VeronicaParsons2017

VCEBiologyTSFXREVISIONLECTURE

UNIT4AOS2Howdohumansimpactonbiologicalprocesses?

VeronicaParsons2017

HighlyRecommendedViewingforthisAOS

Generalexamtips

• Readquestionscarefully,plananswerspriortowritingandusemarksallocatedandanswerspacegivenasguidetorequireddepth.• Don’trepeatstemofquestioninanswer.• SuitableabbreviationsareDNA,ATP,NADPH,H2O-Ifunsure,defineit.• Mustmakecomparativestatementswhenrequired(use‘whereas’)• Remember‘sowhat’!• RememberSoSoforExplain

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VeronicaParsons2017

Biology

https://www.slideshare.net/gurustip/command-terms-in-ib-biology

CompleteQuestion24page22

NaturalSelection(VSSI)

•Variation•Struggle forsurvival•Survival ofFittest• Inheritance

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Pg 59:EVOLUTIONWITHINASPECIESVBSSI• Variation• Barrier (nogeneflow)• Selectionpressuresdifferentindifferentenvironments• Survival offittestdifferent• Inheritance• Species;whenreintroducedcannotinterbreedtoproducefertileviableoffspring

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2010-3marks

2008-3marks

2007-3marks

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Book2Page2:Convergent&DivergentEvolutionQ19&20page20Q17pg 19

Divergent Convergent

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Page10BMP4MasterGene(VariationduetoGeneExpression)

BADFEW-EvidenceforEvolution

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• B=Biochemistry• A=Anatomy• D=Distribution• F=FossilRecord• E=Embryology• W=Witness

Page14ExtinctionQ25pg 23Q27pg 24

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• Adiverseordeepgenepoolgivesapopulationahigherchanceofsurvivinganadversechangeinconditions.

• Effectsthatcauseorrewardalossingeneticdiversitycanincreasethechancesofextinctionofaspecies.

• Populationbottleneckscandramaticallyreducegeneticdiversitybyseverelylimitingthenumberofreproducingindividualsandmakeinbreedingmorefrequent.

• Thefoundereffectcancauserapid,individual-basedspeciationandisthemostdramaticexampleofapopulationbottleneck.

Fossils

• R apid Burial• U ndisturbed• D ecomposer Free• Downwards Pressure

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• Evidenceofprehistoriclife.• Foundinsedimentaryrocks,amber,tar,peat,bogsetc

• Includewholebodies(rare),bones,teeth,shellsandTraceFossils-footprints,tracks,coprolites(dung),pollenetc.

• Softpartsdecayquicklywhilehardmartscanundergomineralisation,aprocessthatturnssedimentintohardrock.

• Indicationofearlierclimates,lifestyles,ageofrocks,dietetc.

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EarlyHominins

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• Earlyhominins firstappearinthefossilrecordapproximately4millionyearsago

• Collectively,theywereveryape-likeinstructure- withaprognathic profileandlongerarms,theywerelikelyfacultativebipeds(armsusedforsupport)

• Theyhadlargejaws,broadmolarsandthickerenamel,indicatingadietthatwasheavilydependentonnuts,grainsandhardfruits

• Theyhadarelativelysmallcranialcapacity(roughly300- 450cm3),indicatingsmallerbrains• Ardipithecus ramidus (~4.4m.y.a)isoneofthe

oldestfossilsandwasveryape-likeinappearance,withwiderzygomaticarchesandasagittalcrest

• Australopithecusafarensis (~4.0m.y.a)andA.africanus (~2.5m.y.a)hadnon-opposablebigtoesandwerelikelythefirstbipeds(facultative)

EarlyHomo

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• EarlyHomo speciesfirstappearinthefossilrecordapproximately2millionyearsago

• ComparedtoAustralopithecines,theyhadamarkedincreaseinbrainsize(cranialcapacity~700- 1,000cm3)andreducedsexualdimorphism

• Theyhadareductioninthesizeoftheirteeth,indicatingachangeindietandfurtherskeletalchangestosupportamoreerectposture• H.habilis (~2.0m.y.a)arethoughttobe

amongthefirsttousestone(Oldowan)tools,withshorteneddigitssuggestingtheuseofprecisiongrip

• H.erectus (~1.6m.y.a)wasthefirsttowidelydistributedthoughout theOldWorld,mayhaveusedfireandpossessedrudimentarylanguage

LateHomo

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• LateHomo speciesfirstappearinthefossilrecordunder1millionyearsago(~800,000y.a)

• Thesespecieshaveasignificantlyincreasedcranialcapacity(~1,300- 1,500cm3)anddemonstrateadvancedculturalandtechnologicalpractises• H.heidelbergensis (~600,000y.a)wereamong

thefirsttoburytheirdeadandarethoughttobeadirectancestorofH.sapiens

• H.neanderthalensis (~200,000y.a)usedMousterian(flint-flake)toolsandlikelyco-existedatthesametimeasH.sapiens

• H.floresiensis (~80,000y.a)hasbeennicknamed'hobbit'foritssmallsize;debateexistsastowhetheritisaseparatespeciesoraprimitve humanwithmajorgeneticdeformities

• Atsomepointbetween200,000and100,000yearsago,apopulationofearlyhumanscrossedthemorphologicalthresholdtobecomemodernhumans:Homosapienssapiens

•

CulturalEvolution

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• Culturalevolutionoccursthroughthedevelopmentofcustomsandlanguages,andinvolvesthetransferofinformationeitherwithinagenerationoracrossmanygenerations

• Anyunitofculturalinformation,suchasapracticeoranidea,thatgetstransmittedverballyorbyrepeatedactionfromonemindtoanother,iscalledameme

Examplesofculturalevolutionincludethechangeinlifestyleofmodernhumansfromnomadichunter-gathererstopermanentsettlerswhodomesticatedanimalsandadoptedagriculturalpractices

TechnologicalEvolution

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• Technologicalevolutionreferstothechangesovertimeintechnologythatgivehumansincreasedcontrolovertheirenvironment

Examplesinclude• thechangefromstonetoolstometaltools

• developmentofindustrialtechnologies(suchassteamandelectricpower),

• agriculturalandmedicinalprocedures

• communicationresources(suchastheinternet)andspacetravel

The"OutofAfrica"View• Accordingtothistheory,earlymodernhumans• evolvedHomoerectusinAfrica,

• whoseoffspringthenmigratedfromAfrica,• perhapsasrecentlyas100,000

yearsago• andpopulatedEuropeandAsia,

• Outcompeting&drivingtheearlierhomini populationstoextinction

• Evidence• ModernhumansshouldappearfirstinAfricaand

onlylaterinotherpartsoftheworld.• Transitionalfossilsfromancestraltomodern

humansshouldonlybefoundinAfrica• VariationinmtDNA shouldbegreaterinAfrican

populationsthanotherpopulations

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The"Multiregional"View• Accordingtothishypothesis,

• earlymodernhumansdidnothaveanisolatedorigininAfrica,

• butratherestablishedseparatepopulationsthroughoutEurasia

• Occasionalcontactandinterbreeding• betweenthesepopulationsenabledour

speciestomaintainitsoverallcohesiveness,

• whilestillpreservingtheregionaldifferencesinpeopleweseetoday

Evidence• Modernhumansshouldappear

throughoutAfrica,Asia&europe duringthesameperiod.

• TransitionalformsshouldbefoundinAfrica,Europe&Asia

• VariationinmtDNA shouldbeapproximatelythesameinhumanpopulationsfromallregionsoftheOldWorld.

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Book2Page61:GeneticEngineering

GIFTS(Gene-Insert-From-Transform-Select)

Pg 62MolecularScissors

Pg 63Ligases:MolecularGlue

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BacterialTransformations

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Transformations&Transfection

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• Transformation: IncorporationofexternalDNAintobacterialcell

• Transfection:IncorporationofDNAintothegeneticmaterialofaEukaryoticCell

• OrganismsproducedthiswayarecallTransgenic.

• Examples• Flounderantifreezegeneintomatoes• “flipped’softeningenzymegeneintomatoes

• Herbicideresistantgeneincrops• Insecticidegeneincotton• Growthhormonegeneinsalmon• Humaninsulingeneinbacteria

GelElectrophoresisFragmentsofDNAareseparatedaccordingtotheirsizeandcharge.

DNAhasanoverallnegativechargeduetothephosphategroups.

DNAsamplesareplacedinwellsatthenegativeendofapieceofagargelinatray.

Thewellsarecreatedbyplacingaplasticcombintothegelasitsets.

Positiveandnegativeelectrodesarelocatedateachendofthegel.

Whentheelectriccurrentruns,thefragmentsarerepelledfromthenegativeelectrodeandmovetowardsthepositiveelectrodeattheotherend.

Thesmallerfragmentstravelfasterthanthelargerfragments.

TheDNAsampleismixedwithaloadingdyethatattachestotheDNAbeforeloadingitintothegel.

ThisdyefluorescesunderUVlight,producingadiscretepatternofbandsthatcanthenbephotographed.

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FragmentsUsedinGelElectrophoresis

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1.RFLP’s (restrictionFragmentLengthPolymorphisms)sectionsofDNAproducedbycuttinghomologousDNAstrandswithspecificrestrictionenzymes.Differentalleleshavedifferentnumbersofrecognitionsites2.Intactalleleseg CCCc cc3.STR’s usedinDNAprofilingShortTandemRepeats- DNAsequencesof2-5baseswhichrepeategCATCATCATCAT

DNAAMPLIFICATION:PolymeraseChainReaction

Requirements• DNAtobecopied• DNApolymerase(taqpolymerase)

• Buffersolutionthatcontainssaltsandotherchemicalsthathelpthepolymerasetofunction

• Asupplyofthe4nucleotides• TwoprimersequencesofDNA:TheprimersareshortsequencesofsinglestrandedDNA,complementarytothenucleotidesequencesateitherendoftheDNAsectionthatistobecopied.ThesearenecessaryasastartingpointfromwhichtheDNApolymerasecanstartaddingnewnucleotides.

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StepsinPolymeraseChainReaction1.Denaturation: ThedoublestrandofDNAisheatedto950,breakingthehydrogenbondsbetweenthebases,causingthetwostrandstoseparate.

2.AttachmentofPrimers: Temperatureisreducedto50-550Callowingtheprimerstoanneal(join)tooppositeendsofeachstrand.Thereducedtemperatureisnecessarytoallowbasepairingandtheformationofhydrogenbonds.

3.Extension: Thetemperatureisraisedto720C.startingfromtheprimermolecules,newDNAstrandsaresynthesisedusingDNApolymeraseandtheavailablenucleotides.TherearenowtwocopiesofthedoublestrandedDNA.

ThiscycleisrepeateduntilsufficientquantitiesofDNAareobtainedtoworkwith.Just20cycleswillproduceoveronemillioncopiesofthetargetDNA

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DNASequencing• 1.DNAisseparated intosinglestrands,andasmallstarterpieceofDNAcalledaprimerbindstothetemplatestrand.

• 2.Extension- anewDNAstrandismadethatiscomplementarytothetemplatestrand.Startingattheprimer,DNApolymeraseusesthetemplatestrandasaguidetorecreatethesecondDNAstrand.

• 3.Termination dye-labeledterminatornucleotide,(ddNTPs)identifiesthebaseatthepositionwherestrandextensionstopped.

• Eachlabeledwithoneoffourdyes,arenowsortedbylengthusingGelelectrophoresis.

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HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess1.Cloning

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• Acloneisagroupofgeneticallyidenticalorganismsoragroupofcellsderivedfromasingleparentcell.

• SomaticCellNuclearTransfer(SCNT)isamethodofreproductivecloningusingdifferentiatedanimalcells

• 1.Thenucleusfromthedesiredsomaticcelltobeclonedistransferredtoanenucleatedegg.

• 2.Theegg(withsomaticcellinformationsonowdiploid)undergoesmitosis.

Twopossibleoutcomes1. StemCellExtraction(therapeuticcloning)2. Implantationoftheembryointoa

surrogate’suterus(reproductiveCloning)

*Thedevelopingembryowillhavethesamegeneticmaterialasthesheepthatcontributedthediploidnucleus,andthusbeaclone

3ParentBaby

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GMO

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• Ageneticallymodifiedorganismreferstoanyorganismwhosegeneticmaterialhasbeenartifically changed.AllTGO’sareGMO’sbutnotallGMO’sareTGO’s

• Eg silencingofcatallergenproteinresultsinGMcatbutnotaTGOcat.

• Goldenrice isaproducedthroughtobiosynthesize beta-carotene,aprecursorofvitaminA,intheediblepartsofricewiththegoalofproducingafortifiedfoodtobegrownandconsumedinareaswithashortageofdietaryvitaminA a deficiencywhichisestimatedtokill670,000childrenundertheageof5eachyear.

• Argumentsagainst:lossofbiodiversity

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess3.StemCellDifferentiation

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• Stemcellscanbederivedfromembryosortheplacenta/umbilicalcordofthemother;alsominimalamountscanbeharvestedfromsomeadulttissue

• Stemcellscanbeusedtoreplacedamagedordiseasedcellswithhealthy,functioningones

• Thisprocessrequires:• Theuseofbiochemicalsolutionstotriggerdifferentiationintodesiredcelltype

• Surgicalimplantationofcellsintopatient'sowntissue

• Suppressionofhostimmunesystemtopreventrejectionofcells

• Carefulmonitoringofnewcellstoensuretheydonotbecomecancerous

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess4.GeneticScreening

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• Geneticscreeninginvolvestestinganindividualforgeneticdefects(viakaryotyping,DNAmicroarrays,sequencing,etc)

• Thisinformationcanbeusedinthemanagementofdiseasesandforplanningpregnancies

• Invitrofertilisation allowscouplestopotentiallyselectdesirabletraits,byfertilising eggandspermwiththeappropriatealleles

• Thereareseveralethicalandlegalissuesinvolvedwithgeneticscreening,includingtheimplicationsofdesignerbabiesandtheramificationsforhealthinsurance

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess5.GeneTherapy

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• Genetherapyistheinsertionofanormalfunctioningalleleintoanindividual'scellsreplacingdefectivealleleswithhealthyones.

• Copiesoftheinsertedallelewillbemultipliedastransfectedcellsundergomitosis.

• Itdiffersfromstandardtransgenicpracticesinthatitisintendedtotransformexistingorganismsratherthancreatenewones

• Typicallyviralvectorsareused,duetotheirabilitytointegratetheirDNAintothehost'sgenome

• Althoughthetechnologyisstillinitsinfancy,ithasbeenusedwithsomesuccess(e.g.treatingSCIDpatients)viaaleukaemia virus)

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess5.DNAProfiling

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• IdentificationdependsontheexistenceofsegmentsofDNAthatvarygreatlybetweenindividuals.

• SuchregionsofDNAaretermedhypervariable.

• Shorttandemrepeats(STRs) ormicrosatellites.STRsaretermed‘short’becausetherepeatsequencesareonly2to5basepairslong,and‘tandem’becausetherepeatsoccuroneaftertheother.ThenumberofrepeatsatanSTRlocuscanvarybetweenpeopleandeachvariationisadistinctallele.

• Hypervariable regions(HVRs) inthenon-codingregionofmtDNA.mtDNAidentificationislessprecisebecausepersonsfromthesamematernallinehaveidenticalmtDNA profiles.

SelectiveBreeding

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• Selectivebreedingofdomesticatedanimalsisanexampleofartificialselection,whichoccurswhenmandirectlyintervenesinthebreedingofanimalstoproducedesired (notfit)traitsinoffspring.

• Asaresultofmanygenerationsofselectivebreeding,domesticatedbreedscanshowsignificantvariationcomparedtothewildcounterparts,demonstratingevolutionarychangesinamuchshortertimeframethanmighthaveoccurrednaturally.

Examplesofselectivebreedinginclude:

• Breedinghorsesforspeed(racehorses)versusstrengthandendurance(drafthorses)

• Breedingdogsforherding(sheepdogs),hunting(beagles)orracing(greyhounds)

• Breedingcattleforincreasedmeatproductionormilk• Breedingzebrasinanattempttoretrievethe

colouration genefromtheextinctQuagga.

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess

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• Wearetheonlylivingthingsthathavetheabilitytocountertheforcesofevolution.Inthepast,ourancestorsreliedongeneticadaptationsforsurvival.Today,technology,ratherthanbiology,hasbecomethekeytooursurvivalasaspecies.

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess

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Medicaladvances• Inthepast,thoseofourancestorswhowerebestadaptedtotheenvironmentpassedontheirgenestotheiroffspring.

• Today,medicaladvanceshaveallowedthosethatwouldnotpreviouslyhavesurvivedtoreproduceandcontributetothehumangenepool.Thebenefitstotheindividualpersonareobvious.However,duetothesizeofourpopulation,thishaslittleeffectontheoverallgeneticmake-upofourspecies.Themajorconsequenceofmedicinehasbeentheincreaseofgenesthathavelittleornoresistancetodisease.Inthefuture,therewillbeagreaterrelianceonmedicineforsurvivalratherthangeneticadaptations.

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess

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Curingdisease• Infectiousdiseasesareoneofthemajorcausesofhumanmortalityandwereresponsibleforover25percentofalldeathsindevelopednationspriortotheintroductionofantibioticsinthe1940s.Theapplicationofvaccinationsandantibioticshasreducedthisfiguretoabout1percent.Unfortunately,notallhumanssharesuchaccesstomodernmedicineandpreventableinfectiousdiseaseremainsthelargestkillerofpeopleindevelopingnations,accountingforover40percentofalldeaths.Inthedevelopedworld,over-useofantibioticshasledtomostoftheharmfulbacteriabecomingimmune,sothatmanyinfectiousdiseasesareonceagainbecomingsignificantkillers.

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess

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Reproducinglater• Aninterestingconsequenceofimprovedmedicaltechnologyisthathumanscannowreproduce,orprefertoreproduce,atalaterage.Thisincreasesthechanceofamutationoccurringinthesexcellsandbeingpassedontooffspring.Thelong-termeffectisthatmoregeneticmutations,andhencevariation,willbeintroducedintothehumangenepool.

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess

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• Fixingourgenes:thehumangenomeproject

• Thisresearchproject,overseenbytheHumanGenomeOrganisation,islocatingandmappingeverygenecontainedinhumanDNA.Byknowingthepositionofeachgene,itispossibletounderstandwhattheydoandhowgeneticdiseasesarise.Theimpactofthiswillbefeltineveryareaofbiologyandmedicinethroughoutthenextcentury,withhugeimplicationsforthepreventionanddiagnosisofdisease.Scientistspredictthatsomepotentialdiseaseswillbecuredatthemolecularlevelbeforetheyariseinanindividual.

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess

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• Technologicaladvances• Technologyhashelpedustobecomethefirstspeciescapableofadaptingtheenvironment,toacertaindegree,tosuitourselves.Thishasreducedtheneedtorelyongeneticadaptationslikeourancestorsdidinthepast.Wenowhavetheabilitytoliveinanyclimateand,assistedbytransportation,havebecomeaglobalspecies.

• Technologyhasalsohadanegativeimpactonourspecies.Ithasbeenresponsibleforthedeathsofmillions- throughwar,environmentalpollutionanddegradationandtheintroductionandspreadofdisease.

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess

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• Technologyandtheendofisolation

• Inthepast,ourancestorslivedinsmall,isolatedpopulations,whereinbreedingwascommonandgeneticmutationscouldspreadeasily.Overtimethiscouldleadtotheevolutionofanewspecies.Wenowliveinahighlypopulatedworldwherewehavetheabilitytotravelanywhereandpotentiallyshareourgeneswithanyone.Theendofisolationhassignificantlyreducedthechanceofevolutionarychange.

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess

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• Theimpactofagricultureonhumanevolution

• Theroleofagriculturewasimportantinthedevelopmentofcivilisation andtheabilitytosustainlargepopulationsofpeople.Ithasalsobeenresponsiblefortheintroductionofdiseases,suchassmallpoxandmeasles,whichdevelopedfromdiseasesplaguingdomesticanimalsabout10,000yearsago.Althoughfarmerseventuallyevolvedgenesresistanttothesediseases,hunter-gatherersdiedindroveswhentheywerefirstaffected.

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess

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• Geneticadaptationsevolvingfromagriculturallifestyles

• Manygroupshavedevelopedspecialisedeatinghabitsduetotheirlifestyle.Onesuchhabitthathasbeenidentifiedasagenetictraitistheabilitytodigestmilkasanadult.Allinfantmammalsrelyonmilkforsustenancebut,astheygrowolder,theenzymethatdigestslactose(asugarfoundinmilk)disappears.Thismeansadultmammalscannotnormallytoleratemilk.However,asaresultofanagriculturalancestry,someadults,liketheMasai ofKenya,theBeduoin andmostEuropeans,arestillabletodigestmilk.Others,suchasAustralianAboriginesandwestandcentralAfricans,findmilkindigestible.Thisadaptationprobablyonlyevolvedinthelast10,000yearsasagriculturedevelopedandanimalmilkwascollectedandconsumed.

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess

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• Willwebecomeextinct?• Thefossilrecorddemonstratesthatallorganismsexistforalimitedtimespanandthenbecomeextinct.Thissuggeststhatextinctionwouldalsobetheexpectedoutcomeforourownspecies.Someoftheextinctioneventsinthepast,suchasmeteoriteorcometimpacts,arebeyondourcontrol.Mostothercausesofextinction,includingmajorclimatechange,cannowbeovercomebytechnology,ifwearewillingtoact.Althoughtechnologymayallowustoavoidthefatesofallotherspecies,ifwearenotcarefulhowweuseit,technologycouldalsoleadtothedestructionofourplanet.

HumanInterventioninEvolutionaryProcess

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• Spreadofplaguesandviruses• Intheageoftravelitiseasyfordiseaseto

becomepandemic(widespread)overnight.Crowdedcitiesandpoorhygienearebreedinggroundsformanyoftheseorganisms.Newstrainsofvirusandbacteriacandeveloprapidly,withnewtypesemergingthatwearenotawareofandthatwemaynotbeabletofighteffectively.

• TheworstpandemicinmoderntimeswasthebubonicplagueorBlackDeath(causedbythebacteriaYersiniapestis)whichoccurredinEuropebetween1346and1353.Overonethirdofthepopulationdiedfromthisdisease.OtheroutbreaksoccurredoverthecenturiesbuttheplagueisnoweradicatedfromEurope,althoughitstillexistsinotherregionsoftheworld.

Homoevolutis

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ChairmanandCEOofBiotechonomy,Enriquezsaysthathumanityisonthevergeofbecominganewandutterlyuniquespecies,whichhedubsHomoEvolutis.Whatmakesthisspeciessouniqueisthatit"takesdirectanddeliberatecontrolovertheevolutionofthespecies."Callingitthe"ultimatereboot,"hepointstotheconfluxofDNAmanipulationandtherapy,tissuegeneration,androboticsasmakingthisgreatleappossible.

RationalDrugDesign

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• Afocussedapproachusinginformationaboutstructureofadrugreceptororit’sligandtoidentifyorcreatecandidatedrugs.• *Ligand-substancesthatareabletobindtoabiomoleculesuchassubstrates,inhibitors,neurotransmitters

Relenza

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Revision-WhatCanyouDo?• Lecturetoday-Listen!• PastVCAAExamsfromWebsiteGoingBackwardsfrom2016includingSample.(3PenMethod)• KeepNotebook Closebydividedinto5sectionsforeachareaofStudy-writedowntheoryfromquestionsyouaregettingwrong• ReadoverTSFXnoteswithhighlighterregularly.• CornellNotes-Summaries

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LookforPatternsandMakeAcronyms• STARR(Sample-Treatment-AllFactorsSame-Results-Repeat)• RUDD(RapidBurial-Undisturbed-DecomposerFree-DownwardPressure)• BADFEW(Biochemistry-Anatomy-Distribution-Fossils-Embryology-Witness)• PMAT(StagesofMitosis)• UGAUAAUAG(StopCodons)• VSSI(Variation-Struggle-SurvivalofFittest-Inheritance)• VSSIwithaB(Barrier)• GIFTS(Gene-Insert-From-Transform-Select)• CrocsAreNeverFine- (CO2-ATP-NADH-FADH2)• HITSME(Hormone-Structure-Immunity-Transport-Movement-Enzymes)• CATSEXSPIRE(Catabolic-Exergonic=Respiration)• PRIMATES(Prehensile-RelativebrainSize-Intelligent-Mother-Abilitybipedal-EyesforwardFacing-StereoscopicVision)

• COAL(ComplementProteins-Chemotaxis,oponise,Agglutinate,Lysis)

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