received input through switches on the front panel, anddisplayed output on rows of light%emitting diodes 7'=s#. "efinements in the PC continued with

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the inclusion of video displays, better storage devices, and CP@s with more computational

abilities. /raphical user interfaces were first designed by the Hero& Corporation, then later used

successfully by *pple Computer, Inc.. Today the development of sophisticated operatingsystems such as 0indows, the :ac E1, and 7inu& enables computer users to run programs and

manipulate data in ways that were unimaginable in the mid%-6th century.

1everal researchers claim the ArecordB for the largest single calculation ever performed. Enelarge single calculation was accomplished by physicists at I3: in +885. They solved one million

trillion mathematical sub problems by continuously running 44> computers for two years. Their

analysis demonstrated the e&istence of a previously hypothetical subatomic particle called a glue ball. 9apan, Italy, and the @nited 1tates are collaborating to develop new supercomputers that

will run these types of calculations +66 times faster.

In +88 I3: challenged /arry Gasparov, the reigning world chess champion, to a chess match

with a supercomputer called =eep 3lue. The computer had the ability to compute more than +66million chess positions per second. In a +88F rematch =eep 3lue defeated Gasparov, becoming

the first computer to win a match against a reigning world chess champion with regulation time

controls. :any e&perts predict these types of parallel processing machines will soon surpass

human chess playing ability, and some speculate that massive calculating power will one dayreplace intelligence. =eep 3lue serves as a prototype for future computers that will be required to

solve comple& problems. *t issue, however, is whether a computer can be developed with theability to learn to solve problems on its own, rather than one programmed to solve a specific set

of tasks.

12.2. T&e Future of Computers

In +85 semiconductor pioneer /ordon :oore predicted that the number of transistors contained

on a computer chip would double every year. This is now known as :oore’s 7aw, and it has

proven to be somewhat accurate. The number of transistors and the computational speed of

microprocessors currently doubles appro&imately every +> months. Components continue toshrink in si$e and are becoming faster, cheaper, and more versatile.

0ith their increasing power and versatility, computers simplify day%to%day life. @nfortunately, as

computer use becomes more widespread, so do the opportunities for misuse. Computer hackers Dpeople who illegally gain access to computer systemsDoften violate privacy and can tamper

with or destroy records. Programs called viruses or worms can replicate and spread from

computer to computer, erasing information or causing malfunctions. Ether individuals have usedcomputers to electronically embe$$le funds and alter credit histories. <ew ethical issues also

have arisen, such as how to regulate material on the Internet and the 0orld 0ide 0eb. 7ong%

standing issues, such as privacy and freedom of e&pression, are being re%e&amined in light of the

digital revolution. Individuals, companies, and governments are working to solve these problemsthrough informed conversation, compromise, better computer security, and regulatory

legislation.

Computers will become more advanced and they will also become easier to use. Improvedspeech recognition will make the operation of a computer easier. !irtual reality, the technology

of interacting with a computer using all of the human senses, will also contribute to better human

and computer interfaces. 1tandards for virtual%reality program languagesDfor e&ample, !irtual"eality :odelling language !":7#Dare currently in use or are being developed for the 0orld

0ide 0eb.

Ether, e&otic models of computation are being developed, including biological computing that

uses living organisms, molecular computing that uses molecules with particular properties, and

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computing that uses deo&yribonucleic acid =<*#, the basic unit of heredity, to store data and

carry out operations. These are e&amples of possible future computational platforms that, so far,

are limited in abilities or are strictly theoretical. 1cientists investigate them because of the physical limitations of miniaturi$ing circuits embedded in silicon. There are also limitations

related to heat generated by even the tiniest of transistors.

Intriguing breakthroughs occurred in the area of quantum computing in the late +886s. uantumcomputers under development use components of a chloroform molecule a combination of

chlorine and hydrogen atoms# and a variation of a medical procedure called magnetic resonance

imaging :"I# to compute at a molecular level. 1cientists use a branch of physics calledquantum mechanics, which describes the behaviour of subatomic particles particles that make

up atoms#, as the basis for quantum computing. uantum computers may one day be thousands

to millions of times faster than current computers, because they take advantage of the laws that

govern the behaviour of subatomic particles. These laws allow quantum computers to e&amineall possible answers to a query simultaneously. 2uture uses of quantum computers could include

code breaking and large database queries. Theorists of chemistry, computer science,

mathematics, and physics are now working to determine the possibilities and limitations of

quantum computing.Communications between computer users and networks will benefit from new technologies such

as broadband communication systems that can carry significantly more data faster or moreconveniently to and from the vast interconnected databases that continue to grow in number and

type.

You #"$ %"nt to &o '"c( to t!) ()$ %ord *it)d "t t!) ')&innin& o+ t!)unit "nd c!)c( t!"t $ou "r) +"#i*i"r %it! )"c! on). ,i-) t!)ir Ro#"ni"n

)ui-"*)nt /i+ n)c)"r$0 $ou c"n u) t!) &*o"r$ ro-id)d "t t!) )nd o+ t!)t)t'oo(.

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E4ERCISES A. REA5I6,T!) uro) o+ t!) +o**o%in& ))rci) i to d)-)*o r)"din& tr"t)&i) "ndr)in+orc) toic r)*"t)d -oc"'u*"r$0 not to c!)c( '"c(&round (no%*)d&).A.1. 7"-in& r)"d t!) t)t0 "n%)r t!) +o**o%in& u)tion /t!) )ci+ic"tion in'r"c()t r)+)r to t!) )ction in t!) t)t %!)r) t!) "n%)r c"n ') +ound:!" #hen did integrated circuits replace individual transistors in computers$ %!'"!&'" #hat led to the development of modern microprocessors$ %!'"!&3" #hich corporation designed first graphical user interfaces$ %!'"!&(" #hat as the large calculation accomplished by the physicists at 8/4 in !77)$ %!'"!&) #hat is the name of the poerful computers performing such calculations$ %!'"!&

A.2. 7"-in& r)"d t!) t)t0 d)cid) %!)t!)r t!) in+or#"tion &i-)n in t!) t"t)#)nt')*o% i tru) /T or +"*) /F. Corr)ct t!) +"*) t"t)#)nt /t!) )ci+ic"tion in'r"c()t r)+)r o t!) )ction in t!) t)t %!)r) t!) "n%)r c"n ') +ound:+. The transistor had a tremendous impact on computer design, replacing costly, energy%inefficient, and unreliable integrated circuits. +-.+#

-. :odern microprocessors can contain more than 4 million transistors. +-.+#

. The *ltair used an >%bit Intel >6>6 microprocessor, had -5 bytes of "*:, received input

through switches on the front panel, and displayed output on rows of light%emitting diodes7'=s#. +-.+#

4. In +88 I3: challenged /arry Gasparov, the reigning world chess champion, to a chess

match with a supercomputer called =eep 3lue. The computer had the ability to compute more

than +66 million chess positions per second. +-.+#5. =eep 3lue serves as a prototype for future computers that will be required to solve comple&

problems. +-.+#. In +85 semiconductor pioneer /ordon :oore predicted that the number of transistors

contained on a computer chip would double every decade. +-.-#

F. The number of transistors and the computational speed of microprocessors currently doublesappro&imately every +> months. +-.-#

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>. 1tandards for virtual%reality program languagesDfor e&ample, !irtual "eality :odelling

language !":7#Dare currently in use or are being developed for the 0orld 0ide 0eb. +-.-#

8. Ether, e&otic models of computation have been already developed, including biologicalcomputing that uses living organisms, molecular computing that uses molecules with particular

properties, and computing that uses deo&yribonucleic acid =<*#, the basic unit of heredity, to

store data and carry out operations. +-.-#+6. 1cientists use a branch of physics called quantum mechanics, which describes the behaviour

of subatomic particles particles that make up atoms#, as the basis for quantum computing. +-.-#

B. VOCABU8ARY 9ORKT!) uro) o+ t!) +o**o%in& ))rci) i to ro#ot) t!) "cuiition o+ n)%*)ic"* it)# '$ ro-idin& co**oc"tion0 t)r# +o**o%)d '$ r)oition *)ic"*)t "nd tr"n*"tion o+ t!) t)r# conid)r)d r)*)-"nt to t!) toic.B.1. Ent)r t!) +o**o%in& t)r# und)r t!) "rori"t) !)"din& in t!) t"'*) ')*o%:8it 12.1.virtual5reality program languages, code brea-ing and large database queries,broadband communication systems, computational speed of microprocessors, ?irtual

6eality 4odelling language %?64D&, parallel processing machines, ability to learn tosolve problems, biological computing, deo*yribonucleic acid %>=&, silicon, or- of <ac-ilby at Te*as 8nstruments and 6obert =oyce of the .airchild Femiconductor+orporation in the late !7)0s, to store data and carry out operations, quantumcomputing, the development of the modern microprocessor, miniaturization; T"'*) 12.1.

I6TE,RATE5 CIRCUITS FUTURE COMPUTI6, FUTURE APP8ICATIO6S

B.2. Fi** in t!) &" in t!) +o**o%in& t)t %it! t!) t)r# r"ndo#*$ *it)d ')*o%:8it 12.1.refinements, the 4ac OF, prototype, doubles, miniaturized, run programs, transistors,operating systems, integrated, microprocessor, data, computational,T)t 12.1.!" s integrated circuits becameGGGGGGGGGGGGG, more components could be designedinto a single computer circuit"'" 8n the !790s GGGGGGGGGGGGin integrated circuit technology led to the development ofthe modernGGGGGGGG, GGGGGGGGGGcircuits that contained thousands ofGGGGGGGGG"3" Today the development of sophisticated GGGGGGGGG5such as #indos, GGGGGGGGG,and Dinu* enables computer users to GGGGGGGGand manipulateGGGGGGGGG in ays thatere unimaginable in the mid5'0th century"(" >eep /lue serves as a GGGGGGG for future computers that ill be required to solvecomple* problems")" The number of transistors and the GGGGGGGGGG speed of microprocessors currently

GGGGGGGGG appro*imately every ! months"C. 8A6,UA,E FOCUS: PROBABI8ITY

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T!) uro) o+ t!) +o**o%in& ))rci) i to d)-)*o *"n&u"&) "%"r)n) int)r# o+ )r)in& ro'"'i*it$ "nd t)"c! #od"* -)r' "nd )ui-"*)nt)r)ion.

C.1. R)"d t!) )nt)nc) ')*o% "nd #"tc! t!) und)r*in)dt)r#;)r)ion %it! t!)ir #)"nin& in t!) *it.

8it 12.2.A. REMOTE PROBABI8ITYB. PROBABI8ITYC. FUTURE OF PRE5ICTIO65. 8O,ICA8 5E5UCTIO6 FOR A FUTURE EVE6T!" 8n !71) semiconductor pioneer Hordon 4oore predicted that the number oftransistors contained on a computer chip ould IshouldIought to double every year"'" +omputers are going toIill become more advanced and they mayIare li-ely toIcanalso become easier to use"3" ?irtual reality, the technology of interacting ith a computer using all of the humansenses, mightI are li-ely toIcould also contribute to better human and computer

interfaces" Ftandards for virtual5reality program languagesJfor e*ample, ?irtual 6eality4odelling language %?64D&Jare currently in use or are being developed for the #orld#ide #eb"5. TRA6S8ATIO6T!) uro) o+ t!i ))rci) i to d)-)*o tr"n*"tin& (i**.5.1. Tr"n*"t) t!) +o**o%in& )nt)nc) into En&*i!:!" roducBtorii au utilizat tehnologia circuitelor integrate @n construirea unor calculatoarecu dimensiuni Ci costuri de producAie reduse"'" Kn anii !790 @mbunBtBAirile aduse tehnologiei circuitelor integrate au condus ladezvoltarea microprocesorului modern, circuite integrate ce conAineau mii de tranzistori"3" =umeroCi e*perAi preconizeazB cB acest tip de calculatoare cu procesare @n paralel

vor depBCi @n curLnd anumite capacitBAi umane, unii chiar emit speculaAii conform cBrorapotenAialul enorm de calcul al acestora va @nlocui la un moment dat inteligenAa umanB"E. SPEAKI6,T!) uro) o+ t!)) ))rci) i to d)-)*o )"(in& (i** %it! " +ocu onE.1. 9!ic! "r)0 in $our oinion0 t!) n)t t"&) in t!) d)-)*o#)nt o+ co#utin&"nd %!"t %i** ') t!)ir i#"ct. Juti+$ $our "n%)r.

Unit 13

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COMPUTER ARC7ITECTURE A65OR,A6ISATIO6

AIM:

To recognize the English technical terms related to computer architecture

and organization;

OBJECTIVES:


● identify correctly the terms defining each category of computercomponents;

●recognise the specific terms related to operating systems, busses,input devices, output devices and the central processing unit;

● characterise the operation process of each component;

● identify the types of equipment used for performing each specificoperation;

● describe the structure of computer components;

● assimilate at least 30 terms specific of computer architecture andorganization;

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KEY TERMS:

hard%are, physical computer, memory, data, program instructions, central processing unit(C*), keyboard, mouse, printer, soft%are, video display monitor, to display, operating system,

to prompt, command, to control, to store and manage data, se$uence, to run a program, to load

a program, icon, file, to access files, to access commands, to click, to press a combination ofkeys, input method, binary digits, bit, possible representations, byte, numeric digits, kilobyte,

gigabyte, terabyte, programmers, figure, physical memory, random access memory (R#),

read-only memory (R2#), e4ternal storage devices, magnetic floppy disks, hard drives, compact

disc (C'), digital video disc ('V'), bus, memory circuit, parallel %ires, to transmit, simultaneous transmission, joystick, digital image, scanner, touch panel, microphone, voice

recognition soft%are, 6ablet7 computer, screen, microprocessor chip, register, C* memory

location, program counter, decoder, instruction cycle, pipeline processing, output device, a flat

li$uid crystal display, overhead projector, videocassette recorder (VCR), speaker, printer+

COMPUTER ARC7ITECTURE A65 OR,A6ISATIO613.1. 7O9 COMPUTERS 9ORKThe physical computer and its components are known as hardware. Computer hardware includesthe memory that stores data and program instructions( the central processing unit CP@# that

carries out program instructions( the input devices, such as a keyboard or mouse, that allow the

user to communicate with the computer( the output devices, such as printers and video display

monitors, that enable the computer to present information to the user( and buses hardware linesor wires# that connect these and other computer components. The programs that run the

computer are called software. 1oftware generally is designed to perform a particular type of task

Dfor e&ample, to control the arm of a robot to weld a car’s body, to write a letter, to display andmodify a photograph, or to direct the general operation of the computer.

13.2. THE OPER+TI-/ SYSTEM

0hen a computer is turned on it searches for instructions in its memory. These instructions tellthe computer how to start up. @sually, one of the first sets of these instructions is a special

program called the operating system, which is the software that makes the computer work. It

prompts the user or other machines# for input and commands, reports the results of these

commands and other operations, stores and manages data, and controls the sequence of thesoftware and hardware actions. 0hen the user requests that a program run, the operating system

loads the program in the computer’s memory and runs the program. Popular operating systems,

such as :icrosoft 0indows and the :acintosh system :ac E1#, have graphical user interfaces/@Is#Dthat use tiny pictures, or icons, to represent various files and commands. To access

these files or commands, the user clicks the mouse on the icon or presses a combination of keys

on the keyboard. 1ome operating systems allow the user to carry out these tasks via voice, touch,or other input methods.

13.3. COMPUTER MEMORY

To process information electronically, data are stored in a computer in the form of binary digits,

or bits, each having two possible representations 6 or +#. If a second bit is added to a single bit

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of information, the number of representations is doubled, resulting in four possible combinations;

66, 6+, +6, or ++. * third bit added to this two%bit representation again doubles the number of

combinations, resulting in eight possibilities; 666, 66+, 6+6, 6++, +66, +6+, ++6, or +++. 'achtime a bit is added, the number of possible patterns is doubled. 'ight bits is called a byte( a byte

has -5 possible combinations of 6s and +s.

* byte is a useful quantity in which to store information because it provides enough possible patterns to represent the entire alphabet, in lower and upper cases, as well as numeric digits,

punctuation marks, and several character%si$ed graphics symbols, including non%'nglish

characters such as p. * byte also can be interpreted as a pattern that represents a number between6 and -55. * kilobyteD+,6-4 bytesDcan store about +,666 characters( a megabyte can store

about + million characters( a gigabyte can store about + billion characters( and a terabyte can

store about + trillion characters. Computer programmers usually decide how a given byte should

be interpretedDthat is, as a single character, a character within a string of te&t, a single number,or part of a larger number. <umbers can represent anything from chemical bonds to dollar

figures to colours to sounds.

The physical memory of a computer is either random access memory "*:#, which can be read

or changed by the user or computer, or read%only memory "E:#, which can be read by thecomputer but not altered in any way. Ene way to store memory is within the circuitry of the

computer, usually in tiny computer chips that hold millions of bytes of information. The memorywithin these computer chips is "*:. :emory also can be stored outside the circuitry of the

computer on e&ternal storage devices, such as magnetic floppy disks, which can store about -

megabytes of information( hard drives, which can store gigabytes of information( compact discsC=s#, which can store up to >6 megabytes of information( and digital video discs =!=s#,

which can store >.5 gigabytes of information. * single C= can store nearly as much information

as several hundred floppy disks, and some =!=s can hold more than +- times as much data as a

C=.

13.". THE BUS

The bus enables the components in a computer, such as the CP@ and the memory circuits, to

communicate as program instructions are being carried out. The bus is usually a flat cable withnumerous parallel wires. 'ach wire can carry one bit, so the bus can transmit many bits along the

cable at the same time. 2or e&ample, a +%bit bus, with + parallel wires, allows the simultaneous

transmission of + bits - bytes# of information from one component to another. 'arly computerdesigns utili$ed a single or very few buses. :odern designs typically use many buses, some of

them speciali$ed to carry particular forms of data, such as graphics.

13.0. I-PUT #E*ICES

Input devices, such as a keyboard or mouse, permit the computer user to communicate with thecomputer. Ether input devices include a )oystick, a rod like device often used by people who

play computer games( a scanner, which converts images such as photographs into digital images

that the computer can manipulate( a touch panel, which senses the placement of a user’s fingerand can be used to e&ecute commands or access files( and a microphone, used to input sounds

such as the human voice which can activate computer commands in con)unction with voice

recognition software. ATabletB computers are being developed that will allow users to interactwith their screens using a pen like device.

13.. THE CE-TR+ PROCESSI-/ U-IT

Information from an input device or from the computer’s memory is communicated via the bus

to the central processing unit CP@#, which is the part of the computer that translates commands

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and runs programs. The CP@ is a microprocessor chipDthat is, a single piece of silicon

containing millions of tiny, microscopically wired electrical components. Information is stored in

a CP@ memory location called a register. "egisters can be thought of as the CP@’s tinyscratchpad, temporarily storing instructions or data. 0hen a program is running, one special

register called the program counter keeps track of which program instruction comes ne&t by

maintaining the memory location of the ne&t program instruction to be e&ecuted. The CP@’scontrol unit coordinates and times the CP@’s functions, and it uses the program counter to locate

and retrieve the ne&t instruction from memory.

In a typical sequence, the CP@ locates the ne&t instruction in the appropriate memory device.The instruction then travels along the bus from the computer’s memory to the CP@, where it is

stored in a special instruction register. :eanwhile, the program counter changesDusually

increasing a small amountDso that it contains the location of the instruction that will be

e&ecuted ne&t. The current instruction is analy$ed by a decoder, which determines what theinstruction will do. *ny data the instruction needs are retrieved via the bus and placed in the

CP@’s registers. The CP@ e&ecutes the instruction, and the results are stored in another register

or copied to specific memory locations via a bus. This entire sequence of steps is called an

instruction cycle. 2requently, several instructions may be in process simultaneously, each at adifferent stage in its instruction cycle. This is called pipeline processing.

13. . OUTPUT #E*ICES

Ence the CP@ has e&ecuted the program instruction, the program may request that the

information be communicated to an output device, such as a video display monitor or a flat

liquid crystal display. Ether output devices are printers, overhead pro)ectors, videocassetterecorders !C"s#, and speakers.

You #"$ %"nt to &o '"c( to t!) ()$ %ord *it)d "t t!) ')&innin& o+ t!)

unit "nd c!)c( t!"t $ou "r) +"#i*i"r %it! )"c! on). ,i-) t!)ir Ro#"ni"n)ui-"*)nt /i+ n)c)"r$0 $ou c"n u) t!) &*o"r$ ro-id)d "t t!) )nd o+ t!)t)t'oo(.

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E4ERCISES

A. REA5I6,T!) uro) o+ t!) +o**o%in& ))rci) i to d)-)*o r)"din& tr"t)&i) "ndr)in+orc) toic r)*"t)d -oc"'u*"r$0 not to c!)c( '"c(&round (no%*)d&).A.1. R)"d t!) t)t "nd id)nti+$ < #"in c"t)&ori) o+ co#ut)r co#on)nt " %)**" t!)ir +unction.A.2. Uin& t!) '"c(&round (no%*)d&) "nd t!) in+or#"tion ro-id)d in t!) t)t"'out co#ut)r "rc!it)ctur) "nd or&"ni="tion0 "n%)r t!) +o**o%in& u)tion:!" #hat is the term used to define the physical computer$'" #hat is the term used to define the programs that run in a computer$3" >escribe the operating system and give e*amples"(" #hich is the operating principle of computer memory$

)" #hat is the difference beteen the to types of computer memory$1" #hat is the bus and hat is its function$9" =ame at least three types of input devices"" #hat is the +M$7" 2o does the +M operate$!0" =ame at least three output devices"B. VOCABU8ARY 9ORKT!) uro) o+ t!) +o**o%in& ))rci) i to ro#ot) t!) "cuiition o+ n)%*)ic"* it)# '$ ro-idin& co**oc"tion0 t)r# +o**o%)d '$ r)oition *)ic"*)t "nd tr"n*"tion o+ t!) t)r# conid)r)d r)*)-"nt to t!) toic.B.1. Fi** in t!) +o**o%in& di"&r"# %it! t!) #iin& t)r#:

I6PUT 5EVICES

OUTPUT 5EVICES

B.2. Fini! t!) +o**o%in& )nt)nc) '$ ro-idin& t!) #iin& %ord:

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...i;"r) c"**)d>!" The physical computer and its componentsNNNNNN"'" The unit that carries out program instructionsNNNNN3" >evices that allo the user to communicate ith the computerNNN"(" >evices hat enable the computer to present information to the userNN"

)" 2ardare lines or ires that connect these and other computer componentsNN1" The programs that run the computerNNNNNNN""9" !,0'( bytes that can store about !,000 characters NNN"" The memory ithin these computer chipsNNNN7" The flat cable ith numerous parallel ires alloing the simultaneous

transmission of !1 bits %' bytes& of information from one component toanotherNNN""

!0" The +M memory location here information is storedNNNB.3. Add "t *)"t t%o #or) t)r# to )"c! o+ t!) )ri) &i-)n ')*o%:!" +M, computer memory'" #indos, Dinu*

3" /yte, megabyte,C. 8A6,UA,E FOCUS: E6UMERATIO6T!) uro) o+ t!) +o**o%in& ))rci) i to d)-)*o *"n&u"&) "%"r)n) int)r# o+ )nu#)r"tion. C.1. 9!)n c*"i+$in& it i o+t)n n)c)"r$ to )nu#)r"t) t!) it)#')*on&in& to " )ci+ic c"t)&or$. T!)$ "r) uu"**$ *it)d in "n d)c)ndin&)u)nc) r)+*)ctin& r)*)-"nt c!"r"ct)ritic0 uc! " t!)ir i#ort"nc)0 i=)0c""cit$ )tc. A** t)r# "r) )"r"t)d '$ co##"0 )c)t t!) *"t on) uu"**$roc))d)d '$ A65 /"*o. So#)ti#) t!) co##" i r)*"c)d '$ " )#i?co*on. Itcoordin"t) or @oin t%o ind))nd)nt 'ut r)*"t)d c*"u) or )nt)nc). C.2. R)r)"d t!) t)t "nd id)nti+$ "t *)"t 3 di++)r)nt )nu#)r"tion "tt)rn.

5. TRA6S8ATIO6T!) uro) o+ t!i ))rci) i to d)-)*o tr"n*"tin& (i**.5.1. Tr"n*"t) t!) +o**o%in& t)r# into En&*i!:!" magistralB'" microprocesor 3" periferice de intrare(" periferice de ieCire)" sistem de operare1" imprimantB9" monitor " graficB7" a rula un program!0" interfaABE. SPEAKI6,T!) uro) o+ t!)) ))rci) i to d)-)*o )"(in& (i** %it! " +ocu onco#ut)r "rc!it)ctur) "nd or&"ni="tion.E.2. Pr))nt"tion5)cri') $our co#ut)r "nd t!in( o+ t!r)) n)c)"r$ i#ro-)#)nt "nd )*"int!) r)"on.

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Unit 11 12 13 14