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Introduction The VCE Environmental Science Advice for teachers handbook provides curriculum and assessment advice for Units 1 to 4. It contains advice for developing a course with examples of teaching and learning activities and resources for each unit. Assessment information is provided for school-based assessment in Units 3 and 4 and advice for teachers on how to construct assessment tasks with suggested performance descriptors and rubrics. The course developed and delivered to students must be in accordance with the VCE Environmental Science Study Design Units 1 and 2: 2016– 2020; Units 3 and 4: 2017–2021 . Administration Advice on matters related to the administration of Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) assessment is published annually in the VCE and VCAL Administrative Handbook. Updates to matters related to the administration of VCE assessment are published in the VCAA Bulletin. Teachers must refer to these publications for current advice. VCE Environmental Science study design examination specifications, past examination papers and corresponding examination reports can be accessed at: www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/vce/studies/envscience/exams.aspx . Graded Distributions for Graded Assessment can be accessed at: www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/vce/statistics/2015/index.aspx . Developing a program Overview The program outlines the nature and sequence of teaching and learning necessary for students to demonstrate achievement of the set of outcomes for a unit. The areas of study describe the learning context, the knowledge and skills required for the demonstration of each outcome. Each outcome draws on the set of contextualised key skills for Environmental Science listed on pages 11 and 12 of the study design. The development, use and application of the key science skills must be integrated into the teaching sequence. These skills support a number of pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning including a focus on inquiry where students pose questions, explore scientific

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Page 1: VCE Environmental Science Units 1 and 2: 2016– Web viewThe VCE Environmental Science Advice for teachers handbook provides curriculum and assessment advice for Units 1 to 4. It contains

IntroductionThe VCE Environmental Science Advice for teachers handbook provides curriculum and assessment advice for Units 1 to 4. It contains advice for developing a course with examples of teaching and learning activities and resources for each unit. Assessment information is provided for school-based assessment in Units 3 and 4 and advice for teachers on how to construct assessment tasks with suggested performance descriptors and rubrics.

The course developed and delivered to students must be in accordance with the VCE Environmental Science Study Design Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020; Units 3 and 4: 2017–2021.

AdministrationAdvice on matters related to the administration of Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) assessment is published annually in the VCE and VCAL Administrative Handbook. Updates to matters related to the administration of VCE assessment are published in the VCAA Bulletin.

Teachers must refer to these publications for current advice.

VCE Environmental Science study design examination specifications, past examination papers and corresponding examination reports can be accessed at: www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/vce/studies/envscience/exams.aspx.

Graded Distributions for Graded Assessment can be accessed at: www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/vce/statistics/2015/index.aspx.

Developing a program

OverviewThe program outlines the nature and sequence of teaching and learning necessary for students to demonstrate achievement of the set of outcomes for a unit. The areas of study describe the learning context, the knowledge and skills required for the demonstration of each outcome.

Each outcome draws on the set of contextualised key skills for Environmental Science listed on pages 11 and 12 of the study design. The development, use and application of the key science skills must be integrated into the teaching sequence. These skills support a number of pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning including a focus on inquiry where students pose questions, explore scientific ideas, draw evidence-based conclusions and propose solutions to problems.

Teachers must develop courses that include appropriate learning activities to enable students to develop the knowledge and skills identified in the outcomes in each unit. Attention should be given to designing a course of study that is relevant to students, contextually based, employs a manageable number of wide ranging student tasks, and uses

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a variety of source material from a diverse number of providers. Learning activities must include investigative work that involves the generation of primary data, including laboratory work and field studies. This may involve the use of data logging and other technologies in both the laboratory and the field, and will also require the selection and use of appropriate sampling techniques in fieldwork. Other learning activities may include investigations involving the generation of primary and/or collection of secondary data through simulations, animations, literature reviews, examination of case studies and the use of local and global databases.

Scientific inquiry focus The opportunity for students to work scientifically and respond to questions is an important feature of the VCE Environmental Science Study Design. Questions reflect the inquiry nature of studying science and can be framed to provide contexts for developing conceptual understanding. The VCE Environmental Science Study Design is structured under a set of unit questions and area of study questions. These questions are open-ended to enable students to engage in critical and creative thinking about the environmental science concepts identified in the key knowledge and to encourage students to ask their own questions about what they are learning. In responding to these questions, students demonstrate their own conceptual links and the relevance of different concepts to practical applications.

Students studying Units 1 to 4 in VCE Environmental Science will undertake a range of investigations involving five main types of scientific inquiry based on the levels of student autonomy:

Type of inquiry Problem or Question Procedure Solution

Confirmation/verification Teacher Teacher Teacher

Structured Teacher Teacher Student

Guided Teacher Student Student

Coupled (linked to an earlier inquiry)

Initial: Teacher Coupled: Student

Student Student

Open Student Student Student

Appendix 1 provides definitions of the five types of scientific inquiry.

Students may undertake scientific inquiry individually or as part of a group or class to complete an activity, but findings, analysis and conclusions should be reported individually. If optional assessment tasks are used to cater for different student interests, teachers must ensure that they are comparable in scope and demand.

Teachers are advised to utilise the flexibility provided by the structure of the study design in the choice of contexts, both local and global, and applications for enabling students to develop skills and understanding. Opportunities range from the entire class studying a particular context or application chosen by the teacher or agreed to by the class, through to students nominating their own choice of issues, scenarios, research or case studies, ecosystems or fieldwork activities. Appendix 8 provides examples of the use of a problem-based learning approach to develop scientific skills and understanding.

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Practical activitiesPractical activities may be used to introduce and consolidate understanding of an environmental science concept and to develop scientific skills and should not be limited to assessment tasks.

The principles of fair testing through controlled experiments are important in science, but may not always enable students to understand scientific ideas or concepts, answer their questions or appreciate how scientists work and the nature of science. At this level, different methods of scientific inquiry that generate primary data may be utilised. Common to different methods of scientific inquiry and practical activities are three key aspects that are central to the study design’s inquiry focus: asking questions, testing ideas and using evidence.

The following table identifies examples of practical activities involving a range of scientific inquiry methods across VCE Environmental Science Units 1 to 4 that enable development of scientific skills:

Unit Examples of practical activities that develop scientific skills

1 Pattern seeking: investigate the factors that affect the porosity of soils Single variable exploration: investigate how a compost heap changes over time Single variable exploration: investigate whether a weedicide is equally effective on different

weeds Investigation of scientific models: devise an inquiry to test whether the use of transect lines or

quadrats are more appropriate for determining organism populations in a rocky shore system

2 Classification and identification: develop a way of categorising pollution, other than as “air, water or soil” pollution

Controlled experiment: investigate how chemical water pollution affects plant growth Controlled experiment: determine the minimum concentration of chlorine that will inhibit 50%

of the growth of alfalfa seeds

3 Pattern seeking: investigate the biodiversity of ants in different ecosystems Single variable exploration: investigate how the population of an endemic species changes

over time Classification and identification: devise a new way of measuring human or industrial

environmental impact other than through ‘carbon footprints’

4 Controlled experiment: determine whether there is a relationship between the colour of a water bottle and the capacity of its contents to absorb heat

Product, process or system development: design, construct and test a mini ‘pot-in-a-pot refrigerator’ using the principle of evaporative cooling to achieve the best cooling effect

Pattern seeking: conduct a survey to determine whether there is a relationship between where somebody lives and their perception of wind farms

Pattern seeking: investigate the factors that affect the global energy budget in terms of the balance between solar and long wave radiation

Investigation of scientific models: devise an inquiry to test an explanation of how temperature inversion affects the accumulation of pollutants or air pollution

Appendix 2 provides more information about, and examples of, different scientific inquiry methods.

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Fieldwork Fieldwork can be undertaken in a range of contexts applicable to the study of Earth’s four systems and their interactions. Schools with limited access to natural ecosystems could use sections of gardens, particularly soil and leaf litter or artificial aquatic ecosystems in aquaria. However, wherever possible, investigations of such ecosystems should be supported by fieldwork in local natural ecosystems such as the local stream, remnant vegetation or parklands. If using local or state parks, regulations regarding activities and the collection of organisms need to be checked and followed. Activities should be planned to create minimal impact on the ecosystem and/or environment under investigation. Alternatives to the collection of biotic and abiotic materials, for example scientific drawings, photography, digital imaging and video capture, should be considered by schools.

Investigations related to case studies may involve students visiting commercial or industrial sites. All health and safety regulations must be followed and teachers are advised to contact sites prior to arrival to ascertain possible risks and to review risk management procedures.

The undertaking of fieldwork will be affected by availability of resources, physical conditions and accessibility of local ecosystems and weather conditions. It is important to consider these factors when sequencing learning activities.

Student safety and wellbeing When developing courses, some issues to consider include: duty of care in relation to health and safety of students in learning activities, practical work and excursions; legislative compliance (for example, privacy of information and copyright); sensitivity to cultural differences and personal beliefs (for example, discussions related to personal use of natural resources); adherence to community standards and ethical guidelines (for example, following national park regulations); respect for persons and differences in opinions; sensitivity to student views on the use of animals in research (for example, providing alternatives to the use of bioassays and bioindicators in pollution investigations).

For more detail regarding legislation and compliance, refer to pages 8 and 9 of the study design.

Contemporary science issuesThe VCE Environmental Science Study Design enables students to engage with contemporary science-related issues by building their capacities to explain phenomena scientifically, design and evaluate scientific investigations, and draw evidence-based conclusions. Students see how science works as a process by undertaking their own scientific investigations that involve collecting and analysing data and exploring the nature of evidence.

Teachers are advised to provide students with learning opportunities that allow students to critically evaluate the stories, claims, discoveries and inventions about science they hear and read in the media and to examine the relevance of science in their everyday lives.

The following table shows how students can draw links between scientific concepts studied across Units 1 to 4 and their applications in relation to issues discussed in the media.

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Unit Concept Issues

1 Cycling of matter across systems where waste outputs from one system become inputs for another system

Recycling and purification of sewage as a source of potable water for human consumption

Composting

2 Setting of safety standards based on concentrations that are hazardous for living organisms

Re-mineralisation of desalinated water for human drinking purposes, and in accordance with local water supply specifications

Fluoridation of water supplies Public swimming pool regulations

3 Importance of genetic variation Public funding to increase numbers of selected threatened or endangered species: are some species preferenced?

Effects of human activities on biodiversity: what is sustainable?

Introduction of exotic species that compete for habitat, shelter and food

4 Relative proportion of gases in Earth’s atmosphere

Climate data interpretation and predictions of future climate

Measures of rate of climate change and levels of certainty in data

Sourcing contemporary science issues Contemporary environmental science issues, discussions, reports, research and debates are accessible through the media or the internet. In particular, access to up-to-date information facilitates the practical investigation in Unit 1 related to ecosystem monitoring, the case study in Unit 2 related to pollution management, the case study in Unit 3 related to environmental management and sustainability principles, and the practical investigation in either Unit 3 or Unit 4, or across Units 3 and 4, related to biodiversity or energy use from an environmental management perspective. Teachers may also adapt research scenarios and reports to create assessment tasks (see Appendix 7), for example data analysis, evaluation of research, media response, response to an issue or report using secondary data, where students are expected to apply their understanding of environmental science concepts in unfamiliar situations. Although original environmental science research reports are accessible, many require subscription and most are written for a research audience. For secondary school purposes, teachers and students may access reports, videos and summaries of contemporary environmental science research and expert commentary through popular science journals (for example, Cosmos, The Scientist, Nature, and Scientific American) and online science media outlets where areas of interest can be filtered (for example, Australian Science at www.australianscience.com.au, ScienceAlert at www.sciencealert.com and Science Daily at www.sciencedaily.com.au).

Sustainability and sustainable development

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The idea of sustainability stems from the concept of sustainable development that was articulated at the world’s first Earth Summit in Rio in 1992:

‘Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.’

(from the Brundtland Report for the World Commission on Environment and Development (1992) www.iisd.org/topic/sustainable-development)

The three pillars of environment, economy and society are often considered as the foundations of sustainable development.

Subsequent definitions and applications of the terms ‘sustainability’ and ‘ecologically sustainable development’ by community groups and organisations, industry and politics have been based on the Brundtland definition. The contestability of these terms and their consideration in the context of environmental management is explored in VCE Environmental Science Unit 3 Area of Study 2.

Six sustainability principles will be studied in VCE Environmental Science as shown in the following table. At Units 1 and 2 teachers have opportunities to apply relevant principles across all areas of study. In each of Units 3 and 4, specific key knowledge has been aligned to each of these principles as indicated in the table below.

Sustainability principle

Elaboration of principle as applied in VCE Environmental Science

Unit 3 Unit 4

Area of Study 1

Area of Study 2

Area of Study 1

Area of Study 2

Conservation of biodiversity and ecological integrity

Maintenance of the abundance of different species living within a particular region, the genetic diversity in a population and the ability of an ecosystem to maintain its biotic and abiotic organisation and function in the face of changing environmental conditions, including a capacity for self-renewal

√ √ √

Efficiency of resource use

Use of smaller amounts of physical resources to produce the same product or service while minimising environmental impact

√ √ √

Intergenerational equity

Development that takes into account its impact on the opportunities for future generations

√ √ √

Intragenerational equity

Equity between people of the same generation including considerations of distribution of resources and justice between nations

√ √ √

Precautionary principle

When there is substantial scientific uncertainty about the risks and benefits of a proposed activity, policy decisions should be made in a way that errs on the side of caution with respect to the environment and the health of the public

√ √ √

User pays principle

Calls upon the user of a service or resource to pay directly for the amount they use, rather

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than the cost being shared by all the users or a community equally

Scientific investigations

Designing scientific investigationsInvestigations are integral to the study of VCE Environmental Science across Units 1 to 4. Some investigations across Units 1 to 4 in VCE Environmental Science will be student-designed. A scientific inquiry approach involves asking or responding to a question and then performing and reporting findings in response to the question. In any investigation, primary data may be generated and/or secondary data collected to test hypotheses, predictions and ideas; to look for patterns, trends and relationships in data; and to draw evidence-based conclusions.

Appendices 1–4 provide more information about the broad scope of scientific inquiry:

Appendix 1: Types of scientific inquiry

Appendix 2: Scientific inquiry methods

Appendix 3: Controlled experiments and hypothesis formulation

Appendix 4: Defining variables

Scientific investigation processThe following diagram represents a general process for undertaking scientific investigations:

<INSERT DIAGRAM HERE>

Topic selection phase The selection of a suitable topic for investigation may be initiated in a number of ways, including: through direct observation of, and curiosity about, an object, an event, a phenomenon, a practical problem or a technological development; as a result of anomalous or surprising investigation results; as an extension of a previous inquiry; from analysis of qualitative and/or quantitative data; and from research involving secondary data.

Once the topic has been identified, students articulate a research question for investigation. Questions may be generated from brainstorming or teachers may provide a question or scaffold the development of an appropriate testable hypothesis that students can adapt and investigate.

In controlled experiment types of inquiry, a hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. Controlled experiments involve an exploration of whether or not there is a relationship between variables and therefore require that students identify which variables will be investigated and which will be controlled. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement

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that may include a prediction. An example of hypothesis formulation is included in Appendix 3.

For research questions related to inquiry types that do not lend themselves to developing an accompanying hypothesis, for example in exploratory or qualitative research, students should work directly with their research questions.

Appendix 1: Types of scientific inquiry

Appendix 2: Scientific inquiry methods

Appendix 3: Controlled experiments and hypothesis formulation

Planning phasePrior to undertaking an investigation, students should produce a plan that outlines their reasons and interest in undertaking the investigation, defines the environmental science concepts involved, identifies short-term goals, lists the materials and equipment required, outlines the design of any experiment, notes any anticipated problems, identifies and suggests how potential safety risks can be managed and outlines any ethical issues. They may also make predictions about investigation outcomes based on their existing knowledge.

In planning controlled experiment types of investigations students formulate a hypothesis that can be tested by the collection of evidence. Students should identify the independent, dependent and controlled variables in their experiment and discuss how changing variables may or may not affect the outcome. Students should be able to explain how they expect that the evidence they collect could either refute or support their hypothesis.

In planning an investigation, students may undertake relevant background reading. In addition, students should learn the correct use of scientific conventions, including the use of standard notation and SI units and how to reference sources and provide appropriate acknowledgments.

A detailed explanation of types of variables is provided in Appendix 4.

Investigation phaseIn the investigation, students will generate primary or collect secondary qualitative and/or quantitative data as evidence. Data can be derived from observations, laboratory experimentation, fieldwork and local and/or global databases. During the investigation students should note any difficulties or problems encountered in generating and/or collecting data. Data should be recorded in a form according to the plan, for subsequent analysis and relevance to the investigation.

Reporting phaseAn examination and analysis of the data may identify evidence of patterns, trends or relationships and may subsequently lead to an explanation of the environmental science phenomenon being investigated. For VCE Environmental Science, the analysis of experimental data requires a qualitative treatment of accuracy, precision, repeatability, reproducibility, validity, uncertainty, and random and systematic errors. For more detailed information refer to the section ‘Measurement in science’.

Students consider the data collected and make inferences from the data, report personal errors or problems encountered and use evidence to answer the research question. They

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consider how appropriate their data is in a given context, evaluate the validity of the data and make reference to its repeatability and/or reproducibility. Types of possible errors, human bias and uncertainties in measurements, including the treatment of outliers in a set of data, should be identified and explained.

For an investigation where a hypothesis has been formulated, interpretation of the evidence will either support the hypothesis or refute it, but it may also pose new questions and lead the student to revising the hypothesis or developing a new one. In reaching a conclusion the student should identify any judgments and decisions that are not based on the evidence alone but involve broader environmental, social, political, economic and ethical factors.

The initial phases of the investigation (topic selection, planning and investigation) are recorded in the student logbook while the report of the investigation can take various forms including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral or a multimodal presentation of the investigation.

Detailed information about scientific poster sections is included in Appendix 5 and suggestions for effective scientific poster communication are elaborated in Appendix 6.

Graphical representation of dataTo explain the relationship between two or more variables investigated in an experiment, data should be presented in such a way as to make any patterns and trends more evident. Although tables are an effective means of recording data, they may not be the best way to show trends, patterns or relationships. Graphical representations can be used to more clearly show whether any trends, patterns or relationships exist. The type of graphical representation used by students will depend upon the nature of the investigation and the type of variables investigated:

pie graphs and bar charts can be used to display data in which one of the variables is categorical

line graphs can be used to display data in which both the independent and dependent variables are continuous

lines of best fit can be used to illustrate the underlying relationship between variables scattergrams can be used to show an association between two variables sketch graphs (not necessarily on a grid; no plotted points; labelled axes but not

necessarily scaled) can be used to show the general shape of the relationship between two variables.

When drawing graphs, students should note that:

the independent variable is represented on the horizontal axis while the dependent variable is represented on the vertical axis

the existence of a correlation does not necessarily establish that there is a causal relationship between two variables

not all experiments will show a correlation between variables common types of relationships in biology include linear, exponential and cyclic.

Students should understand why it is important not to ‘force data through zero’. In drawing conclusions they should examine patterns, trends and relationships between variables with the limitations of the data in mind. Conclusions drawn from data must be limited by, and not go beyond, the data available.

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Student investigations

Student-designed investigationsThe formulation of an investigable research question and proposal for an associated methodology is crucial to enabling students to meet unit outcomes. Teachers should ensure that proposed hypotheses and methodologies enable students to proceed with investigations such that all safety and ethical guidelines are followed, as specified on page 8 of the study design, and where students could reasonably expect to generate primary data that can be suitably processed and analysed. In particular, the general guiding principle behind ethical research is to do no harm to participants, the researcher and the broader community. Teachers should guard against research that may be inappropriate for inexperienced student researchers and be mindful of particular sensitivities within their school communities and the broader community. Due to the scope of scientific investigations, students must be practical and realistic when deciding on investigation topics. Teachers need to be equally pragmatic when counselling students about their choice of research topic and when guiding the student in the formulation of the research question. Appropriate teacher intervention not only minimises risks but also serves as feedback for students. Schools should have in place approval mechanisms, either through ethics committees or approval authorities within the school, to ensure that students undertake appropriate research.

Management of the Units 3 and 4 practical investigationOne practical investigation across VCE Environmental Science Units 3 and 4 must be undertaken and reported in a scientific poster format and assessed as part of Unit 4 School-assessed Coursework. The practical investigation must be based on content in Unit 3 and/or Unit 4 Areas of Study 1 and/or 2. It would be expected that the investigation is a coupled or open type of scientific inquiry.

The practical investigation can be undertaken at any time across Units 3 and 4. The student must design an investigation that will generate primary data sets and involve consideration of variables, including through laboratory experiments, fieldwork, model construction, simulations involving random data and the use of databases. Teachers must ensure that all proposed investigation procedures and materials comply with all relevant safety, health and ethical regulations and/or codes of conduct. Students may work in groups to generate data, but all data manipulation, analysis, evaluation and reports must be the work of the individual student. Authentication of student work may be monitored through a variety of strategies including classroom observation during practical work, review of student logbooks, student interviews, setting of specific questions related to the investigation as part of the student assessment, and completion of data generation, manipulation, analysis and evaluation in class time. Time outside class may be allocated to background research and to completing references and/or acknowledgments.

Scientific posters Scientific poster templates available on the Internet may be used provided that the mandated poster sections (title, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusions, references and acknowledgments) are included. The use of a template can help minimise many common communication faults by keeping column alignments logical, including

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mandated sub-headings that provide clear cues as to how readers should travel through poster elements and maintaining sufficient ‘white space’ so that clutter is reduced.

There is no mandated VCAA style for the use of person or voice in writing a scientific poster, since the scientific community has not reached a consensus about which style it prefers. Increasingly, using first person (rather than third person) and active (rather than passive) voice is acceptable in scientific reports, because arguably this style of writing conveys information more clearly and concisely. However, this choice of person and voice brings two scientific values into conflict – objectivity versus clarity – which may account for the different viewpoints in the scientific community. Use of tense is dependent on the section of the report: when describing something that has already happened (for example, the investigation procedure) then past tense is used, as in ‘The aim of the experiment was to…’; when describing something that still exists (for example, the report, theory and permanent equipment) then the present tense is used, as in ‘The purpose of this report is to…’, ‘The First Law of Thermodynamics states that…’ and ‘Simpson’s Index can be used to…’

Detailed information about scientific poster sections is included in Appendix 5 and suggestions for effective scientific poster communication are elaborated in Appendix 6.

Maintenance of a logbookStudents must maintain a logbook of practical activities for each of Units 1 to 4. The logbook is a record of the student’s practical and investigative work involving the generation of primary and/or collection of secondary data. Its purposes include providing a basis for further learning, for example, contributing to class discussions about demonstrations, activities or practical work; reporting back to the class on an experiment or activity; responding to questions in a practical worksheet or problem-solving exercise; or writing up an experiment as a formal report or a scientific poster. No formal presentation format for the logbook is prescribed.

The logbook may be digital and/or paper-based. Data may be qualitative and/or quantitative and may include the results of guided activities or investigations; planning notes for experiments; results of student-designed activities or investigations; personal reflections made during or at the conclusion of demonstrations, activities or investigations; simple observations made in short class activities; links to spreadsheet calculations and other student digital records and presentations; notes and electronic or other images taken on excursions; database extracts; web-based investigations and research, including online communications and results of simulations; surveys; interviews; and notes of any additional or supplementary work completed outside class. All logbook entries must be dated and in chronological order. Investigation partners, expert advice and assistance and secondary data sources must be acknowledged and/or referenced.

Teachers may use student logbooks for authentication and/or assessment purposes.

Measurement in science

OverviewA major aim of science is to develop explanations for natural phenomena and events that are supported by evidence. For VCE Environmental Science students this involves considering the quality of evidence and of explanations that are based upon it so that

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questions such as ‘Can I rely on the data I have generated when drawing conclusions?’ and ‘Does the difference between one measurement and another indicate a real change in what is being measured?’ are central to any discussion of investigation results prior to formulating a conclusion.

The following section defines important terms. These terms arise from investigations and evaluations of scientific claims presented in the public domain, consistent with the terminology used by scientists but adapted (i.e. simplified without deviation from internationally agreed definitions) for VCE Environmental Science. The main reference source has been International Vocabulary of Metrology – Basic and General Concepts and Associated Terms, VIM, 3rd edition, JCGM 200:2008 and accessed at:www.bipm.org/utils/common/documents/jcgm/JCGM_200_2012.pdf

Measurement termsVCE Environmental Science requires that students can distinguish between and apply the terms ‘accuracy’, ‘precision’, ‘repeatability’, ‘reproducibility’ and ‘validity’ when analysing their own and others’ investigation findings. An understanding of the terms ‘accuracy’ and ‘precision’ is also important in the analysis and discussion of investigations of a quantitative nature.

AccuracyA measurement result is considered to be accurate if it is judged to be close to the ‘true’ value of the quantity being measured. The true value is the value (or range of values) that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly. For example, if an experiment is performed and it is determined that a given substance had a mass of 2.70 g, but the true value of mass is 3.20 g, then the measurement is not accurate since it is not close to the true value. The difference between a measured value and the true value is known as the ‘measurement error’.

‘Accuracy’ is not a quantity and therefore cannot be given a numerical value. It is allowable for a measurement to be described as being ‘more accurate’ when its method and/or instruments clearly reduce measurement error, such as using a triggered electronic timer system compared to a hand-operated stopwatch. Accuracy may not be quantified: ‘measurement error’ is the quantity used to evaluate measurements.

PrecisionExperimental precision refers to how closely two or more measurement values agree with each other. A set of precise measurements will have very little spread about their mean value. For example, if a given substance was weighed five times, and a mass of 2.70 g was obtained each time, then the experimental data are precise. Precision gives no indication of how close the results are to the true value and is therefore a separate consideration to accuracy, so that if the true mass in the above example was 3.20 g then these data are precise but inaccurate.

Quantitatively, a measure of precision would be a measure of spread of measured values. A measured mass of 2.7 g ± 0.1 g is less precise than 2.702 g ± 0.001 g. Although a quantitative treatment of precision is beyond the scope of the VCE Environmental Science Study Design, students should be able to interpret qualitatively the degree of confidence and

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certainty in data when provided with data that include confidence limits or measures of spread.

Replication of procedures: repeatability and reproducibilityExperimental data and results must be more than one-off findings and should be repeatable and reproducible to draw reasonable conclusions. Repeatability refers to the closeness of agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on identical test material, under the same conditions (same operator, same apparatus and/or same laboratory). Reproducibility refers to the closeness of agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on identical test material but under different conditions (different operators, different apparatus and/or different laboratories). The purposes of reproducing experiments include checking of claimed precision and uncovering any systematic errors from one or other experiments/groups that may affect accuracy. Experiments that use subjective human judgment/s or that involve small sample sizes or insufficient trials may also yield results that may not be repeatable and/or reproducible.

ValidityA measurement is ‘valid’ if it measures what it claims to be measuring. Both experimental design and the implementation should be considered when evaluating validity. Data are said to be valid if the measurements that have been made are affected by a single independent variable only. They are not valid if the investigation is flawed and control variables have been allowed to change or there is observer bias.

Experimental uncertainty and errorIt is important not to confuse the terms ‘error’ and ‘uncertainty’, which are not synonyms. It is also important not to confuse ‘error’ with ‘mistake’ or ‘personal error’. Error, from a scientific measurement perspective, is the difference between the measured value and the true value of what is being measured. Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt associated with a measurement result. The VCE Environmental Science Study Design requires only a qualitative treatment of uncertainty.

An appreciation of statistical significance and the degree of confidence and certainty/uncertainty in data is particularly important in the study of climate science where statements from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change include: ‘It is highly likely that humans have had an appreciable effect on global temperatures’. Students should be able to discuss, from a conceptual perspective, what ‘highly likely’ means and why likelihood statements are necessary. From this, they should be able to explain the uncertainties involved in making statements such as ‘Humans have had an effect on global temperature’. They should be able to identify contradictory and provisional data including possible sources of bias in personally sourced or provided data.

Experimental uncertainties are inherent in the measurement process and cannot be eliminated simply by repeating the experiment no matter how carefully it is done. There are two sources of experimental uncertainties: systematic effects and random effects. Experimental uncertainties are distinct from personal errors.

Personal errors

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Personal errors include mistakes or miscalculations such as measuring a height when the depth should have been measured, or misreading the scale on a thermometer, or measuring the voltage across the wrong section of an electric circuit, or forgetting to divide the diameter by two before calculating the area of a circle using the formula A = πr2. Personal errors can be eliminated by performing the experiment again correctly the next time, and do not form part of an analysis of uncertainties.

Systematic errorsSystematic errors are errors that affect the accuracy of a measurement. Systematic errors cause readings to differ from the true value by a consistent amount each time a measurement is made, so that all the readings are shifted in one direction from the true value. The accuracy of measurements subject to systematic errors cannot be improved by repeating those measurements.

Common sources of systematic errors include: faulty calibration of measuring instruments (and uncalibrated instruments) that consistently give the same inaccurate reading for the same value being measured, poorly maintained instruments (which may also have high random errors), or faulty reading of instruments by the user (for example, ‘parallax error’).

Random errorsRandom errors affect the precision of a measurement and are always present in measurements (except for ‘counting’ measurements). These types of errors are unpredictable variations in the measurement process and result in a spread of readings.

Common sources of random errors are variations in estimating a quantity that lies between the graduations (lines) on a measuring instrument, the inability to read an instrument because the reading fluctuates during the measurement, and making a quick judgment of a transient event, for example, measuring the wind speed at a particular location.

The effect of random errors can be reduced by making more or repeated measurements and calculating a new mean and/or by refining the measurement method or technique.

OutliersReadings that lie a long way from other results are sometimes called outliers. Outliers must be further analysed and accounted for, rather than being automatically dismissed. Repeating readings may be useful in further examining an outlier.

Learning activities

Unit 1: How are Earth’s systems connected?This unit focuses on the interrelationships and dependencies between Earth’s four spheres. Practical activities should not be limited to assessment tasks; they may be used to introduce an environmental science concept, to build understanding of an environmental science concept or skill and to practise specific scientific skills, for example, measurement of static and changing environmental parameters, field study techniques including use of quadrats and transects, and environmental monitoring techniques including use of data logging.

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Unit 1 Area of Study 1: How is life sustained on Earth?

Outcome 1: Examples of learning activities

Compare the processes and timeframes for obtaining the key inputs required for life on Earth, describe strategies for the minimisation of waste product outputs, and explain how Earth’s four systems interact to sustain life.

construct an annotated timeline of Earth's age to indicate key evidence for the arrival of key organisms, including bacteria, cyanobacteria (stromatolites), plants, invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, first mammals, Java man, Peking woman, Australopithecus boisei, Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons, modern-day humans

construct a scaled model of Earth, colour coding the characteristics of its layers

use a Venn diagram to identify the unique features of Earth’s four major systems and the major interactions between the systems

analyse interactions between Earth’s four systems through a case study: ‘Parachuting Cats – History or Hoax?’

convert the following research questions into hypotheses: Are some types of soils more porous than others? Is the rate of photosynthesis dependent on temperature? Is the rate of respiration affected by humidity? Which compost materials are most effective as compost ingredients? Are younger people more interested in recycling/ composting/ land

management than older people? Are fertilisers more effective in some types of soils than others? How well do different soils act as water purifiers?

design and perform experiments to investigate how changing a biotic or abiotic factor in one of Earth’s spheres affect the other spheres; examples of investigations include: whether increased carbon environments increase photosynthetic rates (atmosphere); testing ‘companion planting’ effectiveness (biosphere); dumping of salt into a stream (hydrosphere); or changing the number of earthworms or type of fertiliser used in soils (lithosphere)

participate in an intra-school or inter-school ‘My Veggie Garden Rules’ competition involving the negotiation of high temperatures, limited water supply and small plots of arid soil to produce the greatest quantity and quality of an edible crop as elaborated at: www.carltonconnect.com.au/my-veggie-garden-rules/

research contemporary developments in methods for growing crops in inhospitable conditions, for example growing tomatoes using sun and seawater at: www.newscientist.com/article/2108296-first-farm-to-grow-veg-in-a-desert-using-only-sun-and-seawater/; identify how Earth’s spheres are involved in sustaining the cropping system

imagine a world without humans; construct a graphic that compares a world with and without humans in terms of Earth’s four spheres

design and perform experiments to compare the properties of different types of soils: water permeability; water content; pH; salinity; ability for different seeds to germinate; percentage organic matter in terms of nitrate, sulfate or phospate content

design and perform experiments to compare the quality of different water samples: pH; temperature; dissolved oxygen content; total dissolved solids; nutrients in terms of nitrates, phosphates, sulfates; biological indicators in terms of various measures of macroinvertebrate or fish diversity

consider the question: ‘Is methodology more important than a

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conclusion?’ with respect to an experiment you have undertaken design and perform experiments to compare the quality of different soil

samples: pH; salinity; available water capacity; infiltration; aggregate stability, for example capacity of a soil to withstand raindrops; earthworms; soil enzymes; total organic carbon content; particulate organic matter content; nutrients in terms of nitrates, phosphates, sulfates

analyse graphs showing the different wavelengths of energy from the Sun that travel to Earth, categorising them as ultraviolet, infrared and visible light; identify the relative proportions that penetrate the atmosphere and are then absorbed, stored, reflected, or leave Earth’s atmosphere

set up two aquaria with leaf litter and place worms into one of these, then observe the changes in the tank over time: Does the leaf litter in each aquarium decompose at the same rate? Where does the matter go? Where does the energy go?

identify in which of Earth’s four major systems some of the physical, chemical and biological processes in biogeochemical cycles operate; for example, evaporation in the water cycle (hydrosphere → atmosphere), denitrification in the nitrogen cycle (biosphere → atmosphere), sequestration in the carbon cycle (atmosphere → biosphere → lithosphere), and decomposition in the phosphorus cycle (biosphere → lithosphere)

research and annotate maps of Earth’s surface to show key locations of the outputs (for example, coal, oil, gas and phosphate rocks) of the different cycles; see http://educationportal.com/academy/lesson/biogeochemical-cycling-and-the-phosphorus-cycle.html

investigate the energy potential held in a potato/lemon and discuss how different energy conversions can occur

draw a flow diagram to show how energy and matter move through the human body when a meal is consumed or alter when a candle is burned, identifying the state of matter (gas, liquid or solid) and the energy transformations occurring at each stage of the flow diagram

use NASA data to explore fluxes in radiation from the Earth in different seasons; see http://amser.org/index.php?P=AMSER--ResourceFrame&resourceId=14945

explore how energy flows through different types of ecosystems using an online simulation; see (modelling ecosystems) http://glencoe.mheducation.com/sites /0078695104/student_view0/unit1/chapter2/virtual_labs.html#

use a graphic organiser to illustrate the main sources of the essential inputs (energy, nutrients, air and water) required for life

design and perform experiments to determine the factors that affect photosynthetic rates and plant growth; for example, level of carbon dioxide or oxygen, light intensity, wavelength of light, temperature

construct a table that compares examples of different organisms that utilise different methods of generating energy (photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, aerobic and anaerobic respiration); identify inputs and outputs of each energy-generating process

investigate yeast growth, with and without sugar, to explore inputs and outputs, and processes of energy production; see www.bioedonline.org/lessons-and-more/lessons-by-topic/human-organism/food-nutrition-and-energy/energy-for-life/

debate that ‘sewage can be treated to be drinkable’ design and perform experiments to investigate the decomposition rates of

different types of food scraps comment on the quote by Ronald Wright, from A Short History of

Progress (2005), that: ‘If civilization is to survive, it must live on the interest, and not the capital, of nature’ in terms of inputs and outputs for

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life’ organise a field trip to a recycling plant (for example, sewage, polymers,

metal, household refuse) and summarise processes using a graphic organiser

Detailed example

PARACHUTING CATS – HISTORY OR HOAX?Aims: To investigate the interactions between Earth’s four systems by examining a case study. To explore how solutions to one problem may generate new problems, which then require new solutions. To examine the nature of evidence.Background information for teachersA ‘classic’ example of solutions causing different problems from those that they initially solved is illustrated by the ‘parachuting cats’ case. The case is also interesting because a number of versions can be found on the Internet that include contradictory information and disputed ‘facts’.For Activity 1 in this extended example, students will use the most popular, but disputed, version of the case to investigate relationships between Earth’s systems:

In the early 1950s, there was an outbreak of malaria among the Dayak people in Borneo. The World Health Organization (WHO) organised indoor residual spraying campaigns in many countries around the world, including Borneo. The campaigns involved spraying houses with DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) to kill the mosquitoes that transmitted malaria. The mosquitoes died and the incidence of malaria decreased significantly.However, there were side effects. One of the first effects was that the thatched roofs of people's houses began to fall down. This occurred because the DDT was also killing a parasitic wasp that ate thatch-eating caterpillars. Without the wasps to eat them, there were more and more thatch-eating caterpillars. In addition, the wasps that died from being poisoned by DDT were eaten by gecko lizards, which were then eaten by cats. The cats started to die, the rats flourished, and the Dayak people were threatened by outbreaks of two serious diseases carried by the rats: sylvatic plague and typhus. To solve these problems, the WHO parachuted live cats into Borneo.

Points of dispute relate to the methods of DDT delivery (aeroplane versus local spraying), the number of cats delivered to Borneo and the purpose of their delivery; the mechanism for the widespread death of cats; the reason for the proliferation of rats; and whether typhus and plague actually occurred.For Activity 2, students will use a more reliable source of information about the case to explore the nature of evidence.Science skillsTeachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.PreparationFor Activity 1, teachers should make available to students a list of events related to the most popular, although disputed, ‘parachuting cats’ case in the following order: Rats brought plague and typhus Lizards ate wasps containing DDT Thatched (grass) roofs of houses collapsed Caterpillars increased Rats increased Cats died Rats died Lizards disappeared

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Mosquitoes were wiped out Lizard numbers decreased Wasp numbers decreased (dead wasps stored DDT in their bodies) Caterpillars ate thatched (grass) roofs of houses WHO financed and supported over 14,000 cats being parachuted in to Borneo Cats caught lizards containing DDT WHO financed and sent DDT to BorneoHealth, safety and ethical notesThere are no issues.ProcedureActivity 1: Interactions between Earth’s systemsStudents: work in small groups to sequence the jumbled set of events into chronological order identify how the four spheres are associated with different events in the ‘parachuting cats’ case suggest alternative solutions.Discussion questions and report writing in logbookA series of four to eight graded questions could be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:1. Connect: Draw a food web to illustrate relationships between living things involved in the ‘parachuting cats’

case.2. Identify: Outline how each of Earth’s major systems (atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere)

are involved in the ‘parachuting cats’ case.3. Analyse: What questions would you need to ask and what information would you require to determine

whether malaria is ‘worse’ for a community than plague or typhus?4. Evaluate: How could the unintended effects associated with the use of DDT have been avoided?5. Predict: Draw a flow chart to illustrate what could have happened if no intervention was taken to treat the

outbreak of malaria.6. Imagine: What problems could be generated by the ‘parachuting cats’ solution?7. Propose: Suggest alternative solutions to solving the malaria problem.Teaching notesA correct order of events is listed below: WHO financed and sent DDT to Borneo Mosquitoes were wiped out Wasp numbers decreased (dead wasps stored DDT in their bodies) Caterpillars increased Caterpillars ate thatched (grass) roofs of houses Thatched (grass) roofs of houses collapsed Lizards ate wasps containing DDT Lizard numbers decreased Cats caught lizards containing DDT Lizards disappeared Cats died Rats increased Rats brought plague and typhus WHO financed and supported over 14,000 cats being parachuted in to Borneo

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Rats diedActivity 2: Examining evidenceA number of reports related to this case study are available on the internet, and students may compare different accounts to consider the authority of sources and the nature of evidence. The following article provides an overview of the case and some of the associated issues related to points of dispute:‘Parachuting Cats and Crushed Eggs – The Controversy over the Use of DDT to Control Malaria’, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2636426/Points of dispute include: only twenty cats were dropped in a container with other provisions to one very small village in the Highlands

of Borneo on one occasion, and they were dropped for entirely different reasons than to control a rat population (compared with alternative versions that 14,000 cats were parachuted into Borneo)

the claims that the biomagnification of DDT caused the cat deaths has never been verified; the cause of death of the original cats was from licking their fur and ingesting DDT – not from eating the lizards that had eaten the wasps that had been killed by DDT

the proliferation of rats was more likely to due to environmental conditions and not lack of cats there were no reported cases of typhus except for one reported outbreak of Bolivian fever (compared with

reports of outbreaks of typhus and/or plague).Discussion questions and report writing in logbookStudents should work in groups to suggest how sources of information can be authenticated and verified. Guiding questions could include: What is the difference between source verification and authentication? Complete the following table in relation to elements of different versions of the ‘parachuting cats’ case study:

Opinion Anecdote Evidence

How can reported WHO actions be verified? Where can records of disease outbreaks, epidemics and pandemics be sourced? How are outbreaks of disease tracked? Do cats eat lizards? What is biomagnification? Is the opinion of an individual less reliable than a statement from an organisation?

Unit 1 Area of Study 2: How is Earth a dynamic system?

Outcome 2: Examples of learning activities

Describe the flow of matter and energy, nutrient exchange and environmental changes in ecosystems across Earth’s four systems over different time scales.

introduce ‘systems thinking’ by being part of a class ‘Triangular Connections’ simulation activity

analyse a monitoring project to identify the key elements of an investigation and their key features and to differentiate between a hypothesis, a question, and a prediction, for example a mangrove wetlands project presented as a poster; see www.cbd.int/iyb/doc/celebrations/iyb-TrinidadTobago-SymposiumPoster.pdf

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draw a system diagram or concept map for a local site that shows: the supra-systems; examples of sub-systems; and the interactions between systems, including inputs for life, processes that act upon them, and the outputs produced by life

perform an aquarium investigation that explores differences between open, semi-permeable and closed systems; see www.beg.utexas.edu/education/ aquitank/tank01.htm

exp lore abrupt changes such as volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis on the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere

explore causal relationships such as linear, cyclical, domino, relational, mutual; see www.cfa.harvard.edu/smg/Website/UCP/causal/causal_types.html

conduct fieldwork to investigate environmental science concepts: choose a local area (for example, wetland, woodland, waterway or parkland) as the investigation focus; collect quantitative data on an abiotic factor (for example, intensity of light, proportion of shade/tree cover, and soil moisture) using transects and quadrats, and compare and collate class results; collect qualitative data about what you observed while collecting the quantitative data; if available, record the history of the use of the site; seek user experience of the area to see how qualitative and quantitative data differ and can complement each other, and to consider how the environment has changed over time

comment on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s quote, from The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes: ‘You see but you do not observe’ in terms of the importance of careful observation in the field or in the laboratory

use the jigsaw research method to construct and share summary tables of the impacts to survival of living things for each of the environmental changes from each of the time scales (investigate only one change from each time scale, for example El Niño Southern Oscillation, desertification or Milankovitch cycles); relate the impacts on survival to the four key Earth systems

use an interactive applet to visualise day/night, seasons and effects of the different parts of the Milankovitch cycle; see http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/climatechange/observations/lesson6/earthorbit.html

use an interactive applet visualising the Milankovitch cycle to graph ice core data that shows Earth’s temperatures over 400,000 years; explore glacial melting and growth patterns http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/climatechange/nav/lessonplans/Unit2/MilankovitchLessonPlan.pdf

access AuSIS materials to investigate Earth events, for example seismic waves and quake catchers, and to determine earthquake location and magnitude

deduce information about a small object that has been dropped in flour by looking at the size and shape of the crater-like shape that results from the impact; obtain images and dimensions of sites that have been impacted by a meteorite and estimate the dimensions of the meteorite

Detailed example

TRIANGULAR CONNECTIONS: WHAT IS ‘SYSTEMS THINKING’ ABOUT?AimTo introduce the concept of ‘systems thinking’ through a physical simulation involving students acting as individual components of a system.

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IntroductionThere are various ways of physically modelling the complexities of Earth as a system of four interrelated spheres (atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere) and the interdependencies of various elements between and within each system. In this activity, students each represent an element within a system; some connections between elements within the system may be relatively strong, while others are weak. Any change in one element of the system can affect the whole system, sometimes in unpredictable ways.Science skillsTeachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.Preparation: An understanding of Earth as four interconnected systems, and bio-geochemical cycles, covered in Unit 1

Area of Study 1. If the basic concept of ‘systems thinking’ has already been covered, than teachers may use this activity to

develop deeper thinking about the effects of changes within systems in terms of intra- and inter-system functionality and influences.

If the activity is not taking place outdoors, then the classroom must be cleared so that students have space to walk around.

Health, safety and ethical notesThere are no issues.Procedure: Students stand around in a circle outdoors or in a cleared classroom to represent elements (each student) in

a system (the circle of students). Each student silently chooses two people in the room to be their ‘influencers’; at no time during the activity

should the ‘influencers’ be known to anyone else.Activity 1: A simple systemStudents are instructed that when the teacher says ‘go’, each student should move so that they are equally distant from their two ‘influencers’. After 5 minutes the teacher will say ‘stop’. Students record their observations in terms of the stability of the ‘system’.Activity 2: Effects of system changeActivity 1 is repeated, except that students choose two different ‘influencers’ and after 5 minutes when the teacher says ‘stop’ only those students with <a selected particular characteristic chosen by the teacher and not previously disclosed to students, for example, an item of red clothing or blond hair> stop while everyone else keeps moving so that they remain equidistant from their two ‘influencers’. Students observe and record what happens in terms of system stability.Discussion questions and report writing in logbookA series of five to eight graded questions should be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:1. Identify: The simulation includes ‘influencers’. Identify the ‘influencers’ in a selected bio-geochemical cycle.2. Explain: How are the ‘stop’ instructions in the simulation related to an aspect of a bio-geochemical cycle or

one of Earth’s four spheres?3. Classify: All systems must include elements, interconnections and a function or purpose. Is the water cycle

a system? Why or why not?4. Apply: In what ways is your class of students a system? In what ways is your class of students not a

system?5. Connect: Why are systems so complex? Refer to the simulation ‘triangles’ and their equivalent elements in

bio-geochemical cycles or one of Earth’s four spheres to explain your answer.6. Synthesise: Why do systems fluctuate? Use the results from your experiment as an analogy to explain

fluctuations in either of the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere or lithosphere.7. Create: Draw a concept map to illustrate how interconnections occur within and between Earth’s four

spheres.

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8. Imagine: Explain how relationships within systems could change over time.Teaching notes: The simulation could be extended by allocating four students to be ‘observers’ in each corner of the room or

at four different points outside the circle and away from the rest of the students. Their role is to determine which ‘triangles’ are connected, and to explain how they represent particular elements in a cycle and how these influence each other within the system. This also reflects the complexity of systems and the difficulty in being able to identify all relationships within systems.

The effects of changes in relationships and delays within systems can be explored by extending the activity. For example, a group could be asked to change one of their ‘influencers’ mid-way through the 5-minute triangulation activity, and students could observe what happens in another 5-minute stint of system adjustment in the simulation.

Unit 1 Area of Study 3: Practical investigation

Outcome 3: Examples of research questions

Design and undertake an investigation related to ecosystem monitoring and/or change, and draw a conclusion based on evidence from collected data.

Is there a correlation between levels of carbon dioxide in an aqueous solution and the rate of dissolution of the calcium carbonate in marine shells?

What is the effect of depth of water and temperature on dissolved oxygen content of water?

How do the accuracy and precise of different techniques to measure a selected environmental factor (for example, turbidity, biological oxygen demand, soil acidity, pH, particulate matter in air) compare?

How does the addition to soil of different types of fertilisers affect soil properties, for example pH, permeability to water and capacity to withstand water drops?

Are photosynthetic rates and plant growth affected by exposure to different types of light, for example natural or artificial?

How do the decomposition rates of different types of food scraps compare? Do ‘organically grown’ fruits and vegetables decompose at different rates

when compared with ‘non-organically’ grown fruits and vegetables? How do new farming practices or urban/rural development changes affect

survival of plant and animal species? What factors affect erosion rates? Are fishing yields related to lunar cycles and tidal patterns or to seasons? How do fire, drought and flood affect the relative regeneration rates of

indigenous, native and introduced plant species? Can the addition of wood ash (containing potassium bicarbonate) to house

paints act as a fire retardant?

Detailed example

HOW DO FIRE, DROUGHT AND FLOOD AFFECT THE RELATIVE REGENERATION RATES OF INDIGENOUS, NATIVE AND INTRODUCED PLANT SPECIES?The practical investigation builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 1 Area of Study 1 and/or Area of

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Study 2. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration: What input would students have into the selection of the type of investigation undertaken (laboratory work,

fieldwork or a combination of both)? What input would students have into the selection of the investigation question? What input would students have into the design of the experiment or fieldwork exercises? Will different groups of students in the class be able to undertake different investigations? Is class data pooling a possibility? Will off-school site work be involved? Is the investigation reliant on particular weather conditions and/or accessibility constraints?

Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases. Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks.Topic selection phaseIn this detailed example, the investigation question was generated following a fieldwork activity where students had noted significant regrowth in an area that had recently been subject to controlled burning. One student referred to indigenous land management practices including the use of fire, while another student reflected on regrowth after bushfires and that some tree species, particularly eucalypts, appeared to flourish. This led to discussions about indigenous, native and introduced tree species and whether other extreme climatic events had similar effects on plant regeneration. From this discussion students generated a question for investigation: How do fire, drought and flood affect the relative regeneration rates of indigenous, native and introduced plant species?Planning phaseStudents may need guidance in: fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan identifying the independent, dependent and controlled variables in various experiments distinguishing between continuous and discrete variables developing hypotheses and distinguishing between a hypothesis, prediction and conclusion.Teachers should work with students to: identify and negotiate undertaking of various experiments by different students or student groups within the

parameters of the question safely simulate conditions of ‘fire’.Investigation phaseStudent-designed methodologies must be approved by the teacher prior to students undertaking practical investigations. A possible general management plan for the investigation follows: determine set of experiments and set up class recording grid, for example:

Seed treatment

(N=20)

Time since planting (weeks)

Number of germinated seeds

Indigenous plant seeds

Native tree seeds Introduced plant seeds

Untreated 1

2

3

Fire-charred 1

2

3

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Sun-dried 1

2

3

Water-soaked

1

2

3

treat seeds (burning to simulate fire, drying to simulate drought and soaking in water to simulate drought) and set up growing conditions

monitor weekly and record seed germination rates; monitoring times may need to be extended, dependent on when germination begins.

Reporting phaseStudents consider the data collected, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to explain and answer the investigation question. Differences in germination rates should be related to the type of seed being tested and the conditions to which the seeds were subjected.Further avenues for investigation include: determining the effects on seed germination rates from other environmental events and conditions (for

example, high humidity, acid rain) determining the effects of changed germination rates of seeds on the types of birds and insects attracted to

a particular area.The above phases could be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation can take various forms including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral presentation of the investigation.

Unit 2: How can pollution be managed?This unit focuses on the generation and management of pollution including human and environmental impacts. Practical activities should not be limited to assessment tasks; they may be used to introduce an environmental science concept, to build understanding of an environmental science concept or skill and to practise specific scientific skills, for example, measurement of turbidity, pH, light intensity, biological oxygen demand and salinity, use of indicators of pollution including pollution tolerant/intolerant species, and measurement of concentration including ppm and LD50.

Unit 2 Area of Study 1: When does pollution become a hazard?

Outcome 1: Examples of learning activities

Compare a selected pollutant that results in bioaccumulation with an air- or water-borne pollutant, with reference to their sources, characteristics and dispersal, explain how they can be measured and monitored, and describe treatment options.

construct a Venn diagram using three intersecting circles to compare the definitions and features of wastes, contaminants and pollution

debate the question, ‘Is pollution inevitable?’ define a ‘green’ detergent, compare ingredients lists for ‘green’ and

conventional detergents, and design an experiment to test whether ‘green’ detergents are less toxic than conventional detergents

design and perform an experiment to test the effectiveness of different methods for cleaning up oil spills or the effects of oil spills, for example responding to questions such as ‘How can oil be removed most effectively

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from bird feathers?’ or ‘Can oil floating on a pond or dam be removed in the same way as oil spilled at sea?’ or ‘Does the salt in seawater affect how well an oil spill can be removed?’ or ‘Is oil spilled on water easier to remove than oil seeping into soils?’ or ‘Do different soils and rocks absorb oil to different degrees, and do they require different removal techniques?’

design and conduct experiments to determine: the minimum concentration of chlorine that will inhibit 50% of the

growth of alfalfa seeds how chemical water pollution affects plant growth the factors that affect the pH of water in a local waterway whether pesticides are equally effective on different types of pests

investigate how DDT accumulates within organisms and magnifies up a food chain using a simulation, for example http://faculty.fmcc.suny.edu/freeman/webpages/environmentalscience/lab/BioaccumulationandBiomagnification.pdf

create a possible food chain of organisms within an ecosystem relevant to a bioaccumulating pollutant; use concentration data (i.e. species with lowest concentration of pollutant likely at bottom of the food chain and species with highest concentration likely at top of food chain)

annotate a map (for example, Google Earth, Google Maps) to indicate the geographic distribution of a pollutant from its source/s to its sink/s and identify the relevant transport mechanisms

collect field data for three environmental indicators within a local ecosystem; compare data collected with geographically comparable water quality data collected (for example, by Melbourne Water at http://melbournewater.com.au/waterdata/riverhealthdata/Documents/Summary_Waterway_water_quality_data_2013.pdf); account for differences in data collected; identify possible limitations of data collection methodology; and suggest realistic improvements

comment on Ha-Joon Chang’s quote from 23 Things They Don’t Tell You About Capitalism (2010): ‘People ‘over-produce’ pollution because they are not paying for the costs of dealing with it’

complete an introductory risk assessment (using a template) for a hazardous activity/scenario relevant to schools (for example, riding a bike to school, using a school laboratory for practical work, playing a sport) and follow up with a case study related to a pollutant, using information provided to complete a further risk assessment

role-play being a toxicologist and design and conduct an experiment to investigate the effect different doses of chemicals have on the germination capacity of radish (or other fast-germinating) seeds; present results as a dose-response curve; chemicals could include plant food, sucrose, artificial sweetener, liquid laundry detergent, shampoo, carbonated water, household all-purpose cleaner, disinfectant, salt

conduct an experiment to investigate the relationship between availability of oxygen and rate of decay/removal of an active pollutant (for example, nutrient pollution, decomposition of organic biodegradable materials such as fruit peel); the experiment may be a simulation/modelling exercise rather than using an actual pollutant

debate the idea that: ‘spraying an apple with pesticides defeats the purpose of eating the apple’

create an infographic to visually summarise a new technology that reduces pollution, including statistics/data from a reliable source presented in two or

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more different formats (for example, pie chart, map, frequency histogram, table); include a labelled diagram of the technology, clear and obvious ‘take home’ messages, and citations for all sources of information; new technologies could include: plug-in hybrid cars, gasification, fuel cells, biofuels, or carbon sequestration

develop a way of categorising pollution, other than as ‘air, water or soil’ pollution

devise an inquiry to test an explanation of how temperature inversion affects the accumulation of pollutants or air pollution

design a water purification system to produce fresh water from polluted water; determine the modifications that would be necessary to supply water for one person or for a family for a month

Detailed example

HOW DOES THE DOSAGE OF A POLLUTANT AFFECT GERMINATION OF RADISH SEEDS?AimTo investigate the effect of changing dosages of a non-bioaccumulating water-borne chemical pollutant on the germination capacity of radish seeds.IntroductionStudents imagine that they are toxicologists and conduct an experiment to investigate the effect of varying the dosage of a non-bioaccumulating water-borne chemical pollutant added to radish seeds (or other fast germinating seeds such as mung beans, cress, white mustard).Science skillsTeachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.Prior learningStudents should be familiar with the following concepts and skills prior to undertaking the activity: defining the term ‘water-borne pollutant’ and listing some examples examining chemical components/structure/characteristics of the selected chemical for the investigation mapping the geographic location/s of sources, dispersal, sinks of the selected chemical hypothesising under which conditions the selected chemical could be classed as a pollutant identifying potential sources of the selected chemical (for example, industrial waste, sewage and waste

water, mining activities, burning of fossil fuels, agricultural waste including fertilisers and animal waste, urban development including landfill)

completing/reviewing a safety data sheet (SDS) for using the selected chemical in a school laboratory sourcing acceptable limits of chemicals based on toxicological studies, including expressing these limits as a

dosage researching how toxicity tests enable toxicologists to learn about responses of living organisms to doses of

chemicals (dose-response relationships).Preparation: Technical support prepares relatively concentrated stock solutions of selected chemical ‘pollutant’ (for

example, solid chemicals could be dissolved to approximately 50% w/v in water). Safe, easily available chemicals to select from could include: ethanoic acid, acetone, methanol, ethanol,

laundry detergent, disinfectant / household all-purpose cleaner, shampoo, plant food, salt, window cleaner. 2.5 mL volumes of various concentrations of the chemical are supplied for the class (for example, 0%, 5%,

10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%). Each group of students selects any five variations in concentration for their experiment; ideally one of these should be a zero concentration of the chemical to act as a control sample.

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Depending on the class size, replicates of each sample could be set up; students could average the data obtained as part of their analysis.

In addition, each student group also requires seeds soaked overnight in water in the dark, paper towels/ cotton wool pads to provide a germination surface within the Petri dishes, 5 small Petri dishes with lids, a spoon, deionized water in spray bottles, indoor access to sunlight, magnifying glasses / digital camera with zoom.

Health, safety and ethical notes: The chemicals selected are common household products. Standard laboratory safety measures should be

followed. There are no ethical issues.Procedure: Collect materials for their group including five different concentrations of the selected chemical ‘pollutant’. Spray the bottom of the Petri dishes with a little water to help the cotton wool pads to stick. Place a cotton wool pad into the base of each Petri dish. Administer the different dosages of the selected chemical by pouring the 2.5 mL volumes of chosen

concentrations onto the pads. Using the spoon, carefully distribute about 20 pre-soaked seeds onto the pad. Cover the Petri dishes with their lids and place in a warm, well-lit location. Construct a table that best represents the results to be collected in the logbooks. Lightly spray the seeds with water during the experiment as needed. The cotton wool pad should be just

damp and not soaking.Students could collect qualitative and quantitative data over multiple days, which may include: time measurements, measurements of root / shoot / root hair growth, % germination, photographs/time-lapse images, sketches.If replicate samples are set up, then students could average the data collected.Students could analyse the data by constructing a dose-response curve. If the experiment is continued until all the germinated seedlings die, then it may be possible to deduce an LD50 from interpolating the curve.Discussion questions and report writing in logbookA series of four to six graded questions should be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:1. State: What are the dependent, independent and controlled variables in your investigation?2. Classify: Is your selected chemical ‘pollutant’ coming from a point source or diffuse source? Define these

terms as part of your response.3. Analyse: At what dosage does your selected chemical become toxic to the seeds? Define this term as part

of your answer.4. Evaluate: What are some limitations to the experimental method that prevented you from collecting more

accurate and reliable data?5. Propose: What are some improvements you could make to the experimental method that addresses the

limitation you have identified?Teaching notesRadish seeds will require about three to four days to germinate. The experiment could be set up on a Monday and then monitored mid-week and end of week for percentage germination. Students may opt to monitor their seeds daily. Seeds can be considered ungerminated after eight days of no growth. If students are collecting data about growth rates then sufficient data can be obtained over about a seven-day period following germination.The following learning activities could be used as a follow-up to the investigation: justifying whether environmental sources of pollutants are point or non-point sources describing the method/s of dispersal of air- or water-borne pollutants in general and therefore qualitatively

estimating the risk/likelihood of pollutants coming in contact with plants in particular environments

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describing how plants take in and use water/dissolved minerals as seeds and comparing with seedlings and established plants

describing treatment options including options for managing incidents that contribute to significant discharge of the selected chemical, minimising future/ongoing exposure of plants to the selected chemical

classifying treatment options as to whether they control/manage the chemical at the point or non-point source level.

Extension of detailed exampleAnother useful analytical tool for monitoring water toxicity is to measure the survival rate of water fleas (Daphnia magna) as the test organism. These invertebrates are highly sensitive to toxic substances, have short generation times, multiply very rapidly, easily acclimatise in laboratory condition, can be grown in a small space and can be measured easily and in a relatively short period using a compound light microscope.Specific considerationsA note of caution that this experiment uses live invertebrates and some students may be sensitive about this. Acute toxicity is determined by death or immobility of the Daphnia within 48 hours of exposure to the ‘pollutant’.About 40 Daphnia will be required for each class group in order to set up five concentrations of the selected chemical ‘pollutant’ – prepared as per instructions in the detailed example above. The Daphnia can be sourced from: www.southernbiological.com/specimens/living-specimens-and-supplies/protozoa-other-invertebrates/l3-60-Daphnia-live/Procedure: Add 2.5 mL of different concentrations of the selected chemical to 500 mL glass beakers – all glassware

must be previously scrubbed with a non-phosphate detergent. Label the beakers appropriately. Add 500 mL tap water to each beaker and swirl gently to mix. By viewing freshly obtained Daphnia under a stereomicroscope, a large plastic pipette is used to transfer

eight Daphnia into each glass beaker containing different concentrations of chemical. Maintain all Daphnia cultures at 8 °C (± 2 °C) with 16 hours per day of daylight for about 24 hours. Construct a table that best represents the results collected in logbooks. By viewing Daphnia under a stereomicroscope, all eight Daphnia from one of the test beakers should be

captured using a large plastic pipette and placed into a small petri dish containing 10 mL of the beaker solution.

Count the number of Daphnia that are: alive, dead and immobilised. Return all eight of the Daphnia to their original beaker. Culture the Daphnia for a further approximately 24 hours and then repeat the counting procedure. To view one of the live Daphnia using a compound light microscope, use a large plastic pipette to transfer

one Daphnia along with a small drop of beaker solution onto a clean microscope slide. A cover slip is not needed and only a small amount of water is needed on the slide or it will easily swim out of your field of view. Examine at x4 and x10 magnification. The Daphnia are nearly transparent so the diaphragm (iris) may need to be adjusted to obtain a clear view. Return the Daphnia to its original beaker.

Specific Daphnia care procedures can be found at: http://file.southernbiological.com/Assets/Products/Specimens/Living_Specimens_and_Supplies/Protozoa_&_Other_Invertebrates/L3_60- Daphnia /L3_60_ Daphnia _CareInstructions.pdf US EPA protocols for bioassays using Daphnia can be found at: http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/2000AY11.PDF

Unit 2 Area of Study 2: What makes pollution management so complex?

Outcome 2: Examples of learning activities

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Compare the sources, nature, transport mechanism, effects and treatment of three selected pollutants, with reference to their actions in the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

work in groups using a ‘jigsaw’ approach to research a question related to air, water or soil pollution, and present findings to a selected audience

convert the following research questions into hypotheses, and outline a methodology for their testing: Does road construction contribute to increase erosion and/or soil

degradation? Do pesticides also kill plants? Does litter degrade faster in salt water than in fresh water? Does salination lead to desertification?

develop a hypothesis and perform an experiment to determine how the growth of duckweed may be affected by different levels of pollutants, for example, detergents or salt

suggest research plans to enable justified responses to be made to the following questions: Is infrasound pollution? Why do chlorofluorocarbons present an environmental risk, and how are

alternatives developed? To what extent is coral bleaching an issue in the Great Barrier Reef? Should dioxins be banned?

use a Project Based Learning (PBL) approach to investigate a question related to air, water or soil pollution

select a ‘theme’ or ‘issue’ that can be investigated across the categories of air, water and soil pollution and present an integrated response to the theme or issue; for example, a theme related to the use of cars as transport may involve investigating the overarching question: ‘Should car-free days become compulsory?’ by considering a question related to air pollution such as ‘How clean is bioethanol?’, a question related to water pollution such as ‘What dangers do underground oil tank leakages pose?’ and a question related to soil pollution such as ‘Why does lead-acid battery recycling pose an environmental threat?’; results from the air, water and soil pollution investigations can be used to construct and communicate a response to the overarching question

Detailed example

PROJECT-BASED LEARNING TO ADDRESS AN ENVIRONMENTAL QUESTIONAimTo use a Project Based Learning (PBL) approach to investigate environmental questions relating to air, water and soil pollution.IntroductionStudents work in small groups to undertake an in-depth inquiry into one question relating to air, water and soil pollution (refer to examples of questions on pp. 19–21 of the Study Design) and create, compose or produce a product for an authentic audience.Teaching notesThis detailed example draws on the principles of PBL developed by the Buck Institute for Education (http://bie.org/about).A PBL approach begins with a fairly open-ended question, which is ideally provocative and engaging so that it

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grabs students’ interest. Students investigate this question and brainstorm possible solutions, learning relevant content during the process. They then apply their learning in creative ways to produce, demonstrate or perform a proposal, advocate for a policy or solution, or teach something to others, practising their communication skills in the process.Each student-centred project is broken down into three main stages, which can overlap within the time frame: inquire/discover/research create/compose/produce present/share/promoteOverall three questions relating to air, water and soil pollution are required for investigation. A manageable way to tackle this is for: three questions to be investigated as a class student groups to share their groups’ learning with their class peers students to complete a ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the three selected pollutants that addresses some

or all of the following categories: sources; chemical and physical properties; movement through the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere; measurement and monitoring; effects on living things and the environment, including toxicity; treatment and management options related to effects, including new technologies; social, economic, legal and ethical implications relevant to pollution management options.

The contribution of each student within any group can be accounted for by using self- and peer-assessment questionnaires and a ‘compare and contrast matrix’ in the assessment.Approximate time frames are proposed for each stage.Science skillsTeachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.Preparation: Students may need assistance in deconstructing the investigation question. Teachers could also discuss the necessary skills required to work well in a group, including perseverance

and a positive attitude.Health and safety notesThere are no specific health and safety concerns associated with this activity.ProcedureStage 1: inquire/discover/researchLesson 1 plus some out-of-class time. Students: Choose an investigation question (IQ) that interests them personally – ideally make their personal interest in

it explicit by recording initial ideas in their logbook. Form teams of three to four people all with some interest in the same IQ. The teacher may facilitate this. As a team, brainstorm what each student knows and doesn’t know about the problem/investigation question.

What specific questions do they need to investigate further? Each student should keep evidence of the process in their logbooks.

Consider how the IQ impacts on people and places; research, identify and describe relevant national or global geographic location/s and specific community groups. What specific questions do they need to investigate further? Students need to keep evidence of the process in their logbooks and remember to keep a record of where they sourced the information in case they need to return to it later.

Lesson 2 plus some out-of-class time. Students: Review the selected IQ and reframe/rewrite it if is necessary to include specific parameters (such as

particular pollutant, place, stakeholders, time frame, season etc.). Nominate valid sources, such as agencies, organisations or professionals in the field, who might be able to

supply information to help answer the specific questions identified that require further investigation. Collect as much information as possible on the IQ by dividing up these tasks to individuals within the group.

Don’t forget to agree on a timeline for completion. This might include using methods such as: online/library

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research, surveys, interviews, photo and video documentation, experimental data, and meeting with a variety of experts with different viewpoints. As students research, it is critical they collect sufficient information that allows them to explain arguments for and against different stakeholders’ points of view. Each student should keep and share a careful log of their research – dates, times, sources, observations, summaries etc.

Lesson 3. Students: As a group analyse the evidence collated during the field studies and create charts, graphs and other visual

representations to understand the findings.Stage 2: create/compose/produceLesson 4 plus some out-of-class time. Students: Decide, based on the research, what specific product/solution the group would like to create that addresses

the IQ. The task is to make public a strong, convincing argument to a real/authentic audience. Does the group want to build a model, design a website, plan a community event, improve an existing project/program, initiate an action-oriented campaign, make a persuasive presentation to relevant stakeholders? Or something else?

Identify all the steps required to make this stage happen. Make contact with the real/authentic audience and present them with a very brief description of the intended

product/solution and the rationale/s for the inquiry into the IQ. Keep evidence of contact in the logbooks.Lesson 5 plus some out of class time. Students: Create the product/solution and collect evidence of the process.Stage 3: present/share/promoteLesson 6 plus some out of class time. Students: Present the product/solution to class peers for initial review. The teacher and randomly selected class peers

complete an assessment questionnaire (based on provided criteria in an assessment rubric). Complete self- and team peer-assessment questionnaires.

Deliver the product/solution to the real/authentic audience. Collect evidence of the process. Randomly selected audience members complete assessment questionnaires.

Lesson 7:Each student completes a written ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the three selected pollutants that addresses some or all of the following categories: sources; chemical and physical properties; movement through the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere; measurement and monitoring; effects on living things and the environment, including toxicity; treatment and management options related to effects, including new technologies; social, economic, legal and ethical implications relevant to pollution management options.

Unit 2 Area of Study 3: Case study

Outcome 2: Examples of learning activitiesInvestigate and communicate a substantiated response to an issue involving the management of a selected pollutant of local interest.

in groups investigate a selected case study; each member of the group contributes a nominated newspaper item related to the case study in a class enviro e-newspaper (for example, letter to the editor, a report of pollution solutions in the case study, survey results from a public opinion poll related to an aspect of the case study, environmental cartoon, interviews with stakeholders)

the class explores a single, local case study through a Question and Answer panel role-play; nominate stakeholders who then communicate responses orally and then nominate different stakeholders who respond in written form

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Detailed example

HOW SHOULD A POLLUTANT BE MANAGED?The communication of the findings of an investigation of a case study involving the management of a selected pollutant of local interest builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 2 Area of Study 1 and/or Area of Study 2. The focus is on students being able to communicate a response to a selected case study. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of students, whether a local or broader issue will be investigated, student interest in particular case studies, whether all students will investigate the same issue and the format for the response. The following questions require consideration: How will the case study for investigation be selected? To whom will students be expected to communicate? What form will the communication take? To what extent will students work on their case study inside and outside the class, and how can work

completed outside the class be authenticated? To what extent will students work independently? Collaboratively?AimTo communicate a justified response to an issue involving the management of a selected pollutant of local interest.IntroductionStudents role-play a Q&A panel type discussion to examine the possible implications (benefits and limitations) for stakeholders affected by management options of a selected pollutant of local interest. Initially each student will assume the role of one stakeholder in one case study and become part of the panel type discussion. This is followed by each student selecting a different stakeholder and writing a media communication (approximately 500 words, 2 sides of A4) from their perspective, for example newspaper article; TV ad script; blog entries over period of time.Science skillsTeachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.Preparation: Students should have discussed examples of ‘effective’ and ‘ineffective’ oral and written communication

techniques and practices. Case studies should be pre-selected by the teacher that relate to a specific pollutant occurring in a particular

location. Depending on the class size, two case studies (and therefore two panels) will be required per class. Information in a case study could be presented to students as a series of ‘fact sheets’, in addition to details

about the sources of information, to allow students to conduct further research as required. Students become panel members that represent stakeholder interests (students select the names of

stakeholders at random ‘from a hat’), for example local resident with young family; local government representative; lawyer; environmental scientist; site worker from company contracted to carry out treatment of pollution; medical professional; environmental activist; philanthropist.

Health, safety and ethical notes: Students should be respectful of others and their opinions at all times. Students should be reminded that this activity is simply a role-play and the comments made do not

necessary reflect the attitudes of the individual speakers.ProcedureLesson 1: In this lesson students will consider general information about the pollution management case study; put themselves in the role of one stakeholder and present their position; construct a question they would like addressed by a discussion panel; prepare possible responses to these questions from their perspective as one stakeholder. Students: Read through the ‘fact sheets’ relating to the pollution management case studies.

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In the logbook, jot down any initial questions about the case study Select at random the name of a stakeholder relevant to the case study. Spend 10 minutes brainstorming the likely perspective of the stakeholder towards the issue of management

of pollution in the selected area. Students may discuss their ideas with peers and the teacher. Students need to consider the biases (feelings, opinions, prejudices) that their stakeholder may have for this issue and write these into the logbook.

Present a 20-second oral summary of the stakeholder to the class, for example: ‘My name is X and I am a farmer in the local area. The pollutant affects my crops and causes lower growth rates. This means that I am unable to sell as much of my product and so I earn less money for my family.’

On a slip of paper, construct one question that they would like addressed by someone relating to this case study. Students may suggest which stakeholder they would like to primarily respond to their question. The question should be well thought out so as to give as much insight into the management of this pollutant at this location. Students may use the following list of question terms to assist them –

List 1: Who/What/Where/When/Why/How…?List 2: …would/could/should/is/are/might/will/was/were…?

Submit the question to the teacher, who will photocopying all slips onto a single sheet of paper and collate these and then distribute them to the relevant discussion panel.

Now working with the other members of the panel, discuss the questions that have been submitted and write notes into the logbook detailing the response to these questions from the perspective of a stakeholder. Include as much scientific data as possible in the responses. Students may need to conduct additional Internet research to develop responses.

Lesson 2: In this lesson students will role-play the perspective on one stakeholder as part of a panel discussion. They may use any notes already written in the logbook and may also make additional notes in the logbook during the class.Lesson 3: In this lesson students will write a media communication in the logbook from the perspective of a different stakeholder from that role-played in the panel discussion. They may choose to write a newspaper article, TV ad script, blog entries over a period of time or another type of written media communication. By the end of this lesson students will submit approximately 500 words / 2 sides of A4. They may use any notes from the logbook.The media communication should identify/highlight the: specific scientific concept/s being communicated likely target audience scientific data used to justify position of the stakeholder.Students will be assessed with respect to: accuracy of scientific information clarity of explanations appropriateness for purpose and audience.Additional teaching notes: Sample case studies1. Contamination of Australian Groundwater Systems with Nitrate

http://lwa.gov.au/files/products/river-landscapes/pr990211/pr990211.pdf July 1999Case studies referenced:

Effluent disposal—Western Treatment Plant, Werribee, VictoriaSeptic tank study—Nepean Peninsula, VictoriaSeptic tank study—Venus Bay and Sandy Point, VictoriaSeptic tank study—Benalla, Victoria

2. Air quality in Australiahttp://bit.ly/17QzFvS March 2013Case studies referenced:

Brooklyn Industrial Precinct – Western suburbs, Melbourne

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www.wadenoonan.com.au/slideshow/193-clean-up-brooklyn-melbournes-dirtiest-suburbLandfills – Clayton and Dingley, Melbourne

3. Landfill pollution in MelbourneCase study referenced:

Brookland Greens Estate: investigation into methane gas leaks – Cranbourne, Victoriawww.parliament.vic.gov.au/papers/govpub/VPARL2006-10No237.pdf

Unit 3: How can biodiversity and development be sustained?This unit focuses on environmental management through the application of sustainability principles. Practical activities should not be limited to assessment tasks; they may be used to introduce an environmental science concept, to build understanding of an environmental science concept or skill and to practise specific scientific skills, for example, population surveys of native and introduced species, measurement of species diversity and ecosystem diversity, and use of sampling methods including grids, transects, quadrats and mark-recapture.

Unit 3 Area of Study 1: Is maintaining biodiversity worth a sustained effort?

Outcome 1: Examples of learning activitiesExplain the importance of Earth’s biodiversity, analyse the threats to biodiversity, and evaluate management strategies to maintain biodiversity in the context of one selected threatened endemic species.

discuss the definition and categories of biodiversity and their significance to ecosystem functioning and human survival

locate cartoons that relate to a biodiversity concept; analyse the cartoon for author’s possible intended meaning/s and identify the message/s the author is trying to convey in this cartoon (for example, www.cartoonistgroup.com/store/add.php?iid=35877 )

use practical work to investigate the role of moulds in ecosystem functioning and their importance in medicine

create an infographic to visually represent the ecosystem services provided by a particular ecosystem subtype (for example, tropical rainforest, coral reef, inland wetlands, mangrove swamps, and freshwater lake) including statistics/data from a reliable source presented in two or more different formats (for example, pie chart, map, frequency histogram, and table); include clear and obvious ‘take home’ messages and citations for all sources of information (for example, http://cdn4.kidsdiscover.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Water-Cycle-Infographic-Kids-Discover.png or http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_x0WTeIsUNB0/S8IODhbpWtI/ AAAAAAAAAFU/p0LKPsT4sOw/s1600/Infogram.jpg )

complete a PMI (plus, minus, indifferent) organiser on the relative values of preserving an individual species versus its gene pool versus the ecosystem/s in which it lives (i.e. a 3 x 3 matrix)

model the spread of fires using online simulators http://sciencenetlinks.com/tools/wildfire-simulator and http://sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Fire/Sci-Media/Interactive/Rural-fire-risk; watch Catalyst episode www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/4014144.htm and discuss the relationships between fire and biodiversity

examine data and describe patterns for change in temperature and CO2 concentrations over geological time and compare with mass extinction

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events as evidenced through the fossil record; a helpful resource that includes sample graphed data from the paleobiology database is at www.gbrmpa.gov.au/data/assets/ pdf_file/0019/5437/chpt-22-pandolfi-et-al-2007.pdf

investigate changes predicted to occur on an island over time using virtual biology simulations at http://virtualbiologylab.org/IslandBiogeography.htm and http://virtualbiologylab.org/PlantDiversity.htm

use Google Earth/Google Maps to locate one of Australia’s biodiversity hotspots; identify the important habitat/s and important species present there; describe the conservation programs in place to maintain and preserve the location; discuss whether focusing on biodiversity hotspots is the ‘key to preserving biodiversity’

use a number of techniques to assess biodiversity in the school or at a site in the local environment, for example, quadrats, transects, sampling; assess the biodiversity of that environment in a variety of measures such as number of species, species richness, species evenness, species diversity and endemism; use simple diversity indices such as Simpson's Index and Shannon Weiner Index to analyse the data collected

determine the maximum precision of length measurement with a steel ruler; discuss the significance of precision in measurements of phenomena related to environmental science; use examples to explain how a variation in precision can affect calculations of diversity indices

collect biodiversity data relating to specific habitats within the school grounds by carrying out a BioBlitz/biodiversity scavenger hunt using two different sampling methods; establish a class blog page or start a new mapping project in iNaturalist or the GreatNatureProject (www.inaturalist.org/projects, http://greatnatureproject.org) to document results; collect and post digital photographs and identify habitats and species using field guides or online databases such as www.eol.org; extend this activity by evaluating the advantages and limitations of the sampling methods used and/or classifying the organisms identified as: demonstrating genetic variation within a population, being threatened or introduced species, demonstrating predation, being examples of reproductive isolation, being pollinators, or being dispersal agents

measure the species richness and species abundance of a model ecosystem (jars of randomly mixed dried beans, for example, dark kidney beans, light kidney beans, navy beans, dried yellow peas, dried green peas etc.); follow up by using data collected to introduce various diversity indices; practise calculating diversity indices using further data collected from a virtual biology model; see http://virtualbiologylab.org/StreamDiversity.htm

investigate the biodiversity of ants in different ecosystems (ants may be baited and counted to obtain data with which to calculate the ant biodiversity of each chosen location, for example www.education.com/science-fair/article/ant-biodiversity/); compare measurements of biodiversity using species richness, Simpson’s Index and the Shannon-Wiener Index

research the impact of the human population on biodiversity and predict the effect on global biodiversity of a human population of 6 billion

provide examples of how the following act as threats to biodiversity: habitat modification and over-exploitation; genetic swamping, inbreeding and demographic variation due to small population size; loss of pollinators, dispersal agents, host species or symbionts; bioaccumulation; and competition from exotic species

generate primary and/or collect secondary data specific to a site to identify

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and assess the biodiversity of the environment: identify the threats to biodiversity at the site; suggest a strategy to reduce the threatening process

investigate demographic variation by conducting a virtual experiment using an online simulation, for example at http://virtualbiologylab.org/PopGenFishbowl.htm

model how competition for natural resources between two species can affect population growth using an online simulator, for example at www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/virtual_labs/BL_04/BL_04.html

analyse data collected for a marine species (for example, orange roughy, scallops, abalone, dugong) and explain the threats to its survival

discuss the differences between the following conservation categories: extinct in the wild, conservation dependent, critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable

develop a treatment plan for a selected endemic species: work in teams to select a threatened endemic species and imagine being a member of the medical team at a ‘Biodiversity Hospital’ where threatened species are ‘patients’, threats to their long-term survival are ‘diagnosed’ (assessed), ‘treatment plans’ (conservation strategies) are proposed, and ‘beds’ (resources) are prioritised and allocated depending on probability of extinction/conservation categories

visit an organisation that is conserving biodiversity at a site and arrange a tour and presentation of their conservation strategy; summarise the strategy and examine its successes, issues and level of effectiveness

visit websites such as Ecology Links, Environment Australia and World Wildlife Fund, to research a program that is used to manage or conserve a species; identify what level or unit of conservation is being addressed by the program (for example, is it conserving genetic diversity, population/s or the entire species?); suggest why the conservation efforts are being concentrated at this level of conservation

visit a site of remnant vegetation and collect data to analyse the significance of remnant vegetation and wildlife corridors in protecting biodiversity

discuss how scientific data is used in selected international, national, state and/or local legal treaties, agreements and/or regulatory frameworks that apply to the protection of threatened species; comment on the scientific principles underlying each treaty, agreement and/or regulatory framework

examine the environmental practices used in Australia by Aboriginal peoples compared with non-Aborigines with respect to (for example) interaction with and dependence on Country, traditional knowledge and education, and cultural values

imagine being employed by the Australian Minister for the Environment as part of a team planning Australia’s next national park; research possible locations for the park, describe how this location could preserve the values and benefits of biodiversity, propose ways in which different stakeholders might be affected, examine challenges that might be encountered and recommend ways in which these could be addressed

debate whether farming GM monoculture crops is preferable over farming polyculture crops (or whether pesticides alongside wild type monoculture crops is preferable over farming polyculture crops) for maintaining and growing populations that also build species resilience to changes in the environment

apply sustainability principles to guide planning in the design of a conservation program that will: ensure a viable future for a species or

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habitat; provide some economic benefit for the region; factor in implications of the conservation program on the ecosystem as a whole (for example, if conserving a species, how is a rise in numbers predicted to affect its habitat or other organisms such as predators, prey, symbionts); present the proposal as a one-page A4 handout; class votes on top three proposals to support in principle

access the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species at www.iucnredlist.org/ and summarise a current protection program for a threatened species; produce a pamphlet to support the protection of a less popular species that is under threat of extinction; debate that ‘cute’ species are more easily funded than ‘uglier’ species

Detailed example

TREATMENT PLAN FOR THE CONSERVATION OF A SELECTED THREATENED ENDEMIC SPECIESIntroductionStudents imagine being a member of the medical team at a ‘Biodiversity Hospital’ where threatened native species are ‘patients’. After accessing a range of relevant resources, students ‘diagnose’ (assess) threats to the long-term survival of the species and prioritise and allocate ‘beds’ (resources) as determined by the probability of extinction/conservation categories. They present a treatment plan (conservation strategy/program) for ONE of the threatened species.Science skillsTeachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.Health, safety and ethical notesStudents should be respectful of others and their opinions at all times.Prior learningStudents should be familiar with the following concepts and skills prior to undertaking the activity: the importance of biodiversity threats to biodiversity strategies for protecting and restoring biodiversity.Teacher notes The activity could be completed after the introduction of sustainability principles relevant to biodiversity

conservation. If the activity is completed before the introduction of sustainability principles relevant to biodiversity

conservation, then students could review the proposed conservation programs later in the semester and evaluate the degree to which they integrated sustainability principles.

The teacher recommends a number of threatened native species for detailed investigation by class (minimum of two species). Schools may elect to exclusively investigate species that have local significance or select some local species and some species threatened elsewhere in Australia. Schools are encouraged to develop learning activities that are as relevant as possible for their student cohort.

The activity may lead to an assessment task: the format of a formal assessment task could be a written response to a set of questions (approximately 50 minutes). The teacher could provide unseen questions for individual students to complete under open-book test conditions. The assessment questions would need to be applicable to any of the threatened species investigated by the class. Students would respond to assessment questions with respect to ONE of the species.

ProcedureStudents: Access relevant resources (see list of useful resources below) and construct brief summary notes for each

species including: taxonomy, features, distribution (can be shaded onto a map template), habitat,

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conservation category/listing status under the EPBC Act, non-statutory listing status where relevant, conservation advice and/or recovery plans. These notes may be collated into a table format.

Use the information collated to ‘diagnose’ (assess) threats to the long-term survival of the species and then prioritise and allocate ‘beds’ (resources) for the ‘Biodiversity Hospital’ as determined by the probability of extinction and/or conservation categories.

Propose a rank order of species recommended for immediate conservation; this could be visualised by posting a note along a ‘conservation continuum’. Teachers should allow some time for class discussion at this point.

Design a ‘treatment plan’ (conservation strategy/program) for ONE threatened species of their choice that aims to: promote a viable future for the species or its habitat provide some economic benefit for the region factor in implications on the ecosystem as a whole (for example, if conserving a species, how is a rise in

numbers predicted to affect its habitat or other organisms such as predators, prey, symbionts?). Briefly present proposed ‘treatment plan’ as a one page A4 handout; this could be two-minute oral

presentation.Teachers should allow some time for class discussion at this point. The class votes on which conservation programs to support in principle. A4 handouts could then updated/improved upon in light of class discussion and shared as class resources for use during assessment revision.Useful resources www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicgetkeythreats.pl www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/conservationadvice.pl

Unit 3 Area of Study 2: Is development sustainable?

Outcome 2: Examples of learning activitiesExplain the principles of sustainability and environmental management and analyse and evaluate a selected environmental science case study.

locate various definitions of sustainable development (for example, definition from UNESCO: ‘Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the people today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. To be sustainable, any use of resources needs to take account of the stock of resources and the impacts of its utilisation on the social, economic and political context of people today and in the future.’ www.unesco.org/education/tlsf/extras/tlsf_glossary.html); copy each definifition onto a piece of butcher’s paper; post up onto the classroom wall and identify similarities between definitions (in wording/ intention) and annotate butcher’s paper; develop personal/class definition

discuss whether or not the political dimension should be omitted from the definition of sustainable development

select one of the following questions as a Think-Pair-Share brainstorming activity: What would the local community/Australian society/human civilization look like in the future if we were living sustainably?

work in pairs to define the following sustainability principles as specified in the key knowledge points of the Study Design: intergenerational equity, intragenerational equity, conservation of biodiversity and ecological integrity, user pays principle, efficiency of resource use, precautionary principle

complete a three-circle Venn diagram to classify each sustainability

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principle as relating mainly to the environment, the economy or society analyse a range of graphics and/or cartoons that relate to sustainability

principles by matching each cartoon with relevant sustainability principles and explain their choice, for example: https://dailyohmmm.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/1001255_ 10151944317495625_1941397159_n.jpg

propose a justified rank order/hierarchy of importance of sustainability principles

develop a sustainability scale for personal, school, community, commercial or industrial use

devise a new way of measuring human or industrial environmental impact other than ‘carbon footprint’

discuss how definitions of ‘sustainability’ and ‘ecologically sustainable development’ are heavily reliant upon needs and interests of various stakeholders and that definitions may need to evolve/be adapted according to local contexts and specific development projects

explain how the following guidelines related to sustainable fishing provided in a Marine Stewardship Council brochure (April 2009) meet sustainability principles: allows target fish populations to recover at healthy levels from past

depletion maintains and seeks to maximise the ecological health and abundance

of marine fish maintains the diversity and structure of the marine ecosystem on which

it ultimately depends conforms to all local, national and international laws and regulations

develop a brochure to promote a selected sustainable activity or hobby, for example bush camping, building of a cubby house, basketball

create a communication that promotes a more sustainable approach to an activity, procedure, policy or designed space at your school

debate whether any development can be considered truly 100 per cent sustainable

use visual stimuli such as photographs to name and briefly describe development projects occurring within the local/broader community (for example, new/upgraded swimming pool, roadworks or new apartment block); classify development using a three-circle Venn diagram showing whether each development project is primarily supporting environmental, social or economic needs and values; further classify into bearable (indicated by where social/environmental intersect in Venn diagram), equitable (social/economic intersect) or viable (economic/environmental intersect); identify some challenges faced by decision-makers due to competing interests of stakeholders for the selected development projects

respond to question stems that relate sustainability principles to students’ personal experiences, for example: When might it be important to follow [insert principle of sustainability] at

school? How is applying [insert principle of sustainability] relevant to me at

home? Where in the world are we already respecting [insert principle of

sustainability]? What project/s am I already aware of that need to be especially careful

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of incorporating [insert principle of sustainability]? discuss whether carbon mitigation strategies that seek to reduce the

amount of carbon in the atmosphere are more or less sustainable than adaptation strategies that seek to help reduce the effects of carbon in the atmosphere

use sustainability principles to evaluate selected environmental science case studies

select an environmental project undertaken by a business, an industry or a government agency and use it to study its environmental risks and impacts, how to reduce these risks and impacts; evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies implemented

collect scientific data that provides evidence of an organisation’s environmental management strategies; comment on how validity, accuracy and reliability of the data has been demonstrated

survey a representative sample of your local community to ascertain the perceived advantages, disadvantages and effects of a completed local environmental science project and use appropriate graphical representations to report your findings

research and evaluate contemporary developments in sustainable greenhouses; for example, growing tomatoes using sun and seawater www.newscientist.com/article/2108296-first-farm-to-grow-veg-in-a-desert-using-only-sun-and-seawater/; use a flowchart to summarise the processes and identify how sustainability principles apply to the development

develop criteria to distinguish between strong and weak evidence and/or arguments in the evaluation of an environmental science project, for example, consider quantity and quality of evidence, reasonableness, logic, plausibility, complexity, coherence, emotional overlays, bias, clarity and balance

Detailed example

EVALUATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE CASE STUDIES IN TERMS OF SUSTAINABILITY PRINCIPLESIntroductionSpecific development project /environmental science case studies may be used to explore the sustainability principles included in the study design key knowledge. In addition, organisational aims and objectives can be examined and analysed in terms of their alignment to sustainability principles.Science skillsTeachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.Health, safety and ethical notesThere are no specific health, safety and ethical considerations for this task.Prior learningStudents should be familiar with the following concepts prior to undertaking the activity: various definitions of sustainable development range of development projects occurring within the local/broader community environmental, social or economic needs and values relevant to these development projects variety of stakeholders invested in development projects description of the roles and values held by different stakeholders examples of regulatory frameworks that might be applicable to the development projects.

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Procedure The teacher suggests a range of environmental case studies for the class to investigate (refer to useful

resources listed below for examples of actual environmental case studies). Students work in pairs or small groups to:

Prepare a brief outline of three case studies organised under suitable subheadings, for example: project title; location; short description; aims/objectives; rationale for selected location; current land use; assets/sensitivities of existing environment, such as flora, fauna, landscape; cultural heritage; key stages/steps in project; potential environmental effects of construction and operation; proposed mitigation strategies; roles of key stakeholders; sustainability principles relevant to project.

Determine whether the aims/objectives of any sustainable development project generally align with sustainability principles by constructing a matrix to match each aim/objective of the development project with one or more of the following sustainability principles: intergenerational equity, intragenerational equity, conservation of biodiversity and ecological integrity, user pays principle, efficiency of resource use; precautionary principle.

Select two of the sustainability principles and explain to what extent they have been fulfilled, identifying specific steps that have been proposed /implemented.

Select three stakeholders involved in the development project and explain which sustainability principle best applies to each.

Briefly describe how any development project risks were assessed and managed.Useful resources www.dtpli.vic.gov.au/planning/environmental-assessment/projects www.dtpli.vic.gov.au/planning/environmental-assessment/projects/completed-projects www.dtpli.vic.gov.au/planning/environmental-assessment/environment-effects-referrals/referrals2013 www.majorprojects.vic.gov.au Teaching notes This activity can be used as a basis for an assessment task with the teacher preparing one case study

relating to a specific development project. The format of this task could be a written response to a set of questions (approximately 50 minutes) or a structured report (up to 1000 words) with subheadings that relates some/all of the sustainability principles to the specific development project of the prepared case study under open-book test conditions. The questions or subheadings could be selected /adapted from the preliminary activities described above. While the case study might be completely fictitious or founded on a real-life example of a development project, it must be significantly different from any of the case studies already discussed in class. Students should be informed that the formal assessment task would not relate specifically to any of the environmental case studies investigated in class but rather to the underlying principles of sustainability and their application to unseen environmental case studies.

Beth Conklin, Professor of Anthropology at Vanderbilt University in the US, offers various considerations when teaching about sustainability issues including: Investigating global environmental crises can overwhelm students when they consider the immensity of

the problems humanity faces and the difficulties involved in coping with them. Teachers can engage students by discussing their definitions of happiness and a quality of life, and whether they necessarily correlate with high levels of consumption and resource use. Students should be informed of environmental policies or movements that have succeeded in mitigating pollution, conserving resources, or promoting ecological resiliency.

Providing opportunities for students to wrestle with empirical data for themselves, rather than supplying pre-digested analyses from secondary sources will enable students not only to grapple with methodological and theoretical issues of data analysis and presentation, but also to be empowered to approach environmental issues with greater insight.

Allowing time for group discussion can facilitate problem solving, debate, analysis, teamwork and reflection, which are crucial to developing the critical thinking and leadership skills that students need to face complex problems.

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Adapted from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/teaching-sustainability/

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Unit 4: How can the impacts of human energy use be reduced?This unit focuses on the impacts of energy use on society and the environment. Practical activities should not be limited to assessment tasks; they may be used to introduce an environmental science concept, to build understanding of an environmental science concept or skill and to practise specific scientific skills, for example, determination of efficiencies of energy conversions, measurement of air quality and air quality monitoring, and use of local and global databases.

Unit 4 Area of Study 1: What is a sustainable mix of energy sources?

Outcome 1: Examples of learning activitiesCompare the advantages and disadvantages of a range of energy sources, evaluate the sustainability of their use, and explain the impacts of their use on society and theenvironment.

explore an online interactive of the carbon cycle, for example http://sciencelearn.org.nz/Science-Stories/Harnessing-the-Sun/Sci-Media/Interactive/The-electromagnetic-spectrum

observe a candle and note all observations in logbook (thirty observations is achievable); access education.net/modules/scimath/faraday.htm and undertake activities that develop skills in making observations, generating questions from observations; discuss the importance of careful observation in science, referring to recent practical investigations

summarise and discuss main points in the video – ‘300 years of fossil fuels in 300 seconds’, at www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJ-J91SwP8w

explore energy security in terms of supply versus demand relationships using an online simulator at http://my2050.decc.gov.uk

discuss to what degree supply of energy resources should exceed demand/need

categorise various energy sources as: renewable/non-renewable; and kinetic/potential

visit CSIRO and ABC websites to investigate the variety of different energy sources that are used in Australia; compare these with energy sources used internationally

debate whether or not you think nuclear energy is/can potentially be a sustainable resource

use a jigsaw method with groups of students in class to compare the cost of electricity supply around the world in $AUD/kWh (for example, http://shrinkthatfootprint.com/average-electricity-prices-kwh); discuss possible reasons for differences; relate costs of running a single incandescent light bulb in various countries for one hour to the price of a cup of coffee/1 L milk/1 kg rice (for example, www.numbeo.com/food-prices)

use the Internet to research and summarise the characteristics of renewable and non-renewable energy sources, including biomass, solar, hydro-electric, wind, tidal, oil, coal, natural and coal seam gas, nuclear and geothermal, and their relative contributions to the enhanced greenhouse effect; prepare a poster to summarise successful efficient energy use

evaluate two energy sources in a selected context work in teams to research the environmental impacts (consider energy

usage, resources required, toxicity of materials, waste products, and impacts on flora, fauna and human societies) of selected products at each

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stage of the product's life cycle (sourcing raw materials; manufacture; distribution to end users; product use, reuse and maintenance; recycling, if any; and disposal); determine which material is ‘better’ for each life-cycle stage; from an environment stance, evaluate which is the better material , for this type of product overall

explore an online interactive about how minerals and non-renewable energy resources are formed, identified, found, mined and used, at: www.oresomeresources.com/media/flash/ interactives/ minerals_downunder/

construct a table (row headings could include: relative environmental impacts such as wastes released; energy input required; remediation of land; relative costs of method per mass of raw fuel; technology/work skills required) to compare and contrast the environmental impact of different extraction methods for: uranium (in situ leaching vs open cut mining); or coal (open cut mining vs tunnelling)

role-play a Q&A panel type discussion to examine the possible implications (benefits and limitations) for stakeholders affected by development of a new site for mining an energy resource (panel members could be stakeholder representatives including: local resident with young family; local government representative; lawyer; environmental scientist; site worker from company contracted to carry out works; Aboriginal elder; town planner; environmental activist; philanthropist)

imagine being a researcher for an eco-solutions company that provides recommendations to consumers about everyday products; evaluate the environmental impact of one everyday product made from a non-renewable resource material compared to an alternative made from a renewable resource material, for example: drink bottle: plastic vs aluminium bag: plastic vs paper from biomass bag: plastic vs cloth from hemp/bamboo paint: traditional vs ‘green’ paint www.greenpainters.org.au/Consumer-

Information/Sustainability.htm construct a flow diagram that compares efficiencies in a solar heater or a

wind generator use the internet to research ways in which different organisations such as

industries, businesses, schools, hospitals or households use energy more efficiently

compare, qualitatively, a standard incandescent globe with an energy-saving compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) and an LED globe for lighting a classroom/home study or office with respect to: cost per bulb; electricity consumption (wattage); overall cost to use based on wattage and local electricity rates; output (lumen range); heat generated; and life span of bulb using second hand data; evaluate which type of globe has overall lowest impact on environment and society

construct a SWOT (strengths/weaknesses/opportunities/threats) chart to consider an increased shift towards using renewable energy resources in relation to a current technological development, for example, ‘Could our roofs become one big solar panel?’ at www.theurbandeveloper.com/solar-panels-become-roof/

design a ‘green roof’ for an urban building as one strategy to minimise heat transfer from a building

create a simple A4 visual summary/infographic of one strategy relating to energy recovery/cogeneration and emission control for coal (for example,

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Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC); oxy-fuel combustion; lignite dewatering and drying; or Ultra Clean Coal (UCC))

create a promotional flyer for a product made using ash residue waste from modern combustion plants (for example, brick pavers, road aggregate, road surfacing materials)

discuss the social and political implications of the Not In My Back Yard (NIMBY) philosophy relating to various remediation strategies

explore options for making a house more sustainable using this online interactive www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?fuseaction=popuptool.atHome

design your own sustainable house by making energy and material resource, as well as lifestyle, choices using this online interactive www.mysusthouse.org/game.html

design, construct and test a ‘ pot-in-a-pot refrigerator’ (a device that keeps food cool using the principle of evaporative cooling and consisting of a pot placed inside a bigger pot with the space between them filled with a wet porous material) to achieve the best cooling effect

Detailed example

EVALUATION OF TWO ENERGY SOURCES IN A SELECTED CONTEXTIntroductionStudents research and compare energy sources with respect to the societal, economic and environmental advantages and disadvantages of their use. They annotate graphic organisers to present their analysis of energy source data and evaluate the sustainability of their use in a selected geographical context.

Science skillsTeachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.

Health, safety and ethical notesThere are no specific health, safety and ethical considerations for this task.

Prior learningStudents should be familiar with the following concepts prior to undertaking the activity: Definitions of renewable, non-renewable, fossil, non-fossil with respect to energy sources. Sustainability principles relevant to energy production and use.

ProcedureStage 1Students analyse a range of energy source data. Points of comparison for energy sources might include data relating to: global abundance energy security considerations for Australia land use impacts cost to produce 1 kWh useable energy air emissions of SO2, NOx

CO2 emissions from 1 kWh useable energySample energy source data: www.geni.org/globalenergy/library/renewable-energy-resources/oceania/Solar/australia_files/solar-

australia.gif http://si.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OG-AC575_electr_OR_20140915094435.jpg

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http://si.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OG-AC566_energy_G_20140912133724.jpg http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3036/2627670560_9667e8eca5.jpg?v=0

Stage 2 In small groups students research and summarise various geographical contexts that have different energy

needs with respect to (for example): demographics, topography, climate, transport networks, existing industries, and cultural considerations. Examples of geographic contexts include: an inland region of the Northern Territory, and a town on the west coast of Western Australia.

Teachers may prepare a graphic organiser or template for students to assist them in completing their analyses.

Stage 3 Students draw on their prior analysis of energy source data to classify the outcomes of using TWO self-

nominated energy sources at ONE self-nominated geographical context as either causing a positive or negative impact (including unintended consequences). They do this by summarising the positive impacts onto green post-it notes and the negative impacts onto pink post-it notes.

Students then place the coloured post-it notes into a three-circle Venn diagram for each energy source to categorise each impact as economic, social and/or environmental. Some impacts may fall under more than one label and should be placed in the overlap regions on the Venn diagram. This allows students to semi-quantitatively evaluate the sustainability of using the two energy sources in a selected geographical context – generally the greater the number of green post-it notes, the more sustainable the energy source.

By considering the nature and number of positive and negative impacts of each energy source, students can position each energy source along a ‘sustainability continuum/scale’ template and so visually represent their evaluation.

Not sustainable ………………………………………………………………… Sustainable Students compare, challenge and debate each other’s positioning of their energy sources on the

‘sustainability continuum/scale’.

Discussion questions and report writing in logbookA series of questions should be set for students to record in their logbook, for example: Generalise: Where do renewable and non-renewable energy sources fall on the ‘sustainability

continuum/scale’? Illustrate your response on the continuum/scale. Infer: Are renewable energy source more sustainable than the non-renewable energy sources? Are fossil

energy sources more sustainable than non-fossil energy sources? Which energy source is the most sustainable?

Speculate: Would seasonal differences have an impact on the choice of energy sources within the selected geographical context?

Relate: Describe one stakeholder likely to have a personal/professional investment in the outcomes of using energy sources at the nominated geographic location. What arguments might they put forward in support of the more sustainable energy source? What arguments might they have against using the more sustainable energy source?

Extend: What are the predicted global impacts of using the less sustainable energy source over short, medium and long-term time scales?

Teaching notes For Stage 3 of this activity, students should be encouraged to examine a context that interests them

personally. Stage 3 of this activity could be adapted to form the basis of a formal assessment task. Teachers nominate

TWO energy sources and ONE geographical context (real or imagined) and require students to annotate two graphic organisers (approximately 50 minutes) to evaluate the suitability of the energy sources to meet the energy needs of the geographical context. Teachers may nominate two renewable energy sources OR one renewable and one non-renewable energy source OR one fossil and one non-fossil energy source.

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Unit 4 Area of Study 2: Is climate predictable?

Outcome 2: Examples of learning activitiesExplain the causes and effects of changes to Earth’s climate, compare methods of measuring and monitoring atmospheric changes, and explain the impacts of atmospheric changes on living things and the environment.

model the structure of the atmosphere; annotate with information related to gas composition, temperature, pressure and important natural events or interesting facts about each layer

formulate a hypothesis, make a prediction and plan an experiment to determine whether there is a relationship between the colour of a water bottle and the capacity of its contents to absorb heat

use an online interactive to learn about different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum http://sciencelearn.org.nz/Science-Stories/Harnessing-the-Sun/Sci-Media/Interactive/The-electromagnetic-spectrum

identify the greenhouse gases and their capacity to retain heat; make comparative calculations to demonstrate the ability of greenhouses gases to retain heat

perform experiments and undertake activities to gain an understanding of energy absorption, re-emission, radiation and dissipation that operate in the greenhouse effect, for example: use of light box equipment and charts of electromagnetic radiation to show

the composition of white light and the energy associated with different colours, and to show that the associated wavelength associated with a particular colour is inversely proportional to the energy

comparison of data that illustrates the wavelengths of solar energy and the effects of short and long wavelengths on absorption and re-emission

identification of energies and associated wavelengths of the emission spectral lines when metal salts are heated or in a mercury-cadmium or sodium lamp

investigation of the absorption and emission of heat energy by different materials and surfaces of the same material

comparison of the rise in temperature of the water inside metal cans painted different colours and subjected to heating by a 1000 W globe

measurement of the rise in temperature of samples of gases placed in direct sunlight or under a halogen lamp

design and conduct of an experiment to measure the rate of dissipation of heat energy from a system

research artificial processes for carbon sequestration; create a design for a carbon sequestration strategy

investigate which types of trees can absorb the most carbon, for example www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/the_green_lantern/2008/01/the_greenest_tree.html

view animations related to Milankovitch cycles at www.sciencecourseware.org/eec/GlobalWarming/Tutorials/Milankovitch/

examine various methods of climate observation and analysis by Australian Bureau of Meteorology www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/; classify the data sources as ice core ‘proxy’ data (for example, natural processes that record changing climate conditions in the absence of actual data) or ‘actual’ data; describe how ice core and tree ring proxy data can be used to study climate change; outline limitations of using core and tree ring proxy data

discuss the differences between opinion, anecdote and evidence by considering that some people claim that if there are bubbles on the surfaces of water pools during a period of rain, then the rain will be of long duration, while others claim that the bubbles are a sign of the rain stopping; design an investigation to test

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the two claims crumple a sheet of paper in your hand to form a ‘clot’ approximating a sphere

and measure its diameter; collate class data to plot a histogram of clot diameters and account for the shape of the histogram; identify and distinguish between sources of error and uncertainty; use the results to discuss the difference between reproducibility and reliability; calculate the mean; discuss how the mean and standard deviation would be similar/different if the activity is undertaken by a different class; explain why accurate measurements are important in environmental science

introduce mathematical calculations related to temperature change over time by using simple data sets, for example www.earthday.org/sites/default/files/Climate%20Change%20Math_Lesson%20Plan.pdf

access global climate science data to generate and investigate questions of interest related to climate science at http://data.worldbank.org/topic/climate-change including the ‘climate change knowledge portal’

work as a group to investigate the effects that changes in the ozone layer would have on penguin populations by accessing information at www.all-science-fair-projects.com/print_project_1020_121?print=1; present findings to a ‘symposium’ access experiments related to global warming at www.juliantrubin.com/encyclopedia/environment/globalwarming.html

calculate absolute change (magnitude), percentage change and average rate of change in carbon dioxide concentrations during student’s time at secondary school (for example, approximately 5 years, from Jan 2010 – Jan 2015) using NASA data source http://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/carbon-dioxide/

use NASA’s ‘Earth Math’ as a source of climate data analysis questions: www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/Earth_Math_2015.pdf (relevant activities include: 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, with answer schemes provided)

analyse atmospheric gas concentration data sets from 800,000 BC until 2013 AD; calculate average rate of change from 800,000 BC until the start of actual data collection and from before the industrial revolution until today, seewww.epa.gov/climatechange/science/indicators/ghg/ghg-concentrations.htmlwww.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/weekly.htmlwww.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/graph.htmlwww.youtube.com/watch?v=t0dXjmoA0dw (animated graphs of global carbon dioxide concentrations); from the analysis, visualise changes in key indicators (for example, average global temperature, extent of sea ice, carbon dioxide concentrations, sea level) using NASA’s ‘Climate time machine’ http://climate.nasa.gov/interactives/climate_time_machine

access trend data for a local, national and/or global region to examine trends, for example www.edinburgh.gov.uk/.../soe_appendix_a_-_enviromental_ indicators .pdf ; explain why some trends may become apparent after short periods of time, while others become apparent over longer periods of time; discuss why some data may be incomplete or unreported

use the internet and print sources to collect four recent articles presented by the media (including two from scientific journals) about the enhanced greenhouse effect; summarise the major points and compare and examine how scientific data is used to justify the information presented in the articles

design and conduct an experiment that models the natural and enhanced greenhouse effects; use temperature logging to generate experimental data (soft drink bottles with temperature probe in sun containing dry air, humid air or carbon dioxide gas); graph temperature data; calculate percentage change and average rate of change in temperature; outline limitations of experimental method and propose improvements for collecting more reliable and valid data; evaluate how useful the experiment is for modelling the natural and enhanced

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greenhouse effects design a procedure to investigate the factors that affect the levels of carbon

dioxide in a selected location construct a flow diagram (or re-sequence a mixed-up flow diagram) to link

photosynthetic activity (plant growth cycle) with seasonal variation in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels

compare and contrast atmospheric carbon dioxide mitigation (seeks to reduce amount of carbon in atmosphere) versus adaptation (seeks to help reduce the effects of carbon in atmosphere) strategies for a selected geographic location; provide a justified response as to which approach is most important for the selected geographic location

write a letter of appeal for urgent intervention and preventative action related to a specific geographic region facing negative impacts of atmospheric changes

create an interactive walk at your school to illustrate possible future scenarios related to the impacts of climate change on biodiversity

use a PMI (plus, minus, indifferent) to evaluate the roles/responsibilities of the media, scientists, celebrities in reporting climate change/promoting climate change action, for example Morgan Freeman www.youtube.com/watch?v=8YQIaOldDU8 ; Leonardo DiCaprio www.youtube.com/watch?v=ka6_3TJcCkA ; and David Attenborough www.youtube.com/watch?v=2JmrmwIyhAE and www.youtube.com/watch?v=HK47Pnx46rM)

discuss how climate change may affect biodiversity (also links to Unit 3), see www.youtube.com/watch?v=XFmovUAWQUQ

source cartoons relating to climate change uncertainty and summarise the most frequent arguments presented by climate change skeptics; speculate on reasons for their skepticism; distinguish between ‘opinion’, ‘anecdote’ and ‘evidence’ in each argument; discuss how the precautionary principle might be applied to climate change action

design and conduct an investigation to determine whether increased temperatures affect the reproduction rates of pest species and marine species

Detailed example

A LETTER OF APPEAL FOR INTERVENTION AND PREVENTATIVE ACTIONIntroduction Students research a specific geographic region facing negative impacts of atmospheric changes. They

collate their findings in an electronic format and use these to compose a letter to the General Secretary of the UN/G20 appealing for urgent intervention and preventative action.

Students should be encouraged to examine a context that interests them personally.Science skillsTeachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.Health, safety and ethical notesThere are no specific health, safety and ethical considerations for this task.Prior learningStudents should be familiar with the following concepts prior to undertaking the activity: structure of Earth’s atmosphere natural and enhanced greenhouse effects projected consequences and uncertainties of the enhanced greenhouse effect.

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ProcedureStage 1Students work individually or in small groups to research the context of one specific geographic region that is facing impacts of atmospheric changes. Research findings should be recorded in students’ logbooks, including dates that the information was accessed and all sources of information; and any information updates.Questions to guide students’ research include: Where is the selected region (in terms of country and continent) facing impacts of atmospheric changes? Why is this region particularly vulnerable? What are the specific social, economic, environmental contexts of

this region in recent history? What are some of the predicted impacts in the near future on the four major Earth systems (atmosphere,

biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere) and on the health of living things and on the environment, for example: changes in atmospheric/ocean temperature; rainfall patterns (drought/floods); changing access to potable water; melting ice packs; changes in ocean currents; habitat loss; plant, animal and human population displacement; release of trapped gases (for example, tundra methane); and social/political/economic challenges (including warfare).

What sequence of events is thought to link these impacts to atmospheric changes? How confident are scientists that these impacts are actually caused by atmospheric changes? Are there any

specific doubts about the cause/s of these impacts? What evidence has been collected? How reliable, accurate and valid is the evidence?

What are some immediate interventions that could be implemented to minimise these impacts? Which two of these predicted impacts are most significant for this region? What preventative action could be undertaken over the next 20 years to minimise one or more of these

impacts? What are scientists doing to address key uncertainties in our understanding of atmospheric changes? Which two of the sustainability principles do you think are most relevant to addressing atmospheric

changes? Are different sustainability principles more relevant if tackling only the predicted impacts of atmospheric changes and not their possible causes?

Stage 2Students use their documented research to help construct a letter (guided by subheadings) to the General Secretary of the UN/G20. The letter should use evidence to put forward the case and appeal for immediate intervention and preventative action over the next 20 years to minimise one or more of the predicted impacts of atmospheric changes in the context of the selected geographic region.Useful resources Recent news items related to the UN and climate change: www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/climate-

change/ Climate change news items in general: www.theguardian.com/au/environment

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Unit 4 Area of Study 3: Practical investigation

Outcome 3: Examples of learning activitiesDesign and undertake a practical investigation related to biodiversity or energy use from an environmental management perspective, and present methodologies, findings and conclusions in a scientific poster.

download and print prepared scientific posters (for example, from https://ugs.utexas.edu/our/poster/samples); work in groups and use a provided set of criteria to evaluate investigation aims, methodologies, data presentation, conclusions and effectiveness of scientific communication for each poster

organise small group discussions in class to identify the strengths, weaknesses and areas for improvement of a range of scientific posters, for example, those found at www.utexas.edu/ugs/our/poster/samples; collate and reflect on class results and provided online evaluations to develop a set of ‘do’s’ and ‘don’ts’ for constructing a scientific poster

comment, in terms of the importance of scientific communication, on Anthony Hewish’s quote that: ‘I believe scientists have a duty to share the excitement and pleasure of their work with the general public, and I enjoy the challenge of presenting difficult ideas in an understandable way.’

debate ‘that it is more important, in presentations, to impress rather than to inform’

discuss the importance of developing investigable questions for scientific investigation in light of Albert Einstein’s quote that: ‘The important thing is not to stop questioning’, Robert Half’s quote that: ‘Asking the right questions takes as much skill as giving the right answers’ and Nancy Willard’s quote that: ‘Sometimes questions are more important than the answers

comment, in terms of the nature of science, on Bill Gaede’s quote that ‘Science is not about making predictions or performing experiments. Science is about explaining.’

design and conduct experiments that extend investigations related to environmental science field sampling methods, for example: How does the sampling method within a 1m2 quadrat (for example,

random plot selection vs stratified plot selection) affect the determination of biodiversity using an index such as Simpson’s diversity index?

How does the type of capture-recapture method used (for example, Lincoln-Peterson method or Jolly-Seber method) affect the estimation of population size in a natural environment?

Is the use of a transect line or a quadrat more appropriate for determining organism populations in a rocky shore system?

develop hypotheses and design and conduct experiments to investigate threats to biodiversity, for example: How does the concentration of acid (acid rain) affect the germination

rate of radish seeds? How does dilution of a herbicide affect its efficacy for deterring the

growth of a common weed? How does the concentration of salt (salinity of water) affect the growth of

the common freshwater algae freshwater, Chlorella (as a potential source of biomass/biolipid)?

How does the concentration of salt affect the moisture content of soil as measured using a soil moisture probe (for example, Vernier)?

How does the concentration of yeast affect the quantity of carbon dioxide gas produced from fermentation of a sugar source?

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How does changing the quantity of CO2 available affect the growth rate of a perennial plant?

formulate a hypothesis and plan and undertake an investigation to determine how: changing an abiotic factor (for example, light intensity, temperature,

salinity) affects the sustainability of a closed ecological chamber (for example, a bottle ecosystem) as measured by the population size of a macroinvertebrate (for example, Daphnia magna)

the percentage of plant ground cover affects the turbidity of runoff water as an indicator of soil erosion (for example, www.lifeisagarden.co.za/soil-erosion-experiment/#.U3uAtVhdVmc)

the type of composting system (for example, high vs low carbon-to-nitrogen ratio; pit vs above ground bin) affects the internal temperature of the compost as a measure of the composting time

investigate how the type of window glazing (single, double, triple, UV filters) affects the degradation rate of a biodegradable plastic

use a coupled inquiry to investigate factors that affect the melting of an ice cube

investigate and explain the formation of icicles compare and document the process of freezing fresh water and seawater in

a kitchen freezer design and conduct an investigation to determine whether the type of salt

(for example, rock, table, sea, iodised, kosher) affects the rate at which ice melts

investigate the phenomenon that when a layer of hot salt solution lies above a layer of cold water, the interface between the two layers becomes unstable and a structure resembling fingers develops in the fluid

formulate a hypothesis and plan and undertake an investigation related to the efficiency of three-tier worm bins/farms, for example: How does the type of feedstuff (for example, food scraps, shredded

paper, leaf litter) affect the efficiency of three-tier worm bins/farms (for example, as measured by mass of worm castings [vermicompost] produced or biomass of worms produced)?

How does the surface area of a three-tier worm bins/farms affect the efficiency of (for example, as measured by mass of worm castings [vermicompost] produced or biomass of worms produced)?

formulate a hypothesis and plan and undertake an investigation related to alternative energy sources, for example: How does the colour of a water storage container affect the quantity of

solar energy collected passively? How does the percentage of cloud cover affect the efficiency of

electricity generation by a photovoltaic system/panel? How does the spacing/height of wind turbines at a modelled wind farm

affect the efficiency of electricity generation? How does changing the fuel source (for example, cardboard, leaves,

dried grass) affect the time taken to boil a fixed volume of water in a Kelly Kettle?

investigate how different types of water saving devices (for example, showerheads) affect the volume of water used during a fixed time period (for example, a three-minute shower)

use models to investigate how sustainability principles can be applied to

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house designs to better prepare for changes in physical conditions (for example, earthquakes, bushfires, landslides) or climatic conditions (for example, increased average temperatures or rainfall)

formulate a hypothesis and conduct an investigation into the efficiency of two types of globes with respect to light emitted; for example, by recording light intensity at 30-cm intervals from a source using a light meter, or by measuring air temperature at, say, five-minute intervals using a thermometer

conduct an experiment to generate methane from manure; quantify the volume of gas obtained using a gas syringe attached to a large side-arm conical flask or sealed heavy duty plastic bag displacing water in a large bucket; propose changes to experimental design to maximise volume of gas produced (independent variables might include fermentation temperature, moisture content level of manure)

Detailed example

COUPLED INQUIRY: WHAT AFFECTS THE MELTING OF ICE CUBES?IntroductionStudent-designed practical investigations may be facilitated through coupled inquiry where all students initially undertake the same guided inquiry and then develop a subsequent investigation based on their own further questions and within the scope of the school’s resources. This latter investigation can be used as the basis of the scientific poster for Unit 4 Area of Study 3.The investigation is based on content in Unit 4 Area of Study 2 related to concepts including regional and global sea level rise, global ice coverage and impacts of the natural and enhanced greenhouse effects. The initial guided inquiry related to the melting of ice in fresh water and salt water has contextual applications in the study of oceanography and climate, including fresh water, ocean salinity, temperature gradients, heat transport and density-driven ocean currents.

Part A Guided inquiry: Does pure ice melt faster in fresh water or in salt water?Students may work in small groups to undertake the inquiry but should record all observations (including measurements) in their own logbooks.

Materials (per group of two to four students) one clear plastic cup containing 200 mL room-temperature fresh water, labelled as ‘fresh water’ one clear plastic cup containing 200 mL room-temperature seawater, labelled as ‘seawater’ two ice cubes (simulating freshwater icebergs) stopwatch/timer (optional) liquid food dye delivered from a drop bottle or using a pipette

Method Before starting the experiment, students individually make a justified prediction as to which ice cube will melt

faster: the one in salt water or the one in fresh water. Students discuss their hypotheses within their groups and decide on the hypothesis that seems most likely to

be supported. Students then place one ice cube into each of the two cups and start a stopwatch, noting the time taken for

each of the ice cubes to melt completely. (optional) A drop of food dye may be added on top of each of the ice cubes as they melt to observe the

dispersion of the ‘melt water’. (extension) The experiment could be repeated/extended using pre-coloured ice blocks.

Discussion questions

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A set of questions that link the experiment to climate science concepts can be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example: How do the densities of fresh water and seawater compare? What happens to the level of water in each cup as the ice melts? Explain your observations regarding the

level of water in the cup as the ice melts. What do your observations regarding the level of water in the cup as the ice melts tell you about the

contribution to global sea level rise of melting floating ice? What are the implications for life on Earth of the difference in density between ice, fresh water and

seawater?

Teacher notes To simulate typical open-ocean salinities, 35 g of salt may be added to a litre of water. Although the activity involves understanding the concept of density, the experiment can be used as an

introduction to the concept. In this experiment:

(a) The ice cube in the fresh water dissolves faster than the ice cube in the seawater.(b) Melt water from the ice cube in the fresh water sinks to the bottom of the cup while melt water from the

ice cube in seawater remains as a layer at the surface of the water.

Part B Student-designed investigationFollowing the guided inquiry, students work independently to develop their own questions as a result of their observations and findings. From their question, they should formulate a hypothesis and plan a course of action, within the scope of the resources at the school, to answer the question and that complies with relevant safety and ethical guidelines. Students should identify the environmental science concepts to which their investigation relates.Possible questions for the student-designed investigation include: How does the degree of salinity of water affect the rate of an ice block melting? Does ice made from seawater melt faster in fresh water or seawater? Under what conditions do icebergs form? Under what conditions could ‘saltwater icebergs’ form? How does temperature affect the melting of pure ice in seawater? How does temperature affect the melting of pure ice in fresh water? What is the fraction of air by volume in various frozen pure and impure water samples? Does an increase in the carbon dioxide levels of seawater affect the rate at which pure ice melts? How can the rate of dissolution of pure ice in seawater be slowed? How does changing the pH of seawater affect the rate at which an ice block melts?Students should not be permitted to proceed with proposed courses of action that are unsafe, not within the scope of the resources of the school, or unlikely to generate primary data that is suitable for analysis.

ResultsAll results should be recorded in student logbooks. Photographs of experimental set-ups and/or progression of results may also be recorded.

DiscussionThe student analyses the results, considers the limitations of the investigation and how the investigation could be improved.

ConclusionThe student uses the data collected to respond to the investigation question asked.

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Sample approach to developing an assessment task

Unit 3

Area of Study 1: Is maintaining biodiversity worth the effort?

Outcome 1Explain the importance of Earth’s biodiversity, analyse the threats to biodiversity, and evaluate management strategies to maintain biodiversity in the context of one selected threatened endemic species.

Step 1: Define the parameters of the outcome, including relevant key knowledge and key science skills, and the related assessment task options

Review the outcome for Unit 3 Area of Study 1 and identify the key knowledge from pages 24 and 25 and relevant key science skills from pages 11 and 12 of the VCE Environmental Science Study Design that students will be expected to develop. Assessment task/s will contribute to the determination of an S or an N for the outcome.

The assessment task for this outcome requires students to present an account related to the importance and management of threats to Earth’s biodiversity through consideration of a threatened endemic species as outlined on page 28 of the VCE Environmental Science Study Design. The selected species may be plant or animal. The task accounts for 50 marks of the 100 marks available for School-assessed Coursework in Unit 3 and contributes 10 per cent to a student’s study score for VCE Environmental Science.

Step 2: Decide on the type of task and review the conditions under which the task will be conducted

A detailed description of task types for VCE Environmental Science may be found in Appendix 7. A written report or response should be completed in 50 minutes under supervision for authentication purposes and should not exceed 1000 words. The time allows for 10 minutes reading time then 40 minutes for the report or response. Multimodal or oral presentations should not exceed 10 minutes. Teachers may produce an assessment template to assist students to complete the assessment task. Students may need to access data and information from their logbooks in order to be able to respond to the task. Prior to the task students should be advised of the timeline and the conditions under which the task will be conducted, and have an indication of the knowledge and skills that will be assessed.

Step 3: Examine the assessment advice in this handbook

Review the performance descriptors as they provide an indication of qualities and characteristics that teachers should look for in a student response.

Step 4: Design the assessment task

Consider what it will look like when students develop the identified key knowledge and key skills then use this as a basis to develop a valid assessment task. The assessment task should allow students to demonstrate their environmental science knowledge in terms of relevant concepts and skills.

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One assessment task for Unit 3 Outcome 1 is a multimodal report.

For this task, teachers should determine whether all students will study the same threatened endemic species or whether there is scope for students to have some element of choice. The availability of appropriate data related to populations over time and effectiveness of management strategies and/or access to opportunities for experiential learning may influence which species is selected for study.

The teacher should identify the elements of the multimodal report. A multimodal report involves a combination of two or more communication modes, for example print, image and spoken text as in photo essays or computer presentations.

Students should produce an independent multimodal report of their investigation. Students should use their own logbook throughout the investigation. The teacher will collect the logbook and monitor the student’s progress through observations and discussions with students. The final report should contain results presented in a pre-determined format that includes:

an explanation of the importance of Earth’s biodiversity and the significance of maintaining population numbers for the threatened endemic species, and

an analysis and evaluation of the threats and management strategies related to the protection of a threatened endemic species.

In the following example the multimodal elements were determined by the teacher to include a PowerPoint that incorporated original photographs taken by the students and relevant data extracted from the student logbooks, and an oral component. There are five stages in this assessment task.

Stage 1: Students work as a class to evaluate the management strategies applied to a threatened endemic species. Students are provided with background information related to the circumstances that have resulted in a species becoming classified as ‘threatened’ and the current management strategies in place for conservation of the species. An overview of the scope of the learning activities is provided related to sourcing relevant data and/or undertaking fieldwork. Students are instructed that all work related to the task should be recorded in their logbooks for authentication purposes, including methodologies for investigations, collected qualitative and quantitative data including photographs, and information from secondary sources including references and acknowledgments. Students are given the criteria for this assessment task.

Stage 2: One class is allocated, under supervised conditions, for students to analyse data collected in previous years. Students use the data to construct a summary graph that will be included in their final presentation. This is collected/downloaded by the teacher at the end of the lesson, to be returned to students in Stage 4.

Stage 3: Students conduct appropriate field studies and collect and record data in their logbooks. The logbooks are collected by the teacher at the end of the field trip, to be returned for Stage 4.

Stage 4: Students are allocated a lesson, under supervised conditions, to develop a response to a series of questions that form the basis of a set of no more than eight PowerPoint slides. They use data from their logbooks and previously completed work to provide a response to questions such as: Why is the species important for local ecosystems? Why has the species become threatened? How has the category of threat changed over time? What management strategies have been used and how effective are they? Do you think long-term survival of the species is possible? A copy of the students’

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work is submitted to the teacher for assessment, but students may retain their own copy to prepare for the oral component of the presentation.

Stage 5: Students use their developed PowerPoints to present their responses in an oral presentation that is no longer than 10 minutes.

Step 5: Determine teaching and learning activities

For Unit 3 Area of Study 1 the teacher should plan a sequence of teaching and learning activities that will enable students to develop the key knowledge and key science skills and to lead students towards achieving the desired outcomes. When developing teaching and learning activities, teachers should consider prior learning and alternative conceptions held by students.

Teaching and learning activities that could support students to prepare for this assessment include:

field study of a local ecosystem as a source of renewable services that impact on human well-being

practice of field study techniques (including use of grids, transects, quadrats, mark-recapture)

data analysis related to population changes over time measurements of changes in biodiversity including species richness, species diversity

and the application of simple indices, and determination of categories of threat.

When to assess the students

The teacher must decide the most appropriate time to set the task. This decision is the result of several considerations including:

1. The estimated time it will take to cover the key knowledge and skills for the outcome.

2. When assessment tasks are being conducted in other studies and the workload implications for students.

Marking the task

The marking scheme used to assess a student’s level of performance should reflect the relevant aspects of the performance descriptors and be explained to students before commencing a task.

Performance descriptors provide a guide to the levels of performance typically demonstrated within each range on the assessment task/s. The performance descriptors for each outcome identify the qualities or characteristics expected in a student response.

Authentication:

It is likely that teachers will select the same local threatened endemic species from year to year. Authentication issues can be minimised if students complete the assessment task under supervision and if the assessment task is new for that cohort of students. Authentication issues will also be minimised by timely collection of student logbooks and signing off on sighted work, updating the data to be used as background information from year to year and changing the task type each year.

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Unit 4

Area of Study 2: Is climate predictable?

Outcome 2 Explain the causes and effects of changes to Earth’s climate, compare methods of measuring and monitoring atmospheric changes, and explain the impacts of atmospheric changes on living things and the environment.

Step 1: Define the parameters of the outcome, including relevant key knowledge and key science skills, and the related assessment task options

Review the outcome for Unit 4 Area of Study 2 and identify the key knowledge from pages 30 and 31 and relevant key science skills from pages 11 and 12 of the VCE Environmental Science Study Design that students will be expected to develop. For some outcomes the assessment of achievement may best be structured by using more than one assessment task; teachers should exercise judgment in the determination of the number of tasks in the assessment of an outcome to balance assessment of student performance and student workload. Assessment task/s will contribute to the determination of an S or an N for the outcome.

For this outcome, at least one task from a choice of nine tasks as listed on page 33 of the VCE Environmental Science Study Design should be chosen. Teachers may produce an assessment template for students to complete the task.

The selected task accounts for 30 marks of the 90 marks available for School-assessed Coursework in Unit 4 and contributes 10 per cent to a student’s study score for VCE Environmental Science.

Step 2: Decide on the type of task and review the conditions under which the task will be conducted

A detailed description of task types for VCE Environmental Science may be found in Appendix 7. Tasks should be completed under supervision for authentication purposes and should not exceed 50 minutes and/or 1000 words. Reading time should be built into the assessment task in addition to allocating time for the response. Students may need to access data and information from their logbooks in order to be able to respond to the task. Prior to the task students should be advised of the timeline, the conditions under which the task will be conducted and have an indication of the knowledge and skills that will be assessed.

Step 3: Examine the assessment advice in this handbook

Review the performance descriptors as they provide an indication of qualities and characteristics that teachers should look for in a student response.

Step 4: Design the assessment task

Consider what it will look like when students develop the identified key knowledge and key skills then use this as a basis to develop a valid assessment task. Teachers may produce an assessment template to assist students to complete the task.

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One assessment task for Unit 4 Outcome 2 is a report of a student investigation related to climate science. This task is used as the basis of the teacher-developed assessment task below.

In this example, students work in pairs to conduct a laboratory investigation on the relationship between carbon dioxide levels and air or water temperatures. Students have an 80-minute session to complete the practical activity and a 40-minute session to complete the report. Students produce an independent report of their investigation and use their own logbook throughout the investigation. The teacher collects the logbook and monitors the student’s progress through observations and discussions with students. The final student report is expected to contain results presented in a suitable format, a discussion of the data and procedures and a conclusion related to the stated aims of the investigation and based on the results obtained. In this example there are three stages.

Stage 1: The lesson before the laboratory investigation, students are given a copy of the aims, materials and methods of a laboratory investigation on the effect of increasing carbon dioxide concentration on air or water temperature. Students are given the criteria for this assessment task.

Stage 2: Students carry out the laboratory investigation in pairs in the 80-minute session. Students are assessed for their laboratory skills including safe work practices. Results are recorded and any alterations to the prescribed method noted by the teacher or students. The teacher collects logbooks at the end of the session.

Stage 3: In the next session students are given back their logbooks and a list of questions that must be addressed in their report discussion. Students are then given 40 minutes to complete their report.

Step 5: Determine teaching and learning activities

For Unit 4 Area of Study 2 the teacher should plan a sequence of teaching and learning activities that will enable students to develop the key knowledge and key science skills and lead students towards achieving the desired outcomes.

Teaching and learning activities that could support students to prepare for this assessment include:

completing cause-and-effect flowcharts related to climate scenarios writing a report of experimental investigations recorded in their logbook related to climate

science such as the properties of carbon dioxide gas or effects of increased carbon dioxide on plant growth

data analysis of varying carbon dioxide concentrations and temperature over time, and responses to environmental-based media items related to climate science.

When to assess the students

The teacher must decide the most appropriate time to set the task. This decision is the result of several considerations including:

1. The estimated time it will take to cover the key knowledge and skills for the outcome.

2. When assessment tasks are being conducted in other studies and the workload implications for students.

Marking the task

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The marking scheme used to assess a student’s level of performance should reflect the relevant aspects of the performance descriptors and be explained to students before commencing a task.

Performance descriptors provide a guide to the levels of performance typically demonstrated within each range on the assessment task/s. The performance descriptors for each outcome identify the qualities or characteristics expected in a student response.

Authentication

Authentication issues can be minimised if students complete the assessment task under supervision and if the assessment task is new for that cohort of students. Authentication issues can also be minimised by changing the selected practical activities and/or contexts on which the assessment task/s are based or the type of assessment task/s from year to year.

Appendix 1: Types of scientific inquiryScientific inquiry may be conducted by individuals or groups and may be a confirmation, structured, guided, coupled or open.

These five different types of scientific inquiry can be elaborated as follows:

A confirmation inquiry involves students confirming a principle through an activity when the results are known in advance; students are provided with the question, method and results, and are required to confirm that the results are correct.

A structured inquiry involves students investigating a teacher-presented question through a prescribed procedure; students generate an explanation supported by the evidence they have collected.

A guided inquiry involves the teacher choosing the question for investigation; students work in one large group or several small groups to work with the teacher to decide how to proceed with the investigation. This type of inquiry facilitates the teaching of specific skills needed for future open-inquiry investigations. The solution to the guided inquiry should not be predictable.

A coupled inquiry combines a guided-inquiry investigation with an open-inquiry investigation: the teacher chooses an initial question to investigate as a guided inquiry and students then build on the guided inquiry to develop an extension or linked investigation in a more student-centred open inquiry approach.

An open inquiry most closely mirrors scientists’ actual work and is a student-centred approach that begins with a student’s question, followed by the student (or groups of students) designing and conducting an investigation or experiment and communicating results.

Appendix 2: Scientific inquiry methodsStudents studying Units 1 to 4 Environmental Science may undertake a range of investigations involving different scientific inquiry methods. VCE Environmental Science students undertaking scientific inquiry would be expected to:

engage with science-based questions prioritise evidence in responding to questions

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formulate explanations from evidence connect explanations to scientific knowledge, and communicate and justify explanations.

The following table provides an overview of different scientific inquiry methods that may be undertaken at this level.

Inquiry method Inquiry outline

Controlled experiment

Experimental investigation of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable, controlling all other variables

Examples of types of questions or investigations: What effect does…have on…? Is…related to…?

Pattern seeking Investigation of one variable to determine what other variables can affect it, and to what extent other variables may be important in their effects on the variable under investigation. Observation of natural events and phenomena to identify patterns or relationships and

propose causal links: examination of data sets related to a dependent variable to determine cause (independent variable); greater focus on the characteristics of the sample used since variables may be difficult or impossible to isolate and control; this is a more holistic approach that often involves observation and recording of multiple variablesExamples of types of questions or investigations: What factors affect…? What are the optimal conditions for…?

Surveys (especially in genetics, epidemiology, psychology, sociology, astronomy and ecology): comparison of data sets to identify patterns or relationships and propose causal linksExamples of types of questions or investigations: Conduct a survey to…

Single variable exploration

Investigation of one variable or factor at a time, usually to see how it changes over time, focusing on observations and identification of a phenomenon; often this type of exploration leads to questions about the causes of an observed phenomenon and leads to further types of inquiry

Examples of types of questions or investigations: How does…change over time? Do all…? When does…?

Classification and identification

Classification is the arrangement of phenomena (objects or events) into manageable sets while identification is a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of a new or unique set; these inquiries involve the identification of features, tests or procedures that discriminate between objects or processes

Examples of types of questions or investigations: Develop a key to…? Adapt…to categorise…?

Product, process or system development

Design of an artefact, process or system to meet a human need; may involve technological applications in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures to answer questions or solve problems

Examples of types of questions or investigations:

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Design, construct, test and evaluate… Design a regime to… Is there a better way to…?

Investigation of scientific models

Student-developed model as an explanation of an everyday phenomenon or a laboratory-observed phenomenon; this type of inquiry incorporates a stage where students need to decide what evidence should be collected in order to physically test the ideas embedded in conceptual models

Examples of types of questions or investigations: Devise an inquiry to test an explanation of… Devise and test a model of the relationship between…and… Can the …model be adapted to explain…?

Appendix 3: Controlled experiments and hypothesis formulationOnce a topic has been identified students develop a research question for investigation, which may involve formulating a hypothesis.

Teachers should guide students so that they do not proceed with a research question or hypothesis that is not testable.

VariablesThe formulation of a hypothesis includes the identification and control of variables. A variable is any quantity or characteristic that can exist in differing amounts or types and can be measured. Values for variables may be categorical or they may be numerical, having a magnitude.

Not all variables can be easily measured. Length can be measured easily using, for example, metre rulers. Shades of colour are less easily measured and are more likely to be subjective. They might be measured by, for example, using photographic comparisons to produce a set of graduated ‘standards’ that are nominated and named for the purposes of the investigation.

In VCE Environmental Science, students are required to identify independent and dependent variables. They should also understand the need to control other variables (extraneous variables including confounding variables) that may affect the integrity of the experiment and the interpretation of results. Operationalisation of variables is beyond the scope of the VCE Environmental Science Study Design.

Concepts related to variables that apply to VCE Environmental Science are specified in Appendix 3.

Developing a testable hypothesis A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement that may include a prediction. In some cases, for example in exploratory or

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qualitative research, a research question may not lend itself to having an accompanying hypothesis; in such cases students should work directly with their research questions.

There is no mandated VCE Environmental Science style for writing a hypothesis. Recognition of null and alternate hypotheses, one- and two-tailed hypotheses, and directional and non-directional hypotheses is not required.

The following table provides an example of how a hypothesis may be constructed from a research question using an ‘If-then-when’ construction process:

Stage 1. Ask a research question of interest: Is there a difference in rainfall over adjacent rural and urban towns?Stage 2. Identify the independent variable (IV): type of land mass (rural or urban)Stage 3. Identify the dependent variable (DV): rainfallStage 4. Construct a hypothesis: Follow steps 1 to 6 below:

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

If…

(the DV)…

relationship phrase

(to the IV)

…then… trend indicator

(effect on the DV)

…when… trend indicator

(action by the IV).

…depends on…

…results from…

…is affected by…

…is directly related to…

...show an increase/ decrease ...

…be greater than/less than…

…be larger /smaller…

…increased/ decreased…

…greater/ less…

…large/small…

Hypothesis: If the rainfall over a land mass is directly related to the degree of urbanisation, then the rainfall will be greater in urban towns when compared with rural towns.

Teachers should note that different writing styles for hypotheses can be equally valid. Some hypotheses include reasons for the inherent prediction, for example the above hypothesis may be extended as: ‘If the rainfall over a land mass is directly related to the degree of urbanisation, since urban areas heat up more than rural areas because of the heating differences of two surface types, then the rainfall will be greater in urban towns when compared with rural towns.’

Appendix 4: Defining variables The table identifies types of variables that apply to VCE Environmental Science.

Type of variable Definitions

Categorical Categorical variables are qualitative variables that describe a quality or characteristic typically addressing ‘what type?’ or ‘which category?’. They are

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generally represented by non-numeric values and may be further classified as ordinal or nominal. Ordinal variables can take values that can be logically ordered or

ranked, for example, liveability of a city (1st, 2nd 3rd), population size (small, medium, large) and attitudes (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)

Nominal variables can take values that cannot be organised in a logical sequence, for example, gender, fur colour and type of leaf

Bar charts and pie graphs are used to graph categorical data.

Numerical Numerical variables are quantitative variables that describe a measurable quantity as a number, typically addressing ‘how many?’ or ‘how much?’. They are further classified as continuous or discrete. Continuous variables can take any value between a certain set of real

numbers, for example, length (7.85 metres), age (12.5 million years) or production (canola crop yield of 2.6 tonnes per hectare)

Discrete variables can take a value based on a count from a set of distinct whole values and cannot take the value of a fraction between one value and the next closest value, for example, number of kangaroos in a paddock

Scatter plots and line graphs are used to graph numerical data.

Independent An independent variable is the variable for which quantities are manipulated (selected or changed) by the experimenter, and assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable. Independent variables are plotted on the horizontal axis of graphs.

Dependent A dependent variable is the variable the experimenter measures, after selecting the independent variable that is assumed to affect the dependent variable. Dependent variables are plotted on the vertical axis of graphs.

Controlled A controlled variable is a variable that has been held constant in an experiment to test the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Appendix 5: Scientific poster sections Scientific poster sections, specifically the title, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusions, references and acknowledgments, are mandated. Within the mandated sections, some tailoring of organisational elements is optional.

The following advice may be provided to students:

Title: The poster title should be written as a question that briefly conveys the interesting issue, the general experimental approach, and the system (for example, an organism, an ecosystem, a model or an experimental set-up).

Abstract: Inclusion of an abstract on a poster is optional. Introduction: A one- or two-sentence overview of the purpose of the investigation and why

the research question is of interest should be provided. The investigation should be placed in the context of appropriate background theory (including relevant secondary sources of reliable information) and prior investigations and linked to a hypothesis (before a brief description of the experimental approach that tested a hypothesis or research

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question is provided). Sufficient background information, definitions and relevant formulas should be used to enable a peer to understand the nature of the investigation. Unlike a manuscript, the introduction section of a poster is an appropriate place to put a photograph or illustration that communicates some aspect of the research question.

Methodology: The investigation apparatus, materials and procedure should be described briefly although well enough to allow others to replicate it exactly. The detail used for a formal practical report is not required; for example, figures and flow charts can be used to illustrate experimental design, a photograph or labelled drawing of an organism, system or setup may be included, and the method that was used could be summarised as a flow chart. This section should clarify why the student performed the investigation in the way that was chosen.

Results: In this section, the student should select relevant raw (i.e. uninterpreted) data generated from the investigation and recorded in the student’s logbook. The student should consider the most appropriate form in which to present the data, for example table form, as an easy-to-read figure or as percentages/ratios. It is not an effective use of poster space to present both a table of results and a graph since they both represent the same information. The following points should be checked in constructing the poster:

ensure that graphics are clear, easily read, titled and fully labelled clearly present data trends and/or relationships sequentially number all tables, graphs and diagrams use a sentence or two to draw attention to key points in the tables, graph and

diagrams only provide a sample calculation for repeat calculations.

Although this section is usually dominated by calculations, tables and figures, all significant results should be stated explicitly in prose form, including a statement about whether the investigation generated useful results and whether the hypothesis was supported.

Discussion: This section examines whether the data obtained supports the hypothesis, explores the implications of the findings and judges the potential limitations of the experimental design. It focuses on a question of understanding ‘What is the meaning and/or the significance of my investigation results?’ This involves analysis in explaining what the results clearly indicate, what has been found and what is known with certainty based on results in order to draw conclusions as well as interpretation in explaining the significance of results, identifying ambiguities and further questions that arise, and finding logical explanations for problems in the data.

In this section, the student should:

Show clearly whether the data supports, partly supports or refutes the hypothesis by stating the relationships or correlations the data indicate between independent and dependent variables. The relationship between the evidence and the conclusions drawn from the evidence should be made explicit. The terms ‘proved’, ‘disproved’, ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ in relation to the hypothesis should be avoided since this level of certainty may be unlikely in a single investigation; terms such as ‘supported’, ‘indicated’ and ‘suggested’ are more appropriate to evaluate the hypothesis.

Compare expected results with those obtained, analyse experimental design and errors and acknowledge any anomalous data or deviations from what was predicted. Ignoring data that contradicts claims or predictions is a departure from scientific method. Such data should be examined carefully and, where possible, the procedure

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should be repeated to obtain further data. If replication is not possible then flaws in the procedure or investigation design should be identified and the student should discuss how and why the procedure or investigation design may have affected the data, and how the procedure or investigation design could be changed to eliminate – or minimise the effects of – the identified flaws. If an experiment was within the tolerances, the student could still account for the difference from the ideal.

Derive conclusions, based on findings, about the research question and link conclusions to the aim of the investigation.

Relate findings to earlier work undertaken in the area under investigation. The investigation will be an extension of previous theoretical understandings and investigations undertaken and these should be discussed in relation to the student’s own data. If the investigation relates to a specific theory consideration of how well the theory has been illustrated may be included.

Writing this section generally involves moving from the specific (directly related to the experiment) to the general (how the findings relate to wider understanding of scientific concepts and applications).

Conclusions: The conclusion should state the main investigation result and whether the hypothesis was supported. This should be justified using specific details selected from the investigation findings. The significance of the results should be discussed in terms of how they link to relevant environmental science concepts and current scientific understanding, who may find the results of interest and what relevance they have in everyday applications. The conclusion is also where the limitations of the investigation design and suggested improvements could be summarised, possible future work that could be done to refine or extend conclusions could be identified and/or the implications of conclusions could be explained.

References and acknowledgments: Listed references should be referred to in the body of the poster. Any standard referencing format may be followed, for example, Harvard or APA. Individuals should be thanked for specific contributions (for example, access to specialist equipment use, statistical advice, laboratory assistance) and the organisation for which they work and their position should be included. References and acknowledgments are not included in the poster word count.

Appendix 6: Suggestions for effective scientific poster communication Scientific posters are widely used in academia, research and in the general scientific community as a visual means of communicating the outcomes of scientific investigations. Key design principles for effective scientific poster communication include:

Logical sequencing and easy identification on the poster of the hypothesis or question, aim and conclusion and other key parts of the investigation.

Inclusion of only the essential details for conveying what was done in the investigation and what was discovered (for example, only the key aspects of an experimental procedure should be outlined).

Use of a range of visual aids (for example, tables, photographs, diagrams and graphs) to reduce the amount of text required and to avoid overcrowding of the poster.

Use of font, font size and colours that will be easily read by all those viewing the poster.

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Careful editing of text – terminology and spelling should be checked; wording should be simplified; acronyms should be defined; and complexity should be reduced (for example, phrases or bullet points, rather than sentences, should be used). A test is that others with little or no background in the area under investigation should be able to understand the language and identify the key points of the investigation.

Clear labelling of all images (for example, diagrams or photographs of the experimental set-up or results).

Graphs drawn with clear, relevant scales, grids, labels and annotations. Editing of graphs derived directly from spreadsheet programs so that graphs do not have

coloured backgrounds, grid lines, or boxes and that, in cases where multiple graphs are shown on the same set of axes, each graph is labelled rather than requiring a reader to use a key.

Axis labels formatted in sentence case (Not in Title Case and NOT IN ALL CAPS). Calculations presented in a clear, non-repetitive manner (for example, one sample

calculation can be shown and then the results of similar calculations can be displayed in a table) and appropriate units must be shown.

All references stated and appropriate acknowledgments provided. Creation, printing and checking of a mock-up poster prior to submission of a final poster

for assessment.

Appendix 7: Suggested approaches to assessment tasksStudents’ achievement of each outcome for each area of study must be demonstrated through performance on a selection of assessment tasks. School-based assessment tasks should be selected to reflect the key knowledge and key skills being assessed and to provide opportunities for students to demonstrate performance in ways that may not be assessable through external examinations.

Assessment may be formative and/or summative and should be limited to 50 minutes per task or not exceeding 1000 words.

VCE Units 3 and 4 Environmental Science Task type

Scope of task

Annotations of at least two practical activities from a practical logbook

Students should undertake practical activities relevant to the outcome prior to beginning the assessment task. The assessment task, to be completed in class, involves annotating at least two of these practical activities to illustrate particular environmental science principles, skills or other aspects of environmental science. Teachers should determine: which activities are undertaken for the outcome; how many of these activities should be annotated for the assessment task; whether the activities which are to be annotated for the assessment task are student-selected or teacher-selected; whether to provide a set of guiding questions to assist student annotations or whether to allow students to make their own annotations based on a general question related to a specific aspect of the relevant area of study; and when the annotations are to be completed, for example, immediately after each practical activity, after a series of activities, or in a block at the end of the area of study. Although the activities may have been completed either individually, in small groups or as a class, students must annotate the selected/relevant

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activities for the assessment task individually. The parameters of the assessment task should enable students to demonstrate the highest level of performance.

Data analysis including generalisations and conclusions

Primary and/or secondary data may be used in data analysis tasks. Teachers may use student-generated data from experiments or surveys or collated first-hand data from a class, across different classes within a school, or across different schools to devise assessment tasks. Secondary data may be accessed through a variety of print and electronic resources. The task may involve students analysing a set of raw data or analysing data presented within an environmental science context. Students may also analyse the generalisations and conclusions already drawn in the data, or may be required to draw their own generalisations and conclusions.

Evaluation of research

Students may be presented with classic or contemporary research for evaluation, or may be provided with research undertaken by VCE environmental science students in prior years. A single research study may be analysed in depth, or one or more research studies could be used to consider and/or compare environmental science principles and research methodologies. Research reports do not necessarily need to be original journal articles; reports or references to environmental science research accessed through a variety of print and electronic resources may be used as long as they contain sufficient and relevant information for students to be able to evaluate environmental science concepts, procedures, data and findings. If research undertaken previously by VCE students is used, then permission should be obtained from the students and the reports should be de-identified.

Graphic organiser A graphic organiser is a communication tool that visually shows knowledge, concepts, thoughts and/or ideas, and the relationships between them. Graphic organisers can take many forms, for example, relational organisers (these include fishbone diagrams, storyboards and cause-and-effect webs), classification organisers (these include concept maps and SWOT analyses), sequence organisers (these include linear diagrams, cycles and flow charts) and compare-and-contrast organisers (these include Venn diagrams and matrices). In addition to being an assessment tool, visual organisers can be used by students for summary and revision purposes.

Media analysis/ response

Teachers should access and select a contemporary (i.e. published in print and/or electronic media within the last calendar year) environmental science based media item such as a press release, newspaper or journal article advertisement, interview excerpt, audiovisual program, artwork or performance item that reflects current research and/or thinking in environmental science. Students may then be asked to respond to selected environmental science principles or concepts that are demonstrated through the media item. If the media item is issues-based, then students may also be asked to provide a personal perspective as a demonstration of their scientific literacy. Altering the selected article from year to year assists with assessment authentication for teachers.

Model of energy or climate concepts

The model of an energy or a climate concept may be static or interactive, including a simulation. The model should be appropriately labelled to include relevant environmental science concepts and targeted to an audience of peers. Management of this task may involve breaking it down into sub-stages involving design, building, testing and evaluation. Teachers should ensure that students do not undertake the construction of a model that may contravene health or safety regulations.

Multimodal presentation related to biodiversity

Students should undertake fieldwork and other activities and investigations related to biodiversity prior to beginning the assessment task. The outcomes of these activities and investigations should be recorded in the student’s logbook. The assessment task may involve the teacher setting up a multimodal storyboard template that focuses on selected aspects of biodiversity importance, threats and management as an overview of the outcome. In class time, students may use their logbooks to produce a draft that includes

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all relevant information. Time may be allocated out of class to refine the presentation.

Oral presentation or written report drawing on data collected from fieldwork or other sources

Students should undertake fieldwork and other activities and investigations related to biodiversity prior to beginning the assessment task. The outcomes of these activities and investigations should be recorded in the student’s logbook. The assessment task involves selecting and presenting relevant data in response to a question related to biodiversity and its related threats and/or management. If presented as a written response, the task should be completed entirely in class time. If presented orally, students may be allocated time outside class to prepare. Although the activities and investigations may have been completed either individually, in small groups or as a class, students must complete the assessment task individually. The parameters of the assessment task should enable students to demonstrate the highest level of performance.

Oral or multimodal presentation, or written report, of an environmental science case study

Prior to the assessment task, students should have researched a selected case study. Relevant sustainability and environmental management principles should be identified and explained, and students should identify the strengths, limitations and compromises associated with the management plan. For authentication purposes, teachers may set a limited number of case-specific questions to be included in the report or oral presentation. If a written presentation is selected, students may be allowed to write sections of the report progressively. If an oral or a multimodal presentation is selected, students may be allocated time outside class to prepare.

Reflective learning journal or blog related to selected activities or in response to an issue

Students may post their thoughts about their own experiences, progress and thinking in relation to teacher-selected aspects of practical activities or an environmental science issue, in addition to providing comments on at least one peer’s posting at a frequency (for example, twice a week) and over a time period (for example, four weeks) as determined by the teacher. The subject of the blog may relate to practical skills and/or environmental science concepts. The blogs should show evidence of critical, analytical reflection.

Report of a student investigation

The investigation should arise from a student inquiry question and may be a practical activity, a simulation, a modelling activity or any scientific activity that can generate primary data or may involve manipulation of raw secondary data. The report should be preceded by the student investigation that has been fully and/or partially completed under supervision and that has been recorded in a student’s logbook. The logbook can then be taken into class for reference by students in producing a report in a format designated by the teacher. Reports may range from simple tabulations of results with a student comment, to full reports, which include an abstract, an aim, a hypothesis, a method, results, discussion, a conclusion and references. Although student investigations may be conducted individually, in small groups or as a class, reports must be completed individually.

Response to structured questions

The teacher should develop a set of multi-part questions that target both key knowledge and key skills related to an environmental science theme. The questions should be scaffolded to enable demonstration of performance at the highest levels, while providing access at each part for students to be able to provide a response independent of prior responses. This task lends itself particularly to selecting material related to a contemporary issue in environmental science and/or to providing sets of questions that link theory and practice.

Scientific poster An appropriately configured template must be used to report student investigation findings for Unit 4 Area of Study 3.Students and teachers may add other headings and sub-headings as pertinent to the investigation question and to the assessment rubric issued to students by the teacher prior to the task. Assessment may be completed in investigation stages, for example, investigation design, undertaking of the investigation and writing of sections of the poster. The poster may be saved as an electronic file

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and/or printed as a hard copy poster.

Written response to a set of questions

The teacher should develop a set of questions that target both key knowledge and key skills related to biodiversity, environmental management and/or sustainability. This task is suited to setting up case studies or scenarios that involve students evaluating different perspectives and/or suggested proposals. Students should include and explain relevant environmental science concepts in their responses.

Appendix 8: Examples of problem-based learning approaches in environmental scienceA problem-based learning environment is conducive to linking scientific concepts to examining science-based issues in society. Scenarios can be developed from local issues, fictional case studies or case studies reported in scientific journals, as illustrated in the following example.

Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?

Case study: A small town was renowned for its rock concerts. The rock concerts had been organised on a weekly basis scheduled every weekend for the last five years. Population surveys revealed that the town population doubled during weekends and local businesses reported significantly increased trade. The local bird watching club, however, published a report that summarised observational findings over a ten-year period that indicated that populations of an indigenous bird species had declined to almost endangered levels. Members of the club noted that bird calls could not be heard during rock concert performances and suggested that bird mating rituals were disrupted by the concert noise. In its annual report the local council reported significant littering issues both at the concert venues and in a stream that ran adjacent to the concert venue. The local doctor wrote an article in the town’s newspaper reporting that cases of deafness in patients had increased significantly since the rock concerts began.Task: Propose credible resolutions for the issues identified in this case.

Step 2: Refine the question/ explore possible options(class brainstorming)

Step 3: Plan the actual investigation/ narrow your choices(class consensus)

Step 4: Test ideas and obtain further information (group and/or individual)

Step 5: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including specific scientific terminology.

Note: problem-based scenarios do not necessarily have a single solution.

A problem-based learning approach can also be used to develop specific science skills. The skills should link to relevant study content. The following example focuses on the skill of hypothesis formulation.

Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?

Student question: Do fertilisers improve soil?Task: The research question is too broad. The word ‘improve’ needs clarification. Which particular properties of a soil would be investigated? Would the ability of a soil to absorb water or nutrients relate to improvement, or does the improvement relate to increased crop growth? Once this is clarified, a testable hypothesis can be developed.

Step 2: Refine the question/explore Step 3: Plan the actual investigation/ Step 4: Test ideas and obtain

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possible options(class brainstorming)Possible responses:Controlling variables: Does it matter which type of

fertiliser is used? Does it matter which type of soil is

used? What other conditions need to be

controlled?Question is too broad in terms of ‘improve’. How will the term ‘improve’ be understood in this investigation? What would be the effects of an ‘improved’ soil?An ‘improved’ soil could result in: improved growth of plants presence of more earthworms increased soil moisture so that

plants can access water more granulated soil texture/

increased water permeability rates to allow nutrients and water to move into plants more easily

particular pH for growing different types of plants

increased percentage of organic matter

increased nutrient content.Other issues: Will ‘improve’ relate to all types of

plants? Will ‘improve’ relate to all types of

soils?

narrow your choices(class consensus)Possible responses:Need to identify dependent and independent variables and control other variables.Independent variable (being controlled) relates to the nature of the fertiliser and how the soil is treated: a particular type of soil may be

tested, or multiple experiments could be set up to test different types of soils

type of fertiliser could be specified (for example, garden manure, commercial fertilisers) or multiple experiments could be set up to test different types of fertilisers.

Dependent variable relates to the characteristics of the soil improvement that can be measured and could be: number of earthworms amount of organic matter soil porosity water permeability.Control of other variables is dependent on selected independent and dependent variables.

further information(group and/or individual)Possible responses: Hypothesis example: ‘If a

soil’s water permeability is directly related to the amount of garden compost it contains, then soils treated with higher amounts of garden compost will have higher water permeability rates than soils treated with lower amounts of garden compost’. (A further question associated with this hypothesis is whether increased permeability results in better plant growth.)

Not all hypotheses are testable and not all variables can be controlled for some experiments.For this problem, students generate possible hypotheses; provide feedback on each other’s hypotheses; modify own hypotheses.

Step 5: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including discussion of scientific terminology, control of variables and evaluation of experimental methodology.

Note: This class problem-based learning approach can be used to generate different questions for students to investigate, particularly for experimental investigations.

Appendix 10: Employability skillsThe VCE Environmental Science study provides students with the opportunity to engage in a range of learning activities. In addition to demonstrating their understanding and mastery of the content and skills specific to the study, students may also develop employability skills through their learning activities.

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The nationally agreed employability skills are: Communication; Planning and organising; Teamwork; Problem solving; Self-management; Initiative and enterprise; Technology; and Learning.

The table links those facets that may be understood and applied in a school or non-employment related setting to the types of assessment commonly undertaken within the VCE study.

Assessment task Employability skills selected facets

Annotations of a practical work folio of activities or investigations

Communication (writing to the needs of the audience)Problem solving (testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)

Comparative analysis Communication (sharing information; persuading effectively; writing to the needs of the audience)Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information)Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and visions; articulating own ideas and visions)Technology (using information technology to organise data)

Data analysis Communication (using numeracy; persuading effectively; writing to the needs of the audience)Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information)Problem solving (applying a range of strategies to problem solving; using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)Technology (using information technology to organise data)

Evaluation of a case study Communication (reading independently; writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading effectively)Initiative and enterprise (generating a range of options; identifying options not obvious to others; initiating innovative solutions)Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information)Problem solving (showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and solving them; using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)

Fieldwork report Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; sharing information; using numeracy)Learning (being open to new ideas and techniques)Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information)Problem solving (developing practical solutions; showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and solving them; using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using information technology to organise data; having the Occupational Health and Safety knowledge to apply technology)

Logbook of practical activities Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy)Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information)

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Self-management (evaluating and monitoring own performance; articulating own ideas and visions)

Media response Communication (listening and understanding; reading independently; writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading effectively)Problem solving (showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and solving them; testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)

Problem solving involving environmental science concepts, skills and/or issues

Communication (sharing information; using numeracy; persuading effectively)Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options; initiating innovative solutions)Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and techniques)Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time management; collecting, analysing and organising information)Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing practical solutions; showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and solving them; applying a range of strategies to problem solving; using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and visions; articulating own ideas and visions)

Report (oral/written/visual/multimodal)

Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly; writing to the needs of the audience)Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising informationTechnology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new information technology skills)

Response to structured questions Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly; writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading effectively)Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information)Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and visions; articulating own ideas and visions)Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new information technology skills)

Scientific modelling Communication (persuading effectively; sharing information)Initiative and enterprise (being creative; initiating innovative solutions)Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and techniques)Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing practical solutions; applying a range of strategies to problem solving)Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time management)

Scientific poster Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; persuading effectively; sharing information; using numeracy)Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time management; collecting, analysing and organising information)Problem solving (using mathematics to solve problems; testing

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assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)Technology (using information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new information technology skills)

Student-designed investigation Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options; initiating innovative solutions)Planning and organising (managing time and priorities – setting timelines, coordinating tasks for self and with others; planning the use of resources including time management; collecting, analysing and organising information)Problem solving (developing practical solutions; showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and solving them)Self-management (evaluating and monitoring own performance; taking responsibility)Teamwork (working as an individual and as a member of a team; knowing how to define a role as part of the team; sharing information)Technology (having the Occupational Health and Safety knowledge to apply technology; using information technology to organise data)

The employability skills are derived from the Employability Skills Framework (Employability Skills for the Future, 2002), developed by the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Business Council of Australia, and published by the (former) Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training.