UNIVERsm MALAYSIA SABAH

BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS

JUDUL: NUTRmONAL COMPosmON AND ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF SELECTED EDIBLE WILD MUSHROOMS

UAZAH: SARJANA SAINS

SAY A CHONG KlAN SHIN SESI PENGAJIAN: 04/05 SEM II - 08/09 SEM II

mengaku membenarkan tesis Sarjana ini disimpan di Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan seperti berikut:

1. Tesis adalah hakmilik Universiti Malaysia Sabah. 2. Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk

tujuan pengajian sahaja. 3. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis ini sebagai bahan pertukaran

antara institutsi pengajian tinggi. 4. Silan tandakan (/)

D SULIT

D TERHAD

(Mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keselamatan atau Kepentingan Malaysia seperti yang termaktub di dalam AKTA RAHSIA RASMI 1972)

(Mengandungi maklumat TERHAD yang telah ditentukan oleh organisasij badan di mana penyelidikan dijalankan)

d TIDAK TERHAD

(TANDATANGAN PENUUS)

Alamat Tetap: 74, Jalan Bunga Raya, 75100 Melaka.

Tarikh: 9 Ogos 2010

Disahkan Oleh

JAMJUN MICHEAL PUSTAKAWAN

PERPUSTAKAAN UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABA

GAN PUSTAKAWAN)

Nama Penyelia

Tarikh: ______ _

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION AND ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF SELECTED

EDIBLE WILD MUSHROOMS

CHONG KlAN SHIN

THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE MASTER OF

SCIENCE

SCHOOL OF FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

KOTA KINABALU 2009

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the material in this thesis is my own except for quotations, excerpts, summaries and references, which have been duly acknowledged.

13 Feb 2009

(CHONG KIAN SHIN)

(PS04-009-003)

ii

NAME

MATRIC NO

mLE

DEGREE

VIVA DATE

SUPERVISOR

CERTIFICATION

CHONG KlAN SHIN

PS04-009-003

NUTRmONAL COMPosmON AND ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF SELECTED EDIBLE WILD MUSHROOMS.

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN FOOD CHEMISTRY

22lUNE 2009

DECLARED BY

1. DR CHYE FOOK YEE

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All glory to God! I praise God for His mercy and grace that enable me to go through the laborious research and thesis writing.

I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude towards my supervisor for his guidance and support. He has not only imparted his knowledge but also the passion in quest of the unknown and many possibilities to contribute to a better research.

I would also like to thank the dean of School of Food Science and Nutrition, Dr Mohd. Ismail Abdullah for his effort in providing a research environment that is conducive to the postgraduates. Not to forget all the lectures especially Dr Lee Jau Shya, Miss Ho Ai Ling and Madam Patricia Matanjun that had share their experience and knowledge selflessly to me.

Thanks to all the lab assistants especially En. Taipin, En. Othman and Pn Zainab in their aid of providing the chemical and glassware that were needed for the research.

A successful research is never the work of a single person. I can never complete my research and thesis without the help of my fellow postgraduate colleague. Thank you very much Jin Yi, Xue Ni, Vanessa Chin, Sim, Kar Fei and Hoe Seng for the brainstorming session that we had gone through together and of course many precious ideas that you they had provided along the year. The tears and joy that we shared in the lab will be the precious moment that engraved in my heart forever.

I would also like to express my appreciation towards my senior Sik Ruok Yen, Nurul and Naransa for exposing and teaching me how to handle and maintain instruments such as GC and HPLC. Their help marked the starting point of my research.

A friend in need is a friend indeed. Thank you Doh, Michelle Cheah, Lorraine, John, Fang fang for being there when I was in need. They provided relief by being there at the right time and right place and had indeed enriched my dry and monotonous postgraduate life.

The greatest support come none other than my family member. Thank you papa for supporting me financially, mummy for many encouragement and comfort that you had never cease showering upon my life. Thanks to my brother Alfred for many technical support and proof read my thesis draft, second sister Nicole for helping me to retrieve many journal articles and my elder sister for her unconditional love towards me all these year.

Last but not least, special thanks and love to the man of my life, David Lai. His love and patience had indeed helped me through the most difficult passage of my life.

iv

ABSTRACT

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION AND ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF SELECTED EDIBLE WILD MUSHROOMS

Ten species of edible wild mushrooms that are commonly consumed by the locals were analyzed to determine their nutritional composition and antioxidant activity. Minerals content were determined by Flame Atomic and Graphite Furnace Spectrometry while vitamins were acquired by High Performance Liquid Chromatography. Fatty acid and amino acid profiles were determined by Gas Chromatography with flame ionization detector. Lentinellus omphallodes was found to have the highest content of protein (14% of dry weight), but low in fat (1.5%) and relatively a good source of fibre (14.8%). Potassium is the most abundant mineral in all mushroom samples analyzed, followed by magnesium and calcium. Sodium concentration was relatively low in all wild mushrooms. However, calcium content in Pleurotus cornucopiae is 10 times higher than the cultivated mushrooms. Overall, the trace element concentrations across all wild mushrooms were in the order Fe>Zn>Mn>Cu>Cr. The highest content of thiamin, riboflavin and ascorbic acid were found in Hygrocybe conica while the highest concentration for 0 -

tocopherol was determined at 134.41 IJg/g in Galiella ruta. Linoleic acid is the dominant unsaturated fatty acid in all mushrooms species in which Pleurotus cornucopiae contained as high as 5665.26 IJg/g. Hygrocybe conica had a higher number of essential amino acids than all other mushroom species, while Pleurotus sp. and Trametes sp. had the least. The highest concentration of amino acids found were alanine, valine, methionine and glutamiC acid. Phenolic components were abundantly found in Schizophyllum commune (50.5 mg GAE/g of fresh sample) as compared to Lentinus edodes (24 mg GAE/g of fresh sample). Methanolic extracts of Scizophyllum commune and Hygrocybe conica showed comparable DPPH radical scavenging ability (96%) to the synthetic BHA at 1 mg/ml. BeSides, Hygrocybe conica is also a good chelator for ferrous ions with the chelating ability of 90.5% at 1 mg/ml, much higher than BHA at the same concentration. The antioxidant activity in ~-carotene-linoleic acid bleaching assay were moderate for all mushrooms samples. These results demonstrate that the nutritional value of edible wild mushrooms compares favorably with cultivated mushrooms. Species with great nutritional properties would be the choice of selection for commercial cultivation and further exploration to abate micronutrient deficiency in local communities.

v

ABSTRAK

Sepuluh spesis cendawan liar yang biasa dimakan oleh orang tempatan telah dianalisis untuk menentukan komposisi nutrisi dan aktiviti antioksidan. Kandungan mineral telah ditentukan oleh Spektrometri Fame Atomic Absorption dan Graphite Furnace manakala vitamin ditentukan oleh HLPC. Profil asid lemak dan asid amino ditentukan oleh Gas Kromatografi dengan pengesan flame ionization. Lentine//us ompha//odes telah didapati mengandungi nilai protein yang paling tinggi (14% dari berat kering), tetapi rendah dari segi lemak (1.5%) dan merupakan sumber fiber (14.8%) yang baik. Potassium merupakan mineral yang paling banyak di dalam semua sampel yang dianalisis, diikuti oleh magnesium dan kalsium. Kandungan sodium adalah rendah secara relatif di dalam semua cendawan liar. Kalsium yang terkandung dalam Pleurotus cornucopiae adalah 10 kali lebih tinggi dari cendawan tanaman. Secara keseluruhan, kandungan unsur surih di antara cendawan liar adalah di dalam turutan Fe>Zn>Mn> Cu> Cr. Hygrocybe conica mempunyai kandungan thiamin, riboflavin dan ascorbic acid yang tertinggi manakala kandungan a-tocopherol yang paling tinggi telah ditentukan pada 134.41 I1g/g di dalam Galie//a rufa. Asid linolenik merupakan asid lemak tidak tepu yang paling tinggi di dalam semua cendawan di mana Pleurotus cornucopiae mengandungi 566.5 mg/g. Hygrocybe conica mumpunyai bilangan asid amino per/u yang lebih tinggi dari spesis cendawan yang lain, manakala Pleurotus sp. dan Trametes sp. adalah paling rendah. Asid amino pada kepekatan yang paling tinggi di dalam semua sampel cendawan liar adalah alanine, valine, methionine dan asid glutamik. Komponen phenolic adalah kaya di dalam Schizophyllum commune (50.5 mg GAE/g dari berat segar sampel) jika dibanding dengan lentinus edodes (24 mg GAE/g dari berat segar sampel). Ekstrak methanol Schizophy//um commune dan Hygrocybe conica menunjukkan keupayaan scavenge radikal (96%) yang setanding dengan BHA pada 1 mg/ml. Selain itu, Hygrocybe conica juga merupakan chelator yang baik untuk ion rerum, iaitu 90.5% pada 1 mg/g, lebih tinggi daripada BHA pada kepekatan yang sama. Aktiviti antioxidan di dalam /3-carotene-linoleic acid bleaching assayadalah sederhana pada 2.0 mg/ml. Keputusan ini menunjukkan bahawa nilai nutrisi cendawan liar adalah setanding dengan cendawan tanaman. Spesis dengan ciri nutrisi yang baik boleh dijadikan pilihan untuk penanaman secara komersial dan dikaji selanjutnya untuk menangani masalah kekurangan mikronutrien di komuniti tempatan.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE DECLARATION CERTIIFICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLES OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF APPENDICES SYMBOLS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Malnutrition and Micronutrient Deficiency 2.1.1 Global View on Malnutrition 2.1.2 Micronutrient Deficiency

A. Vitamin A Deficiency B. Iron Deficiency C. Iodine Deficiency D. Zinc Deficiency

2.1.3 Strategies to Prevent and Control Malnutrition And Micronutrient Deficiency A. Malnutrition B. Micronutrient Deficiency

2.2 Mushrooms 2.2.1 Growth of the Mushrooms

A. Sapropyhtic Fungi B. Symbiotic Fungi C. Parasitic Fungi

2.2.2 Collection and Identification of Wild Mushrooms 2.2.3 Post Harvest Handling of Mushrooms

2.3 Mushrooms Production

2.4 Medicinal Mushrooms 2.4.1 Antitumor and Immunomodulating Activity 2.4.2 Cardiovaskular and Antihyperlipidemic Effect 2.4.3 Antiviral Effect 2.4.4 Hepatoprotective Effect 2.4.5 Hypoglycemic Effect

2.5 Nutritional Properties of Edible Wild Mushrooms 2.5.1 Carbohydrate and Fibre

vii

Page

ii iii iv v vi vii x xii xiii xiv

1

7

7 8 9 9 10 11 11 12

13 14

15 17 18 20 21 22 24

25

30 32 36 37 38 39

40 40

2.5.2 Protein and Amino Acid 2.5.3 Fat and Fatty Acid 2.5.4 Minerals 2.5.5 Vitamins

44 47 50 54

2.6 Antioxidants 56 2.6.1 Antioxidant Capacity and Reactivity 58 2.6.2 Antioxidant Reaction Mechanism 59

A. Methods Utilizing Hat Reaction Mechanism 60 i.Orac 60 ii. B-Carotene Bleaching 61

B. Methods Utilizing Set Reaction Mechanism 62 i. 2,2 Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (Dpph) Assay 62 ii. Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity Assay 63

2.6.3 Antioxidant in Mushrooms 64

2.7 Prospective of Edible Wild Mushrooms 66 2.7.1 Phamarcological and Functional Potential 66 2.7.2 Mushrooms Cultivation for Poverty Alleviation 67 2.7.3 Edible Wild Mushrooms' Gathering as Additional Income and 68

Promoting Traditional Knowledge and Lifestyle 2.7.4 Edible Wild Mushrooms in Combating Hunger, Malnutrition 70

and Micronutrient Deficiency

CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS 72

3.1 Sample Collection 72

3.2 Proximate Analysis 73 3.2.1 Protein 73 3.2.2 Fat 74 3.2.3 Fibre 74 3.2.4 Ash Content 75 3.2.5 Moisture Content 76 3.2.6 Carbohydrate Content 76

3.3 Minerals Analysis 76

3.4. Vitamins Determination 78 3.4.1 Vitamin A(Beta-Carotene) and E (Alpha-Tocopherol) 78 3.4.2 Vitamin B1 (Thiamin) and Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) 79 3.4.3 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) 80

3.5 Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (Fame) Composition 81

3.6 Amino Acid Profile 82

3.7 Antioxidant Component and Activity 84 3.7.1 Extraction 84

viii

3.7.2 Determination of Total Phenolic Content 84 3.7.3 Scavenging Effect on 1,1-Diphenyl-2-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) 85

Radical 3.7.4 Chelating Ability on Ferrous Ions 85 3.7.5 ~-Carotene Bleaching Method 85

3.8 Statistical Analysis 86

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 87

4.1 Characteristic and Traditional Usage of Edible Wild Mushrooms 87

4.2 Macronutrient Content 92

4.3 Mineral Content 96

4.4 Vitamin Content 100

4.5 Fatty Acid Composition 103

4.6 Amino Acid Profile 107

4.7 Total Phenolic Contents and Antioxidant Activities 113 4.7.1 Yield of Mushroom Extracts 113 4.7.2 Total Phenolic Content 114 4.7.3 Scavenging Effect on 1,1-Diphenyl-2-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) 116

Radicals 4.7.4 Chelating Effects 120 4.7.5 B-Carotene Assay 123 4.7.6 Correlations Coefficients of Total Phenolic Contents and 126

Antioxidant Activities

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS 129

CHAPTER 6: SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 130

REFERENCES 132

APPENDICES 174

ix

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Table 2.5

Table 2.6

Table 2.7

Table 2.8

Table 2.9

Table 2.10

Table 2.11

Table 2.12

Table 3.1

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5 Table 4.6

LIST OF TABLES

Estimated Prevalence (percent) and death (thousands) of selected nutritional deficiency in children ages under five, by region.

Population (all age groups) with insufficient iodine intake by regions and proportion of households using iodized salt.

Estimated figure of top twenty mushroom producing's country in 2005

World Production (fresh weight x 1000MT) of Cultivated Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms in Different Years

Import and export trend of mushroom in Malaysia (2001-2004)

Cross index of medically active higher Basidiomycetes mushrooms and their medicinal properties

Antitumour active polysaccharides isolated from medicinal higher Basidiomycete mushrooms

Proximate composition of some wild edible mushroom (% dry weight)

Amino acid composition (mg/g) of edible wild mushrooms

Fatty acid composition (%) of edible wild mushrooms

Mineral content in edible wild mushrooms (mg/kg)

Vitamin contents of edible wild mushrooms

Operating Parameters of MS, Avanta I, GBC Scientif Equipment for different element

Different species of wild edible fungi and their morphological characteristics

Chemical composition (% dry weight) of edible wild mushrooms

Mineral contents (mg/kg dry weight) of edible wild mushrooms

Vitamin content (\-Ig/g fresh weight basis) in edible wild mushrooms

Fatty acid content (\-Ig/g) in edible wild mushrooms Amino acid content in edible wild mushrooms (mg/g)

x

Page 10

12

27

29

29

31

33

42

45

48

52

55

78

90

94

99

102

106 111

Table 4.7 Suggested requirement patterns for the preschool child and adult 113 in mg/g amino acid and amino acid content of whole dried milk and egg

Table 4.8 Yield of methanolic extracts and total phenolic content of selected 115 fresh edible wild mushrooms

Table 4.9 ECso values (mg/ml) of edible wild mushroom methanolic extracts 120 in the antioxidant activity evaluation assay

Table 4.10 Correlation coefficient between assays 129

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 2.1 A sketch of mushroom 17

Figure 2.2 Life cycle of mushrooms 18

Figure 2.3 Examples of saprophytic mushrooms 19

Figure 2.4 Examples of symbiotic mushrooms 21

Figure 2.5 Armillaria mellea and Strobilurus kemptonae, a pathogenic 22 mushroom

Figure 2.6 Making a spore print 24

Figure 4.1 Scavenging activity (%) on DPPH radicals of methanolic 119 extracts from edible wild mushrooms.

Figure 4.2 Chelating ability of methanolic extracts from edible wild 123 mushrooms on ferrous ions

Figure 4.3 Antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of edible wild 126 mushrooms using ~-carotene-linoleate system

xii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Page Appendix A Standard curve and results of different minerals 175

Appendix B Beta-carotene and a-tocopherol standard curve 183

Appendix C Thiamin and Ribofalvin standard curve 184

Appendix D Ascorbic acid standard curve 185

Appendix E Gallic acid standard curve 186

Appendix F Chromatogram of samples for Vitamin A and E analysis 187

Appendix G Chromatogram of samples for thiamine analysis 189

Appendix H Chromatogram of samples for riboflavin analysis 191

Appendix I Chromatogram of samples for vitamin C analysis 193

Appendix J Chromatogram of samples for fatty acid methyl ester 195 profile

Appendix K Chromatogram of samples for amino acid profile 198

Appendix L Relationship (R2=0.42) between scavenging activity of 203 DPPH radicals (%) and total phenolic content expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents per gram fresh weight (mg GAE/g fresh weight) in edible wild mushrooms

Appendix M Relationship (R2=0.54) between metal chelating effect 204 (%) and total phenolic content expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents per gram fresh weight (mg GAE/g fw) in edible wild mushrooms

Appendix N Relationship (R2=0.55) between B-carotene linoleate 204 bleaching system (%) and total phenolic content expressed as mg gallic acid per gram fresh weight (mg GAE/g fw) in edible wild mushrooms

xiii

SYMBOLS

% Percentage

cm Centimeter

wt. Weight

w/w Weight per weight

ppm Part per million (10-6)

g Gram(s)

ml Milliliter( s)

mg Milligram

°C Degree Celsius

RM Ringgit Malaysia

~ Beta

V Gamma

a Alpha

1.1 Micro

xiv

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A mushroom is a macrofungus with a distinctive fruiting body, which can be

epigeous or hypogeous and large enough to be seen by naked eye and to be picked

by hand. They are diverse in form, varying from the well-known cap and stem type

to those species with shelf-like fruit bodies and those that grow flat. Despite this

diversity, the fruit bodies of some closely related mushrooms could look very similar

and require careful examination for accurate identification (La=ss0e, 2000).

Mushrooms can be roughly divided into four categories: edible mushrooms,

medicinal mushrooms, poisonous mushrooms and other mushrooms (whose

properties remain unknown). Certainly, this mushroom classification is not absolute

because many mushrooms are not only edible but also possess tonic and medicinal

qualities (Chang & Miles, 2004).

Wild edible mushrooms have been collected and consumed by people for

thousands of years. The archaeological record reveals edible species associated

with people living 13,000 years ago in Chile (Rojas & Mansur, 1995) but it is in

China where the eating of wild mushrooms is first reliably noted, several hundred

years before the birth of Christ (Aaronson, 2000). Caesar's mushroom (Amanita

caesarea) is a reminder of an ancient tradition that still exists in many parts of

Italy, embracing a diversity of edible species dominated today by truffles (Tuber

spp.) and porcini (Boletus edulis) (Boa, 2004). China features prominently in the

early and later historical record of wild edible mushrooms. The Chinese have valued

for centuries many species, not only for nutrition and taste but also for their healing

properties. Mushrooms such as Reishi, Maitake and Ganoderma have been used as

taditional medicine to treat various diseases (Wang, 1987).

There are at least 12,000 species of fungi that can be considered as

mushrooms with approximately 2,000 species showing various degrees of edibility.

Even though there are well over 300 genera of edible mushrooms and related

fleshy basidiomycetes, only a few of them have been successfully cultivated. One of

the reasons for this is that perhaps 75% of the field and forest mushrooms are

mycorrhizal and have yet to be induced to sporulate without the presence of their

host (Breene, 1990). To date, about 35 mushroom species have been cultivated

commercially and of these, about 20 are cultivated on an industrial scale. The

majority of these cultivated species are both edible and possess medicinal

properties. Several saprophytic species have been successfully cultivated and this

represents an enormous industry in many countries (Chang & Miles, 2004).

Commercial markets are dominated by Agaricus bisporus (button mushroom),

Lentinu/a edodes (shiitake) and Pleurotus spp. (oyster mushroom) and these

accounts for nearly three quarters of the cultivated mushrooms grown around the

world. Overall, the world production of cultivated edible was recorded as 2,961,493

metric ton in 2002 (USDA, 2006). Only about 45% of mushrooms produced are

consumed in the fresh form, while the rests are processed with 5% in the

dehydrated form and 50% as canned foods. Due to the short shelf life in fresh

produce, mushrooms are traded in the world market mostly in the processed form

(Marshall & Nair, 2009).

The acceptance of cultivated mushrooms such as shiitake, oyster mushroom

and button mushroom as a delicacy are well established worldwide. These

mushrooms have been used as food and food flavouring materials for centuries due

to their unique and subtle flavours. They are highly appreciated for their wonderful

aromas particularly prized for cooking throughout the world. However, the

popularity of wild mushrooms was threatened by a few cases of poisoning by

inexperienced harvesters who did not carefully examine the wild mushrooms before

consumption. The threat posed by poisonous and lethal species is often overstated

and over publicised by the media. Incidents of poisoning and deaths are few as

compared to the regular and safe consumption of edible species, but publicity and

cultural attitudes continue to fuel an intrinsic fear of wild fungi in some societies.

The fears of consuming edible wild mushrooms are more commonly found in

developed countries but are widely accepted in other part of the world (Boa, 2004).

2

The consumption of wild mushrooms is increasing in recent years especially in the

developed world due to the good nutritional value of these wild species particularly

as source of proteins and trace minerals (Thimmel & Kluthe, 1998). The mineral

content in edible wild mushrooms is generally higher than cultivated mushrooms

and vegetables (Aletor, 1995; Mattilla et al., 2001; Rudawska & Leski, 2005). The

qualities of protein are good, which constituted mainly as essential amino acids

such as leusine, methionine, tryptophan and valine (Longvah & Deosthale, 1997;

Diez & Alvarez, 2001; Agrahar-Murugkar & Suggulakshmi, 2004). However, their fat

fraction is relatively small and mainly composed of polyunsaturated linoleic acid

(Yilmaz et al., 2005; Barros et al., 2007b). Dietary fibre particularly beta glucan is

also found abundantly in edible wild mushrooms which had been widely known for

their functional biological properties (Manzi & Pizzoferrato, 2000).

Certain mushroom species have been shown to contain substances that

could prevent or alleviate cancer, heart disease, and diseases caused by viral

infections (Hobbs, 1995; Mizuno, 1995; Stamets, 2001). Edible wild mushrooms are

a valuable source of biological active compounds. These bioactive compounds have

been found to decrease DNA damage, reduce carcinogen concentrations and their

activation, inhibit the growth of cancer cells by scavenging free radicals, stimulate

the immune system, and induction of tumor cell apoptosis (Cheng, 1993; Chihara,

1970; Ooi et al., 2002). The stimulation of the immune system by the beta-glucans

fraction in Grifola frondosa protects against cold, flu, infections, as well as AIDS by

inhibition of viral replication (Zhuang & Mizuno, 1999). Mushrooms contain effective

substances which decrease the LDL fraction of cholesterol in blood. They also

prevent the accumulation of serum triaclyglycerols, thus decreasing the risk of

developing cardiovascular disease (Adachi et al., 1988; Bobek, 1991; Cheng et al.,

2002).

Polysaccharides and polysaccharide-protein complexes with potent and

unique health-enhancing properties were isolated from Grifola frondosa and

Lentinula edodes (Hishida et al., 1988; Mizuno, 1999). Several antitumor

polysaccharides, such as hetero-glucans and their protein complexes as well as

dietary fiber, lectins, and terpenoids, have been isolated from the fruiting bodies,

3

mycelia, and culture media of various medicinal mushrooms such as reishi

(Ganoderma lucidum )(Lee et al., 2003), turkey tail (Trametes versicolof'j

(Zjawiony, 2004), split gill (Schizophyllum commune) (Ochiai et al., 1992), mulberry

yellow polypore (Phellinus linteus) (Han et al., 1999), and chaga or cinder conk

(Inonotus obliquus ) (Babitskaya et al., 2002). Other pharmacological potential of

mushrooms that had been discovered are antibacterial (Mothana et al., 2000;

Smania et al., 2003; Smania et al., 1999), antiviral (Brandt & Piraino, 2000;

Mothana et al., 2003; Awadh et al., 2003), and antiallergic (Sano et al., 2002; Koch

et al., 2002; Min et al., 2001).

Edible wild mushrooms have been shown to possess potent antioxidant

activity due to their ability to chelate metals, inhibit lipoxygenase and scavenge free

radicals (Ferreira et al., 2007; Barros et al., 2007; Elmastas et al., 2007). They have

shown to accumulate a variety of secondary metabolites including phenolic

compounds, polypeptides, terpenes and steroids. Two novel prenylated phenolics,

asiaticusin A and asiaticusin B, have been isolated in the fruiting bodies of an edible

mushroom, Boletimus asiaticus (Wada et al., 1996). Another mushroom, Paxillus

panuoides, was found to contain two p-terphenyls which showed potent inhibition

effects on lipid peroxidation (Yun et al., 2000). These findings suggest that the

edible mushrooms might be a potential source of phenolic antioxidants. The

antioxidants present in dietary mushrooms are of great interest as possible

protective agents to reduce the oxidative damage in human body without any

chemical interference. Unlike most of the commonly used antioxidant like BHA and

BHT that are suspected to be responsible for liver damage and carcinogenesis

(Jayakumar et al., 2007), ingestion of mushroom supplement was found to cause

an acute increase in plasma antioxidant activity in human intervention study

without any side effect (Wachtel-Galor et al., 2004).

Malaysia is a high rainfall area and boasts some of the most diversified rain

forest in this region. The high humidity level during monsoon season provides ideal

atmospheric conditions for growth of many wild mushrooms. In the area where

mushrooms abound, edible varieties are recognized by inspection and experience of

the tribal people. Edible wild mushrooms are collected from the forest for self

4

consumption and to be sold at the traditional market. They are normally stir fried

with meat, or ' used as a soup base in many delicious traditional cuisines.

Mu'shrooms such as Schizophy//um commune and Trametes sp. are dried and

rehydrated prior to cooking during off-season. They are mixed with some other

local herbs to use as traditional medicine in curing ailments such as headache and

cold.

About 800 million people in the world are suffering from hunger, 160 million

under 5 years of age are malnourished and 12 million of them die per year (50% of

the deaths are related to malnutrition) (FAO, 2006). Children under 5 years of age

are accounted to 26.7% of the total population of children in the world and 182

million of them are stunted. However, it is Asia (especially South Asia) that is home

to more than two thirds of the world's malnourished children compared to 25.6% in

Africa and 2.3% in Latin America (WHO, 2000a). Malnutrition affects all age groups,

but it is especially common among the poor and those with inadequate access to

health education and to clean water and good sanitation. More than 70% of

children with protein-energy malnutrition live in Asia, 26% live in Africa, and 4% in

Latin America and the Caribbean (WHO, 2000b). Some 22 million pre-school

children worldwide are suffering from vitamin A deficiency (Rice et al., 2004). Over

30% of the world population are anaemic, many due to iron deficiency and

infectious disease; 30-40% of pregnant women in Malaysia are affected by iron

deficiency anaemia (WHO, 2007). Even though 180 nations attending the World

Food Summit (WFS) in 1996 pledged to eradicate the undernourished problem by

halving the undernourished population in 2015, but virtually no progress had been

made towards the objective after 10 years (FAa, 2006).

The wide spread prevalence of malnutrition and micronutrient deficiency is a

major cause of poor human health in many developing countries particularly Asia

region. Integrating nutrient-rich foods such as vegetables, fruits and livestock

products into diets is the most practical and sustainable way to alleviate

micronutrient deficiency. Edible wild mushrooms that had explicit good

micronutrient content could be a potential source to ameliorate micronutrient

deficiency among the poor especially those living in rural areas. Although many

5

studies had been done on nutritional values and antioxidant properties of wild

edible mushrooms (Aletor, 1995; Demirbas, 2000; Manzi, 2001, Elmastas et al.,

2007), little information is available about the edible wild fungi from Sabah.

Therefore, the aims of this study were to examine the nutritional and antioxidant

properties of the edible wild mushrooms commonly consumed in Sabah. The

provision of such information would display the potential of these wild mushrooms

to serve as a source of micronutrients for the community that suffer from such

deficiency .

The specific objectives of the study are:

1. To determine the macro and micro-nutrients (minerals and vitamins) in

selected edible wild mushroom

2. To determine fatty acid and amino acid profiles in selected edible wild

mushroom.

3. To determine the antioxidant activity and total phenolic compounds in the

edible wild mushrooms.

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Malnutrition And Micronutrient Deficiency

During the last 30 years major advances have occurred in food production, largely

as a result of the adoption of 'green revolution' technology and the development of

high-yielding varieties of food corps. The proportion of population in the developing

world that is malnourished has decreased over the years and drop to 26.7% in

2000 (WHO, 2000a). Despite these improvements, hunger and malnutrition

continue to dominate the health of the world's poorest nations. In addition to the

problem of insufficient protein and energy intake, deficiencies of micronutrients

such as iron, iodine, and vitamin A affect millions of people in the developing world

(Lipton, 2001).

Malnutrition is usually the result of a combination of inadequate dietary

intake and infection. The major forms of malnutrition include Protein-energy

malnutrition (PEM) that in a serious state could lead to kwashiokor and marasmus

(WHO, 2000b). Health experts have recently recognized the long-term effects of

early undernutrition and inadequate infant feeding for obesity and chronic diseases,

including diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (Caballero 2001; Gluckman &

Hanson 2004). Chronic undernutrition causes the child to be stunted, which retard

linear growth; whereas inadequate nutrition for a shorter period resulted in wasting

that is reversible (Caufield et al., 2004). Morbidity and mortality in child are highest

among those most severely malnourished; and undernutrition is responsible for 44

to 60% of the mortality caused by measles, malaria, pneumonia, and diarrhea

(Fishman et al., 2004). Although the major malnutrition problems are found in

developing countries, people in developed countries that are well nourished also

suffer from various forms of micronutrient malnutrition. Micronutrient malnutrition

is a term commonly used to refer to vitamin and mineral nutritional deficiency

diseases (FAO, 1997). Health issues that often associated with micronutrient

deficiency are vitamin A deficiency blindness, iron deficiency anaemia, iodine

deficiency disorder and osteoporosis.

2.1.1 Global View On Malnutrition

There are still 854 million undernourished people in the world, with 820 million in

the developing country, 25 million in the transition country and 9 million in the

industrialized country (Skoet & Stamoulis, 2006). Over 126 million children under

age 5 in the developing world are underweight, including almost half the children in

Southern Asia, 37 million in sub-Saharan Africa and 10 million in Eastern Asia

(United Nation, 2004). Forty six percent of children in South Asia are stunted and

about 41% of child deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa (UNICEF, 2003).

Severe acute malnutrition contributes to one million child deaths either

direct or indirect cause every year (WHO, 2007b). Protein energy malnutrition

cause different magnitude of stunting, wasting and underweight in young children,

with the highest prevalence in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa (Fishman et al.,

2004). Relative risks for mortality in children younger than 5 years estimate that

53% of all child deaths could be attributed to being underweight. Underweight also

cause decreases in immune and non-immune host defences and as underlying

causes of death that followed by infectious diseases that are the terminal

associated causes (Scrimshaw & SanGiovanni, 1997; Shankar & Prasad, 1998). The

fraction of disease attributable to being underweight was 61% for diarrhea, 57%

for malaria, 53% for pneumonia, 45% for measles, and 53% for other infectious

diseases (Ezzati et al., 2003).

This global burden of malnutrition is rooted in poverty, underdevelopment

and inequality but in some areas rapid population growth is an important

contributing factor (Clugton & Smith, 2002). Factors that are related to poverty

include inadequate food supply, limited purchasing power, poor health conditions

and incomplete knowledge on nutrition (Susilowati & Karyadi, 2002). Extreme

poverty remains a daily reality for more than one billion people who subsist on less

than US$l a day. Although global poverty rates are falling, led by Asia; however,

millions people have sunk deep into poverty in sub-Saharan Africa, where the poor

8

are getting poorer (United Nation, 2005).This is due to the growing numbers of

people have failed to find productive employment opportunities, agriculture has

stagnated, and HIV/AIDS has taken a brutal toll on people in their most productive

years, and ultimately less money spent to buy food (Skoet & Stamoulis, 2006).

2.1.2 Micronutrient Deficiency

More than two billion of people in the world are suffering from micronutrient

defiCiency. Iron deficiency anemia affects 70% of non pregnant women in India

and almost 50 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa. Vitamin A deficiency affects the

immune system of approximately 40 percent of children under five years of age

living in developing countries and leads to approximately one million child deaths

every year. In some countries the impact is more severe; for instance, almost 60%

of preschool children in India suffered from vitamin A deficiency (UNICEF, 2005).

a. Vitamin A DefiCiency

Pregnant women and preschool children in low-income countries are most

vulnerable to Vitamin A deficiency (VAD). It is a common cause of preventable

blindness and a risk factor for increased severity of infectious disease and mortality.

One of the first symptoms of marginal VAD is night blindness. If VAD worsens,

additional symptoms of xerophthalmia arise, eventually resulting in blindness. A

child who becomes blind from VAD has only a 50% chance of surviving the year

(Caufield et aI., 2005). Increased mortality is associated with VAD, most likely

because of the detrimental effects on the immune system, which result in increased

severity of illness (Sommer & West, 1996). VAD is responsible for almost 630,000

deaths each year worldwide due to infectious diseases; accounting for 20- 24% of

the mortality from measles, diarrhea, and malaria (Rice et al., 2004). Table 2.1

shows recent estimates of the prevalence of VAD in young children. South Asia has

the highest prevalence of clinical VAD which accounted to 40% in children under

five. Of those affected, 250,000 to 500,000 each year will lose their Sight, and half

of them die within a year (WHO, 2000c).

9

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