Walton-Vine Mealybug P. Ficus

7/27/2019 Walton-Vine Mealybug P. Ficus

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Vi ne meal ybug, Pl anococcusf cus ( Si gnor et ) ( Hempt er a : Pseudococci dae) ,a Key Pest i n Sout h Af r i can vi neyar ds . ARevi ewVMWal t on* andKL Pr i ngl eDepartment of Entomology andNematol ogy, Stel l enbosch Uni ver si t y, Pr i vate BagX1, 7602Mati eland ( Stel l enbosch) , SouthAfri caSubmtted f or publ i cat i on : March2004Accepted f or publ i cat i on : October 2004Keywords : Pl anococcusf i cus, bi ol ogi cal cont r ol , taxonom, vernacul ar names, morphometri cs, l i f e cycle, hosts, geographi cal

di s t r i but i on, popul ati ondynamcs, i nt egr at ed pestmanagement

INTRODUCTIONANDHSTORYOFTHEPESTI NSOUTHAFRCAPlanococcus f i c us ( S i gnor et ) was i ni t i a l l y i dent i f i ed i n t heWestern Cape Province as Planococcus c i t r i ( Ri sso) by J oubert( 1943) , Kr i egl er (1954) andWhi tehead (1957) after i nt r oduct i ont o t he ar ea, probablywth pl ant mat eri al . DeLotto (1975) subse-quentl y i dent i f i ed i t as Planococcusf i cus . Themost r ecent sampl es of the i nsect col l ec ted duri ng 1999/2000were i dent i f i ed asPlanococcusf i c us (Wal ton2003) by I .M M l l ar , Pl ant Pr o t ec t i onResearch I n s t i tu te i n Pretor i a .P f i c us was f i r s t recorded as a pest i n t he Western Cape

Provinceduri ng1930 ( J oubert 1943) . By 1935Pf i cus had spreadt o t he HexR ver Val l ey andsubsequentl y t o al l ot her maj or grape-producing ar eas ( J ouber t 1943) i n th is Province Kr i egl er (1954)regarded i t as oneof t hemost i mportant pest s of thegrape i ndus-t r y i n SouthAf ri ca. Other pseudococci d speci esrecorded f romvi nes i n t he Western Cape Provi nce i ncl uded Pseudococcusl ongi spi nus ( Targioni ) and Fe r r i s i a malvastra (McDani el ), whi chwere al so i dent i f i ed by I .M Ml l ar (Wal ton 2003), PlantPr ot ect i on Research I n s t i t u te i n Pre to r i a . These have, however,not yet at t ai ned pest status ongrapes l o ca l l y.TAXONOM

V ne meal ybug, Pl anococcus fi cus ( S ignore t ) , i s a key pest i n vi neyards i n the Western Cape and North-WestProvi nces of SouthAfri caandmore recentl y i n theUSAThi s pest was f i r s t reportedi n theWesternCape Provi ncei n1943 Thetaxonomy and i dent i f i cat i on of t h i s speci es aremaded i f f i c u l t by compl ex sl i de-mounti ngtechni quesand the l ack of qual i t at i ve char a ct er i s t i cs . V nemeal ybug i s pol yphagouswth awde rangeof host pl ants . Pf i cuscauses di rect cropl oss due to desiccati on of bunches i n the case of wne grapes and unsi ghtl y honeydewexcreti ononbunches i n the case of t abl e grapes . Hgh i nf estat i ons of P, f i cus cancause earl y l eaf l oss and resul tant weaken-i ng of vines . V nemeal ybugal sovectors the vi ne l eaf ro l l vi rus Thi spest i s currentl y control l edusi ngchemcal , bi o-l ogi cal and cul tural control techni ques i n an i ntegratedpest-management systemThi s systemel i es on the useofpheromoneandphysi cal moni tori ngtechni ques, whi chprovide i nformati onon i nf es ta t i on l evel s .

Current StatusThemost r ecent cl as si f i cat i onwas done byBen-Dov (1994) whopl acedP f i cus i n t he Order Hemptera, Suborder Homoptera,Superfaml yCoccoideaandFaml y Pseudococci dae The speci eswas wel l descri bedbyDeLotto ( 1975) , Cox (1981, 1989), and

*Cor r espondi ng author: E-mai l addr ess: vaughn@un ac. za

Wl l i am&ranaradeWl l i nk (1992) . Keys f or t he adul t femaleof t h i s speci es were gi ven i n Wl l i am &Moghaddam(1999)( I ran ) , Wl l i am&ranaradeWl l i nk (1992) ( Cent r al andSouthAmeri ca), Cox (1989) (Worl d), Cox&Ben-Dov (1986)(Medi terranean basi n) , andCox&etton (1988) (West I ndi es) .P f i c us was i ni t i al l y descri bed as Coccus v i t i s by Nedzi l ski i(1869) (Cox&en-Dov, 1986) . Licht enste i n (1870) subsequent-l y pl aced th is speci es i n t he genus Dactylopi us (Cox 1989) .Si gnor et (1875) descri bed i t as Planococcusf i cus . Thereaf t er var -i ous synonym were used, many of whi ch were the r esul t ofms i dent i f i cat i on (Ben-Dov, 1994) ( Tabl e 1) .Vernacul ar namesVernacul ar names gi ven byBal achowsky&esni l (1935) i nc l ude`cocci ni gl i a f ar i nosa del l a vi t e' , `cochoni l ha algodeo da vi nha' ,`cot onet de l a vi d' , `gr apevi ne meal ybug and ` l a cocheni l l ef ar i neuse de l a vi gne' . Berl i nger (1977) descri bed P f i cus as t he`Medi terr anean vi ne mealybug , Bodenhei mer (1924) as ' subte r -raneanvinemeal y bug' andDeLotto (1975) as `vi ne meal ybug .BOLOGYMorphometri csCr i t e r i a f or age di s t i nc t i on of t he di f f er ent devel opmental st agesof P f i cus were descri bedby Kr i egl er (1954) . Thi s i nformati onwas used i n st udi es on t he devel opmental bi ol ogy of th is pest(Wal ton, 2003) . Kr i egl er (1954) made use of a combinati on ofcol our , si ze, and ot her characte r i s t i cs t o di s t i ngui sh between t hedi f f er ent st ages . Cer t ai n c r i t e r i a were sel ect ed and ar e presentedi n Tabl e 2

Acknowedgemnts Theaut hor s wouldl i ke t o t hank t heARCnfr ui tec-N etvoorbi j , Wnetech and t heDFPTor f i nanci al suppor t . Thef i r s t author wasemployed at t heARCnfr ui tec-N ervoorbi j , where someof th i sworkwas completed

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LE1used f or Pl anococcus f i cus (Ben-Dov 1994) .

I n a r ecent sur vey ( Wal t on, 2003) , Pf i cus was found t o be t henant meal ybug speci es i n vi neyards i n t he West er n Capei nce of Sout h Af r i ca . Adul t f emal e meal ybugs were approx-matel y4mmn l engt h, s l i g h t l y more t han 2mmde andabout. 5 mmhi ck . The adul t f emal e and i mmat ur e st ages were o v a t e ,pbacked, l i g h t s l a t e- t o f l esh-col oured and cover ed by a f i n e ,hi t e powdery wax s e c r et i o n, whichwas more evi dent on t hest ages . Thebody of t he adul t f emal e was cl earl y segment ednd had a f r i nge of s h o r t , f i nger - l i ke wax f i l ament s ar ound i t s(Kr i egl er, 1954) ( F i g . 1) . Af ter mat i ng, egg sacs cover edt h waxy threads s t a r t e d t o appear .Thi s speci es was easi l y di st i ngui shed f romPs l ongi spi nus,hi chwas about 3mmong, 1 mm de, o v a t e , and yel l ow shr ey i n col our . Adul t f emal es andyounger st ages of t h i s speci esadexcepti onal l y l ong post eri or f i l ament s andnoegg s ac s, a s t h i sci es was ovovi vi par ous ( El - M nshawy, e t a l . 1974) .Ai ngl el t f emal e Fer r i s i a mal vast r a ( McDani el ) , 7 mmong and 4m de w t h a l i g h t orange col our was r ecor ded f or t he f i r s ti me f roma vi neyard i n St el l enbosch ( Wal t on, 2003) and cl earl yf f ered i n morphol ogy fromPf i cus .Pf i cus i s cl osel y related t o P c i t r i . Separ at i on of these twoci es i s based onmnor di f f erences i n t he number andarr ange-ent of gl andul ar duct s of t he derms . Pf i cus has f ewer gr oupsand smal l er ducts t han P c i t r i (De Lotto, 1975) . However , Phas not yet been f ound on vi nes i n SouthAf r i ca

cycl eegl er ( 1954) st udi ed t he l i fecycl e of P, f i cus i n det ai l .

opment al st ages studi ed were eggs and f i r s t , second and

vi ne Meal ybug, a Key Pest i n South Afr i can Vi neyar ds

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FI GURE 1Adul t f emal e ( i n di c at e d by arrow a) and mal e ( i n di c a t e d by arrow b)Pl anococcus f i c u s .

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t h i r d nymphal i n s t a r s . I t was f ound t h a t t he mal e charact eri sti csappear ed a f t e r t he t h i r d nymphal i ns t a r and, duri ng subsequentdevel opment , di f f erenti at i on between t he sexes occur r ed . I n t hecase of t he mal e, t he pr epupa was f ol l owed by t he pupa f romwhich t he wnged mal e emerged ( F i g . 1) . Mal es were charac-ter i sed by havi ng l ong f i l ament ous anal setae andnomouthpar t s( Kri egl er 1954) . Theadul t f emal e started rel easi ngpheromones atsexual matur i t y, a t t r a c t i n g adul t mal es f or copul at i on ( H nkens etal . , 2001) . Subsequent t o copul at i on there was a pre-ovi posi t i onper i od, a f t e r whicht he f emal e l a i d eggs i n an egg sacmadeup of

Synonym Aut hor CommentNe dz i l s k i i ( 1 869 ) ,Coccus v i t i s Li ndi nger ( 1 9 1 2 ) , I n c o r r e c t due t o m s i d ent i f i c at i o n ( Cox&en-Dov, 1986) .Borchseni us ( 1949) True i d e n t i t y unknown

Dact yl opi us v i t i s L i c h t e n s t ei n ( 1 8 7 0 ) , Mi s i d e nt i f i c at i o n (Cox, 1989)Si gnor et ( 1895)Dact yl opi us f i c u s Si gnoret ( 1 8 7 5 ) ,Borchseni us ( 1949) Type ma t e r i a l l o s t ( Ben- Dov &Ma t i l e - F e r r e r o , 1995) .Dact yl opi us subt err aneus Hempel ( 1901) On r o o t s of c ul t i v at e d grapesPseudococcus f i c u s Fernald ( 1903) Change of combi nat i on

Fernald ( 1 9 0 3 ) ,Pseudococcus v i t i s Leonardi ( 1 9 2 0) ,Bodenhei mer ( 1924)Pseudococcus c i t r i o d e s F e r r i s ( 1922) NewnamePseudococcus c i t r i Bal achowsky &Mesni l ( 1935) Mi s i d en t i f i c at i o nDact yl opi us f i c u s Bor chseni us ( 1949) Synonymous w t h Pseudococcus c i t r i ( R i s s o )Pl anococcus c i t r o i d e s F e r r i s ( 1950) Change of combi nat i onPl anococcus v i t i s Ezzat &McConnel l ( 1 9 5 6 ) ,Mati l e-Ferrero ( 1984)Pl anococcus f i c u s Ezzat &McConnel l ( 1956) Change of combi nat i onPseudococcus praet ermssus Ezzat (1962) Synonym


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56TABLE2Morphometri c characte rs f o r di s t i ngui shi ng l i f e stages of Pl anococcus f i c us ( K r i e g l e r , 1954) i n devel opment al bi ol ogy studies .

f i l ament ous waxy hai rs . Kr i egl er ( 1954) recorded an average of362 eggs per f emale . L i f e- t abl e st udi es were done at constantt emper at ur es by Wal t on ( 2003) whereby t he l ower and upperthreshold t emper at ur es f or devel opment of Pf i c u s were est i mat-ed at 16 . 59 and35. 61C, respect i vely . These r e s ul t s were s im l art o those of Duso e t a l . ( 1985) , who i ndi cated t h a t t he optimumt emper at ur es ranged f rom23C t o 27C .HostsPf i c us i s a pol yphagous i nsect and, apar t fromt he economcdamage i t can cause t o V i t i s v i n i f e r a L i nn . , i t has been f ound onvari ous ot her host pl ant s ( Tabl e 3) .None of t he abovehost pl ant s were f ound i n cl ose proxi mt y t ot he vi neyards sampl edi n t he study byWal ton ( 2003) .Aar i ety ofweedswer e, however , sampl edf or meal ybugs i n vi neyards dur i ngt he cur r ent s t u d y , but no P f i c us were found on any of them( Wal t on 2003) .GEOGRAPHCALDSTRBUTIONANDECONOMCIMPORTANCEPf i c us has been found i n most grape- pr oducti on areas t hrough-out t he worl d ( Tabl e 4) . I t i s of parti cul ar economc i mpor t anceon grapevi nes i n t he Medi t err anean r egi on, Sout h Af r i ca,Paki st an andAr genti na ( Ben- Dov, 1994) .Engel br echt&asdorf ( 1984) andCabal ei r o&egura ( 1997)f ound t h a t P f i cus t ransmtted t he grapevi ne l e a f r o l l associ atedvi rus 3(GLRaV- 3) . I n i t i a l l y , t he meal ybug speci mens studi ed byCabale i ro&egura ( 1997) were i d e nt i f i e d as Pl anococcus c i t r i( R i s s o) , but l a t e r i d e n t i f i e d byBen-Dov as Pf i c u s (Si gnoret) ( Yai rBen-Dov, unpubl i shed d a t a , J u l y 1998) . Transmssi on of GLRaV-3 byPf i c us and po si t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of GLRaV3were furtherconf i r med us i ngPCRmethods by Acheche e t a l . ( 1999) .The transfer of t he l e a f r o l l vi rus caused i n e f f i c i e n t phot osyn-t h es i s , whichresul ted i n r educed f r u i t pr oducti on, i n a b i l i t y t o pr o-duce s u f f i c i e n t s uga r , hi gher than nor mal ac i d i t y l e v e l s anddel ayed r i peni ng . I n addit i on, i nf ested vi nes were l e s s dr oughtr e s i s t a nt (Cabal ei ro e t a l . , 1999 ; Mani ni , 2000) . Manini ( 2000)showed t h a t uni nfected seedli ngs had i ncreased vegetat i ve vi gourandhi gher pr opagat i on potent i al than i nf ected seedl i ngs . I n addi -t i o n, Pf i c us has been f ound t o be avi rus vect or of corky- bark di s -ease (Engel brecht &asdorf , 1985 ; Tanne et al . , 1989) andShi raz di sease ( Engel br echt &asdorf , 1984) i n vi nes .

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Apar t f r ombei ng a vector of GLRaV-3, hi gh i nf estati ons of Pf i c u s i n tabl e grape bunches r e s ul t i n d i r e c t crop l os s andprogres-s i v e weakeni ng of vi nes through ear ly l e af l o ss ( Kr i e gl e r , 1954 ;Whi t ehead, 1957 ; Berl i nger, 1977 ; Char l es, 1982 ; Wal t on, 2003) .Seasonal popul at i on dynamcs andphenologyI n SouthAf r i ca Kri egl er ( 1954) recorded s i x gener ati ons per y e a r ,whi l e Wal t on ( 2003) f oundbetween f i v e and s i x gener ati ons . I nI t a l y Duso ( 1990) recorded onl y three gener ati ons per year . Thesedi f f erences could be att r i buted t o t emper at ur e di f f erencesbetween t he twocountr i es .Upward movement on t he t runk began f r om spri ng or ear lysummer ( Oct ober i n South Af r i ca, March/ Apr i l i n I s r a e l and

I t a l y ) ( Kr i e gl e r , 1954 ; Berl i nger, 1977 ; Duso, 1990 Wal t on,2003) . Popul ati ons s t a r t e d t o devel op onnewgr owt h andt he pop-ul at i on peak was recorded between t he end of J anuar y and t hebegi nni ng of Febr uary, a f t e r whi chnumbers decl i ned ( Kr i e gl e r ,1954 ; Whi t ehead, 1957 ; Wal t on, 2003) . Meal ybugs f ound i n t hevi ne canopy a f t e r harvest f or med t he nucl ei of w nt er col oni es( Whi t ehead, 1957) . Si ml ar observat i ons wer e made i n I s r a el andI t a l y (Berl i nger, 1977 ; Duso, 1990) . Berl i nger (1977) not ed t h a tw nter popul at i on l e v e l s were l ow n I s r a e l and consi sted mai nl yof non- ovi pos i t i ng adul t f emal es . Wal ton ( 2003) f ound popul a-t i o ns of t h i s pest on roots of vi nes

Kr i egl er ( 1954) studi ed t he i nf l uence of t emper at ur e on t hedevel opment of Pf i c us under f l uctuat i ng t emperatures on pot a-t oe s i n an out door gr eenhouse . Duso e t a l . ( 1985) andBerl i nger( 1977) studi ed t he devel opment of Pf i cus i n t he f i e l d . Berl i nger( 1977) found t h a t cool ear ly summer t emper at ur es del ayedupwardmgrat i on, whichdel ayed t he popul ati on peak .MONTORNGSYSTEMSFORVINEMEALYBUGThel owt oler ance f or Pf i c us and t he i mpor t ance of t i mel y i ns e c -t i c i d e appl i cati ons necessi t ated theuse of a speci es- speci f i c Mon-i t or i ng programme f or r api dl y determ ni ng t he pest popul ati ondens i ty Two moni t ori ng system ar e currently i n use : l abour -i ntensi ve ( Gei ger &Daane, 2001) physi cal sampl i ng of vi nesi nf es ted w t h Pf i cus ( Wal t on 2003) and pheromonemoni t ori ng( M l l a r e t a l . , 2002 Wal ton e t al . , 2003) .Physi cal sampl i ng can be used byproducers i n South Af r i c a t opr ovi de an est i mat e of Pf i c us popul ati on l e v e l s i n commer ci alvi neyards w t h known l e v e l s of e r r o r , enabl i ng producers t o

St age Aver age l ength (mm Aver age wd t h (mm Characteri sti cs/Col ourEgg 0 41 0 . 21 Li ght s t r a wF i r s t nymphal i n st a r 0 46 0,22 Li ght t o dar k ye l l o w, s i x antennal segment sSecond nymphal i n st a r 0 68 0 . 35 Ye l lowsh br ownThi rd nymphal i n st a r 1 . 13 0 . 6 6 Seven an tenna l segment sMal e prepupa 0 . 95 One p ai r of l a t e r al o c e l l i . V i s i b l e w ngbudsMal e pupa 1 . 05 Three p ai r s of l a t e r a l o c e l l i . Wngbuds reachi ng t o t h i r d abdomnal segmentAdul t mal e 1 . 05 Wngs f u l l y devel opedAdul t f emal e 1 . 69 0 . 99 Wngl ess, e i g ht an tenna l segment s


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TABLE3Recorded f i ndi ngs of Pf i c us on host pl ants other than Vv i n i j e r a .

deci de on t he necess i ty f or and correct t im n g of i nterventi on( Wal t on, 2003) . Physi cal moni t ori ng met hods ar e most e f f e c t i v el a t e r i n t he summer , whenmeal ybugs ar e i n exposed l ocati ons( e . g . newcanes andl eaves) andwhent he popul ati on densi ti es ar er e l a t i v e l y hi gh ( Gei ger et al . , 2001 ; Wal ton2003) . I n practi ce, t h i sper i od occurs onl y a f t e r crop damage has taken pl ace .Pheromone-based moni t ori ng programmes ar e l e s s t i me con-s um ng, s i mpl er andmore sens i t i ve than physi cal i nspecti ons

( M l l a r et al . , 2002 Wal tonet al . , 2003) . Pher omone-bai t ed l ur e swer e f oundt o be a t t r a c t i v e t o mal e Pf i c u s f or up t o 12 weeks,w t h an ef fect i ve range of 50mHi nkens et al . , 2001) . Thenumber of Pf i c us mal es caught i n pher omone- bai t ed traps was posi -t i v e l y corr el ated t o f emal e meal ybug i nfestat i on l e ve l s , d e t e r -mnedusi ng physi cal sampl i ng methods ( Wal t on et a l . , 2003) .CONTROLSTRATEGESChemcal controlChemcal control of Pf i c u s i n Sout h Af r i c a i s curr entl y based one i t h e r two t r eatments of chl orpyr i f os two weeks apar t , o r prothi o-phos j u s t befor e budburst . These t r eatments ar e app l i ed duri ngt he dormant peri od . An addi ti onal suppl ement ar y t r eatment of achem cal w t h a short resi dual peri od, such as di chl orvos ormethi dathi on, i s someti mes appl i ed pr i or t o harvest from anuaryt o Apr i l ( Nel et al . , 1999) . However , Pf i c u s col oni es ar e protect-ed by wax threads andar e not eas i l y contr ol l ed by these routi nesprays . Popul ati ons usua l l y occur under bark and i n crevi ces on

Vi ne Meal ybug, a KeyPest i n Sout hAfr i can V neyards

Bi ol ogi ca l control

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t he mai n stem as wel l as on r o o t s , maki ng i t d i f f i c u l t t o t a r g et t h i spest w t h i nsec t i c i des (Ber l i nger , 1977) . Kri egl er ( 1954) andWhi tehead ( 1957) recommended t he appl i cat i on of s pot t r e a t -ment s w t h chem cal s when hi gh meal ybug i nf estati ons occur .However , they emphasi sed the i ntegrated use of chem cal andbi ol ogi cal control . The systemc pest i c i de I m dac l o pr i d SC( 350g/ L) ( h t t p : / / www i pw c o . z a ) was recentl y regi stered f or useon v i ne meal ybug i n Sout h Af r i c a . Thi s chem cal maybe ausef ulalt ernati ve t o t he chem ca l s ment i oned above However , there ar ei ndi cati ons t h a t pest i c i de resi stance t o t h i s compound can devel -op ( Prabhaker et al . , 1997 ; Zhao et a l . , 2000) . Theref ore, r e s i s -t anc e- management measur es shoul d beempl oyed t o del ay or p r e -vent t he devel opment of resi stance .Many natural enemes associ ated w t hPf i c u s have been report-ed, some of whi chwerehyperparasi toi ds ( Tabl e 5 ) .Fromt he l i s t i t i s cl ear t h a t Pf i c u s popul ati ons ar e attacked bya range of natural enemes, many of whi ch commonl y occur i nt he West er n Cape Provi nce ( Whi t ehead, 1957 ; Ur ban, 1985 ;Wal t on, 2003) . Themost common natural enem es i n t h i s areai ncl ude, i n descendi ng order of abundance,

" Parasi toi ds : Anagyrus spp , Cocci doxenoi des permnutus,Lept omast i x dactyl opi i ." Predatory beet l es : Nephus bi neavatus, Nangustus andNquadri vi tt atus .

Faml y Genus/ Speci es Ref erenceAnacardi aceae Mangi f era i ndi c a B ume Ezzat &McConnel ( 1956) , Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Apocynaceae Neri umol eander L i nn . Ezzat &McConnel ( 1956)Asteraceae Dahl i a spp Ezzat &McConnel ( 1956)J ugl andaceae J ugl ans spp Ezzat&McConnel ( 1956)Lauraceae Persea ameri canaM l l . Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Labi aceae D chrostachys gl omerat a Li nn Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)

Prosop i s f a rc a ta Li nn Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Tephrosi a purpurea Pers Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)

Moraceae Ficus benj amnaLi nn. W l l i ams&ranaradeW l l i nk ( 1992) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Palmae Phoenixdacty l i fa ra Li nn. Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Pl at anaceae Pl at anus or i enta l i s Li nn Marti n-Mateo ( 1985) , W l l i ams&oghaddam( 1999)Poaceae Bambusa spp Ezzat &McConnel ( 1956)Rhamnaceae Zi zyphus spi na-chr i s t i Geor gi Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Rosaceae Cydonia obl ongaM l l Granara deW l l i nk et al ( 1997)Rosaceae Mal us domest i ca Baumg Granara deW l l i nk et al ( 1997)

Mal uspuml a M l l . Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Sal i caceae Sal i x spp Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Stercul i aceae Theobroma cacaoLi nn. Ezzat &McConnel ( 1956)Styracaceae Styrax o f f i c i na l i s Wal t . Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)


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5$ Vine Meal ybug, aKey Pest i n Sout h Afr i can Vi neyar dsTABLE4Geographi cal areas wher e Planococcus f i cus has been recorded on vi nes (Ben-Dov 1994) .Gographi cal area ReferenceAf rotr opi cal : SouthAf r i ca Ezzat &McConnel ( 1956) , DeLotto ( 1975) , Cox ( 1989), Ben-Dov ( 1994)Muri ti us Ezzat &McConnel ( 1956)Narct i c : Uni t ed States ofAmi ca Ezzat &McConnel ( 1956)Neoropi ca : Argen i na Hempel ( 1901), Ezzat&McConnel ( 1956), , Granara deW l l i nk ( 1991), W l l i am&ranaradeW l l i nk ( 1992) ,Ben-Dov ( 1994) , Trj apit zyn&r j apit zyn (1999)Ba z i l W l l i am &ranara deW l l i nk ( 1992), Ben-Dov ( 1994)Ci l e Ezzat&cConnel ( 1956)Dmn can Republ i c Ezzat&McConnel ( 1956)Tri ni dad andTobago Ezzat&McConnel ( 1956)Uuguay GranaradeW l l i nk et al . ( 1997)Oi ental : India Var shney ( 1992) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Pakis t an Cox( 1989), Ben-Dov ( 1994)Pal earcti c Aghani st an Kozdr, Fowhan&arrabi ( 1996)Aer bai j an Rzaeva ( 1985) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Azores Ezzat &McConnel ( 1956)Cnary I sl ands CarneroHernandez&erezGuera ( 1986), PerezGuerra&CarneroHernandez ( 1987), Ben-Dov ( 1994)Pal earct i c Crete Argyri ou ( 1983), Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Cyp us Cox( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Egypt Ezzat &McConnel ( 1956), Ezzat&Nada ( 1987), Cox ( 1989), Ben-Dov ( 1994)Fa nce Si gnoret ( 1875) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Greece Ezzat&cConnel ( 1956)Hyeres I s l ands Fol di ( 2000)I ran Cox( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994), Kozar, Fowhan&arrabi ( 1996), W l l i am&oghaddam1999)I raq Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)I s r ael Bodenhei mer ( 1924), Avi dov ( 1961) , Avi dov&Harpaz 1969), Cox&en-Dov ( 1986), Ben-Dov ( 1994)I t al y Leonar di ( 1920) , Tranfagl i a ( 1976), Marotta ( 1987), Rosci gl i one&astel l ano ( 1985), Duso ( 1990), Ben-Dov ( 1994)Lebanon Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Li bya Ferri s ( 1922), Ben-Dov ( 1994)Portuga Ezzat&McConnel ( 1956)Sardi nia Mel i s ( 1930), Ben-Dov ( 1994) , Longo et al ( 1995), Pel l i zzari -Scal tr i t i &ontana( 1996)Saud Arabi a Beccari ( 1971) , Mati l e-Ferrero ( 1984), Ben-Dov ( 1994)Si c i l y Longo et al . ( 1995) , Russo&Mazzeo ( 1997)Spain G6mez-Menor Or t ega ( 1937), Ezzat&McConnel ( 1956) , Mart i n-Mal t eo ( 1985), Ben-Dov ( 1994)Syri a Ezzat&McConnel ( 1956)Tuni si a Cox ( 1989) , Ben-Dov ( 1994)Turkmeni st an Achangel skaya ( 1930), Ben-Dov ( 1994)Berl i nger ( 1977) al so f oundt h a t t he parasi toi ds and predators Predat ory beet l e popul at i on l eve l s i n t he seasonment i oned peaked earl yabove were domnant i n I s r a el . Whi tehead ( 1957) ( f r omSeptember t o November) anddecl i ned a f t e r t h i s (Wal t on,bel i eved t h a t predatory beet l es pl ayed amaj or par t i n bi ol ogi cal 2003 ; Whi t ehead, 1957) . However , meal ybug l e v e l scontr ol popul at i onand t h a t t he parasi toi ds were of l e s s er i mport ance . di d not decrease whi l e t he predators wer e present ( Berl i nger,

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TABLE5Natural enemes associ ated w t h Pf i cus .

V i n e Meal ybug, a Key Pest i n SouthAfr i can Vineyards

1977 ; Ur ban, 1985 Wal t on, 2003) both i n t heWest ern Cape andi n I s r a e l . The l ack of densi t y- dependence documented betweenvi ne meal ybugs and predatory beet l es l ed Wal ton ( 2003) t oassume t h a t t h i s gr oup of benef i ci al s were of l e s s e r i mpor t ance .Parasit oid numbers r eached a peak l at er i n t he season ( f r omNovember ) , which r esul t ed i n t he destr ucti on of most of t hemeal ybug col oni es ( Berl i nger , 1977 ; Ur ban, 1985 ; Wal t on, 2003)t owar ds t he endof t he season (February t o March) . Thi s suggest -

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59

ed t h at the parasi toi d compl ex pl ayed a maj or r o l e i n r educi ngPf i cus numbers .Bi ol ogi cal control was sever el y hamperedby t he presence of a

vari ety of ant speci es (Kri egl er, 1954 ; Whi t ehead, 1957 ; Addi son&amways, 2000) i n vi neyar ds i n t heWest er n Cape Provi nce .Thi s was a l s o reported i n I s r a e l ( Berl i nger, 1977) . Ant control hasbeen achi eved usi ng chemcal stembarr i er t r eatment s ( Addi son,2002) . Wal ton ( 2003) did at wo- year f i e l d study of mass r el eases

Oder andFaml y Speci es Reference CommentD pte ra : Leucopi s sp . Rzaeva ( 1985)Chamameyi daeHymenoptera Pachyneuron concol or Rzaeva ( 1985) Possi bl e hyperparasi toi dEncyr t i dae Forster

Al l otropa mecri da Rzaeva ( 1985)Wal kerAnagyrus pseudococci Rzaeva ( 1985) , Urban (1985), Tr j api tzyn&(Gir aul t) Trj api tzyn ( 1999)Chart ocerus subaeneus Rzaeva ( 1985) Possibl e hyper parasi t oi dForsterCl auseni a j osef i Rosen ( 1965) , Ber l i nger ( 1977) , Trj api tzyn (1989)RosenCocci doxenoi des permnutus Berl i nger ( 1977), Urban( 1985) , Trj api tzyn ( 1989) SynonymPauri dia per egri na( Ti mber l ake)

Hymenoptera Lept omast i xf l avus Berl i nger (1977)Encyrt i dae MercetLept omast i dea abnorms Ber l i nger ( 1977) , Urban ( 1985) , Trj api tzyn ( 1989) ,(Gi raul t ) Trj api tzyn&r j api tzyn ( 1999)Prochi l oneur us bol i vari Trj api tzyn (1989) Possibl e hyperparasit oi d( Mercet)Prochi l oneur us pulchel l us Trj api tzyn (1989) Possibl e hyperparasit oi d( S i l v e s t r i )Chrysopl atycer us spl endens Wal ton( 2003)(Howard)

Neuropt era : Chrysoper l a carnea Rzaeva ( 1985)Chrysopi dae ( Stephens)Col eoptera : Nephus r eunioni Rzaeva ( 1985)Coccinel l i dae FUr sch

Cr ypt ol aemus mont r ouzi eri Orl i nski i et al . ( 1989)Mul santHyper aspi s f e l i x i Whi tehead ( 1957) , Urban ( 1985)Mul santNephus angustus Whi tehead( 1957) , Urban ( 1985)CaseyNephus bi naevat us Whi tehead( 1957) , Urban ( 1985)Mul sant

Col eoptera : Nephus quadri vit tatus Whi tehead( 1957) , Urban( 1985)Coccinel l i dae Mul santRhizobi el l us sp Whi tehead( 1957)Cydonia l unata F Whi tehead( 1957)Scymnus nubi l i s Wal ton( 2003)Mul sant


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60of Cpermnutus, aparasi toi d of t he f i r s t , second and t h i r d i n s t a r sof Pf i cus . Thi s method of control was at l e a s t as e f f e c t i ve as t hecurr entl y used chem cal control programmeCul t ural controlBugg&addi ngton( 1994) , Whi tehead ( 1957) andUrban ( 1985)suggest ed t h a t t he preservati on of surr oundi ng vegetat i on wasi mport ant f or opti msi ng condi ti ons f or natural enemes Covercrops were ef f ecti ve onl y i f they attracted Cocci nel l i dae andNeur opter a (Bugg&Waddi ngt on, 1994) . These authors al sonot ed t h a t common vetch ( Vi ci a sat i va) had s t i pu l a r e x t r a - f l o r alnectari es t h a t attracted parasit i c wasps . Workdone on t he e f f e c t sof cover crops on natural enemypopul at i ons of meal ybugs byPAddi son ( Per sonal communi cat i on) andCostel l o&aane ( 2003)i ndi cated t h a t cover croppi ng had no si gni f i cant e f f e c t on t h e i roccurrence i n vi neyards .Provi d i ng pol l en, nec t ar , s u i t a bl e ha bi t a t s , sprays of sucrose orayeast product pl us sucrose l ed t o an i ncrease i n l ocal popul ati onsof predatory cocci nel l i ds, chrysopi ds, and hemerobi i ds . Thesef ood sources i ncreased t he l ongevi ty not onl y of predators, buta l s o of adul t encyrt i d wasps andenhanced bi ocont rol of meal y-bugs i n t he f i e l d (Neuenschwander&Hagen, 1980 ; Urban, 1985) .Kri egl er ( 1954) and Fl ahert y e t a l . ( 1982) found t ha t l e a fremoval and correct summer pruni ng r educed t he number ofl eaves t h a t predators and parasit oi ds had t o cover i n search ofprey, t her eby i ncreasi ng t h e i r eff ect i veness . Thi s a l s o reducedmeal ybug popul at i ons by r emovi ng themw t h the surpl us st ems

and l eaves, and contr i but ed t o be t t e r aerat i on of vi nes Road dustand i ne r t c ar r i e r s of f ungi ci des shoul d be kept t o a mnimumasthese adver sel y af f ected natural enemes (Searl e, 1965) .Meal ybugsoverw nt eri ng onol dwoodandunder l oose bark read-i l y i nf ested bunches t h a t t ouched t he woody parts of t he vi ne .However, bunches t h a t hung f r e e fromol d wood were l e s s s us -cepti bl e t o cosmet i c damage . Ther efore, bunches t ouchi ng t he ol dwood shoul d be t hi nned so as t o avoi d contact ( K r i e gl e r , 1954 ;Fl ahert y et al . , 1982) . Theuseof chem cal and s t i c ky trunk bar-r i e r s t o keep a n t s fromt he vi ne canopy coul d further ai d i n bi o-l ogi cal control of Pf i cus ( Whi t ehead, 1957 ; Addi son, 2002) .The spread ofPf i cus pest popul at i ons can further be l im te d byco- ordi nati ng on- farmmovement of i mpl ement s and l abourers .

I nt egrat ed controlWhi tehead (1957) , Ber l i nger ( 1977) and Urban ( 1985) bel i evedt h a t an i nt egrat ed approach shoul d be f ol l owed, whi ch wou denhance bi ol ogi cal control . I n addi t i on, ant excl usi on by trunkb a r r i e r s was consi dered an i mpor t ant el ement of t he i nt egrat edsystem ( Whi t ehead, 1957) . I f bi ol ogi cal contro l was not ade-quate, l im te d chem cal i nterventi on usi ng spot t r eatment s ofshort resi dual pesti ci des shoul d be consi der ed .I nf ormati onon t he devel opment r a t e of Pf i cus (Wl t on, 2003)was used t o esti mat e t he number of degree- days requi red by Pf i cus t o compl ete i t s devel opment and t o esti mate t he r a t e ofdevel opment of t he P f i cus popul at i on through t he season(Wl ton, 2003) . Thi s i nf ormati onwas used as i nput f or aPf i cuspest - management model . Data f rommoni t ori ng Pf i cus and anta c t i v i t y were used as components t o const ruct a deci si on chart .Thi s chart canbeused by producers t o opti mse t he cont rol of Pf i cus popul ati ons usi ng e i t he r chem cal control or mass rel easesof Cperm nut us .

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S Af r . J . Enol . V i t i c . , Vol . 25 , No. 2, 2004

Present l y, i nt egrat ed producti on of wne (I PW i s encour agedby t he wi ne i ndustr y i n SouthAf ri ca (Tromp&Mar ai s, 2000) .Thi s system i ncl udes sound i nt egrat ed pest - management s t r a t e -gi e s f or suppressi ng pest s such as Pf i cus . Str ategi es i ncl udemoni t ori ng pest ac t i vi t y , pest- contr ol practi ces such as trunk bar-r i e r s , opti msed use of bi ol ogi cal control and l im te d useof chemi c a l s duri ng t he growng season I n addi ti on, an AgChemEnvi r onmenta l Work Group codes al l regi stered pesti ci des f oracceptabi l i ty i n i ntegrat ed pr oducti on syst ems f or use agai nsti ns e c t p e s t s , i ncl udi ng those f or Pf i cus control . Thi s codi ng sys-tems based on t he envi r onmental i mpact of products ( Wal t on&Pri ngl e, 1999 Tromp&ara i s , 2000 Wal ton&ri ngl e, 2001) .Producers ar e encouraged t o i mpl ement these gui del i nes(www i pw co . z a ) and randoma udi t s ar e conduct ed t o determnecompl i ance .CONCLUSIONSThet axonomc s t a t u s of P, f i cus has been uncert ai n duet o t he d i f -f i c u l t y of t he sl i de- mount i ng t echni ques used f or prepari ng spec-i mens f or i den t i f i c at i on and t he l ack of quali tati ve physi cal d i f -f erences t o other cl osel y rel ated speci es (De Lotto, 1975 ; Ben-Dov, 1994) . Ar ecent survey of meal ybugs i n t he West er n CapeProvi nce i ndi cated t h a t Pf i cus i s domnant l ocal l y (Wl ton,2003) . Thi s has i mpor t ant i mpl i cati ons f or t he grape- growi ngi ndustr y i n South Af ri ca, because vi ne meal ybug i s an i mport antvector of t he vi ne l e a f r o l l vir us . The spread of t h i s vir us can onl ybe contr ol l ed by l im t i ng t he devel opment of Pf i cus i nf estati onsi n vi neyards .The maj ori ty of producers curr entl y control t h i s pest usi ngcommerci al l y regi stered pesti ci des . The r ecent r e g i s t r a t i o n of t he

chl oro-ni coti nyl compound, i mdacl opr i d, andpossi bl e r e g i s t r a -t i o n of s im l a r chem cal compounds i n t he future may ai d i n a l l e -vi at i ng t he l i m t ed range of avai l abl e chem cal compounds f orvi ne meal ybugcontrol . The opti mal appl i cati on r a t e , t i mng, costef f ecti veness andef f i cacy of these compounds, however , need t obe determned .The current gl obal trend of ant agoni sm t owar ds pesti ci de u s e ,t he evi dence of pesti ci de resi stance and t he d i f f i c u l t y of contr ol -l i ng t h i s pest w t h convent i onal pe s t i c i d es , however , serve as an

i ncenti ve f or usi ng al ternati ve pest- contr ol s t r a t e gi e s . An i nt e gr a t -ed control programme i s seen as t he onl y sustai nabl e al ternati vet o t he curr entl y used chem cal control r egi me . Tool s avail abl e f ori nt egrat ed contr ol i ncl ude physi cal andpher omone- bai t ed moni -t o r i ng, t emper ature- dri ven model s, bi ol ogi cal cont rol throughmass r el eases of natural enem es and opt i mal l y t i medchem calsprays . The i sol at i on and commer ci al synt hesi s of t he vi nemeal ybugpheromonehave provi ded an opport uni t y t o i nvesti gatemat i ng di srupti on as a f urther alt ernati ve pest - management s t r a t -egy f or t he cont rol of Pf i cus .The l ower and upper devel opmental t emperat ur es of P f i cusandCpermnutus, an i mport ant parasit i c wasp, have been d e t e r -

mned (Wl ton, 2003) . These parameters were used t o esti mat et he number of degree days requi red f or bot h i nsects t o compl et et h ei r e n t i r e l i f e c y c l e s . Thi s i nf ormati oncanbe used i n t emepera-ture-dri venmodel s f or opt i msi ng t he t i mng of cont rol measur es .Pesti ci de f a i l u r e s have necessi tat ed the devel opment of a l t e r n a-t i v e pest - management measur es such as mass rel eases of naturalenem es f or Pf i cus control i n South Af ri ca (Wl ton, 2003) . A


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revi ew of t he publ i shed i nf ormat i on on mass reari ng parasi t oi dshas been produced by Etzel&egner (1999) , but no l i t e r a t u r ewasavai l abl eon t hemass reari ng of Cperm nut us on Pf i cus . Topromote bi ol ogical cont rol as an al t ernat i ve t o chemcal c o n t r o l ,Cperm nut us was produced andr el eased onPf i cus pest popul a-t i ons and methods f or mass rel ease and t he ef fect i veness ofCperm nut us f or contr ol l i ng Pf i cus popul at i ons were i n v e s t i -gat ed ( Wal t on, 2003) .To t i me cont rol act i ons such a s mass r el eases o r chemcal con-t r o l of Pf i cus pe s t popul ati ons c o r r e c t l y , accurat e i nf ormat i on onf i e l d i nfestat i on l e v e l s was needed and a systemf or moni t ori ngPf i cus popul ati on l e v e l s w t h known l e v e l s o f error was devel opedusi ng pheromone andphysi cal moni t ori ng ( Wal t on, 2003) . Wth

t he above i nf ormati on, acti on t hreshol ds coul d be determ nedandused a s a basi s f or Pf i cus management .I nf ormat i on gat hered on t he above aspects was combi ned t oconstr uct a deci si on model f o r i nt egrat ed P f i cus management( Wal t on, 2003) . Thi s deci si on model shoul d be ver i f i ed i n t hef i e l d . Fut ur e work wi l l i ncl ude t he use of Pf i cus pheromones f o rmat i ng di srupt i on .

LI TERATUREC TEDAcheche, H, F a t t o u c h , S , M Hi r s i , S . , Marzouki , N&arrakchi , M, 1999. Useof opt i msedPCRmet hods f or t he de t ec t i o n of GLRaV3Ac l o s t e r o v i r u s a s s o c i -a t ed wi t h grapevi ne l e a f r o l l i n Tuni si an grapevi ne p l a n t s P l a nt Mol . Bi o l . Rep17 : 31-42 .Addi son, P , 2002 Chem cal stem b a r r i e r s f o r t he contr ol o f ant s( Hymenopter a : Form ci dae) i n vi neyards . S Afr . J . Enol . V i t i c . 23 , 1 - 8 .Addi son, P&Samways, MJ . , 2000 . Asurvey of an t s ( Hymenopter a : Form ci dae)t ha t f orage i n vi neyards i n t he West er n Cape P r o v i n c e, South Af ri ca . Af ri canEnt omol ogy 8 , 251-260Archangel skaya, AD , 1930 . L i s t o f t he s ca l e i ns e ct s ( Cocci dae) o f Turkmeni st an.( I n Russi an Summary i n Engl i sh) . Report o f t he P l a nt P r ot e ct i o n St a t i o n f o r 1926t o 1929, Ashkhabad, Turkmeni a . pp 75- 85Ar gyr i ou, L. C . , 1983 Faunal a na l y s i s of some s c a l e i ns e c t s i n Gr eece .Proceedi ngs of t he 10t h I n t er n at i o na l Symposi um of Cent ral EuropeanEnt omofauni sti cs, Budapest, 15-20 August 1983 . pp . 364- 367 .Avi dov, Z, 1961 . Pes t s o f t he Cu l t i v a t e d P l a nt s o f I s r a e l . Magnes P r e s s ,J erusal em 546 pp .Avi dov, Z&Har paz, L, 1969 . P l a nt Pes t s o f I s r a e l . I s r a e l U n i v e r s i t i e s P r e s s ,J erusal em 549 ppBal achowsky, AS . &Mesni l , L . , 1935 . I n : Les I n s ec t es nui s i b l e s aux P l a nt e sCu l t i v e es : Leur s Moeurs , Leur D e s t r u c t i o n ( P e s t I n se c t s on C u l t i v a t e d P l a n t s :Thei r Habi ts, t h e i r De s t r u c t i o n ) . M ni s t e r e de 1 ' A g r i c u l t u r e , P a r i s . 1137 ppB ec c a r i , F , 1971 . Cont ri buti on t o t he know edge of t he ent omof auna o f SaudiAr abi a . F i r s t l i s t o f i n s ec t s , mtes and nemat odes . Ri v . Agri c . Subtr op . Trop .Fir enze 65 , 178-211 .Ben-Dov, Y, 1994 A Systemati c Catal ogue o f t he Meal ybugs o f t he Wor l d( I n s e c t a : Homopt er a : Coccoi dea Pseudococci dae and P u t o i d ae ) w t h Data onGeographi cal D i s t r i b u t i o n , Host P l a n t s , Bi ology and Econom c I mport anceI n t e r c e pt Lim ted, Andover , UK 686 ppBen-Dov, Y &Ma t i l e - F er r e r o , D, 1995 . The i d e n t i t y of t he meal ybug taxad es c r i b e d by VA . Si gnoret ( Homopter a, Coccoi dea, Pseudococci dae) BSEF 100 ,241-256 .Be r l i n ge r , MJ . , 1977 TheMedi t erranean vi nemeal ybug and i t s n a t u r a l enemesi n sout hern I s r a e l Phyt oparasi t . 5, 3- 14Bl umberg, D, 1997 . P a r a s i t o i d encapsul ati on as a def ense mechani sm i n t heCoccoi dea ( Homopter a) and i t s i mpor t ance i n b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l . Biol . Cont . 8,225- 236 .Bodenhei mer , ES , 1924 The Cocci dae of P a l e s t i n e . F i r s t r epo r t on t h i s f am l yZ i o n i s t Organi zati on I n s t i t u t e of A g r i c u l t u r e and Nat ural H i s t o r y , A g r i c u l t u r a lExper i ment S t a t i o n B u l l e t i n 1 , 1- 100 .Borchseni us, NS . , 1949 . I n s e c t s : Homopter a ; s u b o r d e r s meal ybugs and s c al e s( Coccoi dea) . Faml y meal ybugs ( Pseudococci dae) . Vol . VI I . ( I n Russi an) . FaunaSSSR Zool ogi cheski i I n s t i t u t Akadem i Nauk SSSRNS . 38, 1-382 .

V i n e Me al y bu g, a Key Pes t i n S o u t h A f r i c a n V i ne ya r ds

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61Bugg, R. L . &Waddi ngt on, C , 1994 Usi ng cover crops t o manage art hropod p e s t so f orchards : Arevi ewAgri c Ecosys t ems Envi ron 50 , 11-28 .Ca ba l e i r o , C &Segura, A , 1997 F i e l d tr ansmssi on of grapevi ne l e a f r o l l a s so c i -a t e d Vi rus 3 (GLRaV-3) by t he meal ybug Pl anococcus c i t r i Pl ant D s . 81, 283-287 .Ca ba l e i r o , C, Segura, A & Ga r ci a - Be r r i o s , J . J . , 1999. E f f e c t s of grapevi nel e a f r o l l - a s s o c i a t e d v i r u s 3 on t he physi ol ogy and must o f V i t i s v i n i f e r a L . cv .Al bari no fo l l ow ng contamnati on i n t he f i e l d . AmJ . Enol . V i t i c . 50, 40- 44 .Carnero Hernandez, A & Perez Guerr a, G, 1986 . Cocci dos ( Homopter aCoccoidea) de l as I s l a s Canari as ( Cocci ds of t he Canary I s l a nd s) .Communi caci ones I n s t i t u t o Nat i onal de I nvesti gaci ones A g r a r i a s , S e r i e :P r o t e c t i o n Veget al . Madr i d 25, 1 - 8 5 .Charl es, J . G , 1982 . Economc damage and p r e l i m n a r y t h r e s h o l d s f or meal ybugsi n Auckl and v i n e ya r d s . NZ J . Agri c Res . 25 , 415-420.Co s t e l l o , MJ . &DaaneK.M, 2003 . I nf l u enc e o f gr ound c o v e r s on vi neyard p r e d a -t o r s and l e a f h o pp er s Uni v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a s u st a i n ab l e a g r i c u l t u r e and r e s e a r c hand e du c a t i o n pr ogr amme . h t t p: / / www. s a r e p . u c da v i s . e du / c c r o p / c c r e s / 1 99 6/ 2 3. HTMCox, J . M, 1981 . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Pl anococcus c i t r i ( Homopter a :Pseudococci dae) and t he des cr i p t i o n o f a news p e ci e s . Syst . Ent omol 6, 47-53 .Cox, J . M, 1989 Themeal ybug genus Pl anococcus ( Homoptera Pseudococci dae) .B u l l e t i n B r i t i s h Museum Na t ur a l Hi s t o r y ) . Entomol ogy 58 , 1 - 7 8 .Cox, J . M&Ben- Dov, Y, 1986 . 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