Writing Skills

Yerevan State Linguistic University after V. Brusov

Writing Skills Compiled by Samvel Karapetyan

Yerevan – 2006 “Lingua”

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0134(01) - 2006 ISBN 99930-79 -74 -x © §ÈÇÝ·í³¦, 2006Ã.

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Contents Lesson 1. Section 1. Spelling: English Syllables…………………….... 5 Section 2. Sentence Structure. Emphasis in Writing. Variations in sentence openings…………….……………...…

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Section 3. Writing Practice. Reproduction Writing …………. 12 Lesson 2. Section 1. Spelling: Consonant Doubling…………….……. 15 Section 2. Sentence Structure. Emphasis in Writing………… 19 Section 3. Writing Practice. Unfinished Stories……………... 21 Lesson 3. Section 1. Spelling: Mute Final e.Final –y and its

Modifications. Diagraphs -ei- and -ie-…….…………...…… 23

Section 2. Sentence Structure. Emphasis in Writing Inversion. Cleft Sentences………………………..…..….……

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Section 3. Writing Practice. Unfinished Stories ………..……. 30 Lesson 4. Section 1. Spelling: Silent Consonants……………...……… 31 Section 2. Sentence Structure. Parallel structures.

Appositives. Absolute participial construction ……………… 37

Section 3. Writing Practice.Composition Technique. Description ………………..………………………………….

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Lesson 5. Section 1. Spelling: Diagraphs -gu-, -qu-, -ch-, -ph-…...….. 43 Section 2. Sentence Structure………….…………………..… 49 Section 3. Writing Practice.Composition Technique.

Character Sketch …………………..………………………… 53

Lesson 6. Section 1. Spelling: Suffixes -en, -ness, -er, -or ………...…. 55 Section 2. Sentence Structure. Sentence Fragments …...……. 58 Section 3. Writing Practice.Composition Technique.

Character Setting …………………………………..………... 62

Lesson 7. Section 1. Spelling: Suffixes -able, -ible, -ant, ance, -ent, -ence, -ency…………………………………………….……...

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Section 2. Paragraph Structure…….…………………………. 69 Section 3. Writing Practice.Composition Writing…...…...….. 72 Lesson 8. Section 1. Spelling: Suffixes -ous, -eous, -ious, -uous.

Prefixes en-, in-, de-, dis-……………………………….……. 76

Section 2. Paraphrase: Write it in your Own Words ………… 80 Section 3. Writing Practice.Composition Writing……..…….. 83 Lesson 9. Section 1. Spelling: Homophones …………………...……... 85 Section 2. Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing ……….. 90 Section 3. Writing Practice.Composition Writing…………… 93 Supplementary Material……………………..….………………….... 96

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Lesson 1

Section 1. Spelling: English Syllables A. The First Type of Syllable. Vowel letters in English are pronounced according to their position in the word, i.e. according to the type of syllable they form. Traditionally there are four types of syllables. The first, the open syllable, may consist of:

1. consonant + vowel: go, me, by; 2. consonant + vowel + consonant (except r) + silent e: take,

Pete, like, tone, tune; In the open syllable the pronunciation of vowel letters (except

y) coincides with their alphabetical definition: a /ei/, e /i:/, i and y /ai/, o /ou/, u /ju:/; however, these same sounds may be represented by other means, i.e. other combinations of letters, and in different position:

/ei/ represented by a) ai (in the middle of the word) or ay (when final): main, rain, may, ray; b) ea: break, great, steak; c) eigh: neighbour, weigh, freight; d) a followed by nge, ste: range, strange, haste, paste; e) ei (in the middle of the word) or ey (when final): veil, vein, grey, prey;

/i:/ represented by a) ee: sleep, meet, keep; b) ea: sea, leaf, lean; c) ie: chief, brief, belief; d) ei: receive, perceive, seize;

/ai/ represented by a) i before mb, nd, ld: mind, mild, kind, climb, child; b) igh: sigh, night, playwright; c) uy: buy, guy;

/ou/ represented by a) oa: coat, toast, road; b) o before ld, st: cold, told, post, ghost; c) ou: shoulder, poultry, soul; d) ow: know, sow, low; also remember: sew.

/ju:/ or /u:/ represented by ui: suit, bruise, cruise; /ju:/ represented by a) ew: new, few, dew; b) eu: neutral, pneumonic; /u:/ represented by oo: soon, pool, tool;

Exercise 1. Write the following words in spelling. If there are two ways of expressing the vowel sound, give both variants, translating the words into Armenian.

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/seil/, /breik/, /geit/, /plein/, /greit/, /weist/, /tʃein/, /ri 'mein/, /ə 'gein/, /iks 'plein/, /iks 'kleim/, /kən 'tein/, /pein/, / 'peintə/, /teil/, /meil/, /stein/, /weit/, /peid/, /reid/, /trein/, /leid/, /reiz/, /ə 'freid/, /preiz/, /peil/, /vein/, /meid/, /dei/, /wei/, /prei/, /trei/, /said/, /bai/, /taip/, /spi:tʃ/, /sli:v/, /bi:t/, /bi:n/, /bri:d/, /ri:d/, /hi:l/, /sti:l/, /wi:k/, /bi:tʃ/, /ti:θ/, /gi:s/, /si:/, /fli:/, /fi:d/, /tri:t/, /i:st/, /li:st/, /si:t/, /spi:k/, /ri:zn/, /tri:zn/, /hi:t/, /mi:t/, /bri: δ/, /di 'zi:z/, /rein/, /'pleirait/, /tʃi:f/, /ri 'si:v/, /bi 'li:f/, /si:z/, /pi:s/, /steik/, /stoun/, /kout/, /kould/, /louf/, /roud/, /roust/, /fould/, /goust/, /gout/, /soul/, /bou/, /groun/, /dju:/, /sju:t/, /bru:z/, /nju:z/, /ʤu:s/, / 'neibə/, /sait/.

B. The Second Type of Syllable, the closed syllable, consists of a consonant + a vowel + one or more consonants including double r (a single r forms other types of syllable).

The letter a in the syllable of this type is pronounced as /æ/: apple, map, battle.

The letter e is pronounced as /e/: get, tell, letter. The /e/ sound can also be represented by the letters ea: deaf, spread, health.

The letters i and y are pronounced as /i/: sit, pit, system, mystery.

The letter o is pronounced as /ɔ/: hot, bottle, sorrow. The letter u is pronounced as /ʌ/: hurry, butter, summer. The

/ʌ/ sound can also be represented by : a) the letter o: above, love, among; b) the combination ou: cousin, trouble, enough; also remember: blood, flood, twopence.

Exercise 2. Copy the sentences, choosing a suitable word given in transcription from the list to fill in the blanks: (/'bru:ziz/, /dipt/, /ʌnjən/, /houl/, /steik/, /hi:ld/, /bi:tʃ/, /breθ/, /wi:t/, /koul/, /slipt/, /rʌf/, / 'braidgrum/, /'leδə/, /su:p/, /dju:/ (2), /'medou/, /stil/, /gousts/, /sould/,

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/tʌf/, /toust/, /sju:/, /gouts/, /kʌpl/, /wip/, /koutʃ/, /koust/, /'kʌriʤ/, /hei/)

1. We drank a … to the bride and … . 2. He … out of bed

and went up to the window. 3. He … his hand into the bag and brought out a handful of … . 4. The tourists were taken to the … in a … . 5. … waters run deep. 6. He thought how cruel it was to … such a little boy. 7. Our ship was wrecked off the Spanish … . 8. These shoes must be … and … . 9. His ungloved hands were … and cold. 10. A hot … dropped from the fire and burnt a … in the carpet. 11. Halfway up the mountain he stopped to take his … . 12. A … is a piece of grassland especially one kept for … . 13. … are kept for their milk, flesh and hair. 14. If the dinner waits another minute, the … will be as … as … . 15. Tom realized that it would take a lot of … to enter the dark and empty cave. 16. The house is haunted by … . 17. There were drops of … on all the leaves. 18. My salary is … tomorrow. 19. Don’t worry, your son is going to be all right in a … of days. 20. A delicious smell of … … hung in the air. 21. Nobody thought that Soames would … Bosinney for that money. 22. The boy fell downstairs and the next day he was covered with … .

C. The Third Type of Syllable. A syllable of this type consists of a vowel followed by r (or r + another consonant). It represents a long vowel sound.

The letter a in syllables of this type is pronounced /a:/: tar, target, large. Remember some other ways of representing this sound in the words: clerk, heart, hearth, and also: laugh, draught, aunt.

The letter o is pronounced /ɔ:/: sword, forth, corn. Remember the words where this sound is represented by the letter combination a) oar: board, boar, coarse; b) au: pause, laundry, saucer; c) aw: law, draw, shawl, awful; d) augh and ough (before t): ought, fought, caught, haughty; e) our: course, court, source.

The letters e, i, y, u are pronounced as /3:/: a) er: term, berth, perfect; b) ir or yr: first, birth, myrrh, myrtle; c) ur: curve, furnish, curse.

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Note that in some words the sound /3:/ is represented as ear: earth, pearl, learn.

Exercise 3. Supply the missing letter (letters) for the sound /3:/. If there are two ways of expressing the sound, give both variants, translating the words into Armenian.

t_rm, f_r, b_rth, st_r, _ _rly, G_rman, sh_rt, s_rname, ret_rn,

b_rch, ins_rt, d_rty, s_rpent, s_rface, f_rm, n_rve, th_rsty, c_rtain, t_rn, p_rse, m_rcy, _ _rn, sp_r, sk_rt, s_rmon, s_ _rch, p_ _rl, c_rse, b_rn, em_rge, _rgent, h_rt, m_rth, b_rst, dist_rb, conf_rm, s_rve, conc_rn, t_rnip, b_rst.

Exercise 4. Copy the sentences, choosing a suitable word from the list to fill in the blanks: (hearth, burn, fault, cause, applause, source, law, haunt, lawyers, thaw, haughty, oar, draught, awkward)

1. The … is considered the centre of family life. 2. It’s not

my … that you don’t know anything. 3. The boy caught at the … and his friends pulled him into the boat. 4. What is the … of your information? 5. The meeting was at nine o’clock which was an … time for many people. 6. You’ll catch cold if you sit in a … . 7. The nobles used to treat the common people with … contempt. 8. His appearance on the stage called forth a storm of … . 9. He stretched his cold hands to the fire which was … in the fire-place. 10. Carelessness is often the … of fires. 11. The … must take its course; … cannot save you from punishment. 12. The wrong-doer is constantly … with fear of being caught. 13. It usually begins … at the end of March.

D. The Fourth Type of Syllable. A syllable of this type ends in r followed by e or some other vowel.

A is pronounced /εə/: stare, declare, spare. Remember the words where this sound is rendered by the letter combinations: a) air: chair, despair, fair; b) ear: bear, wear, pear.

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E in this type of syllable renders the diphthong /iə/: here, sphere, severe. Remember the words where this diphthong is represented by the letters: a) eer: queer, sheer, steer; b) ear: hear, appear, fear; c) ier: pierce, pier, fierce.

I and y render the diphthong /aiə/: wire, admire, gyre, lyre. The same sound may be represented by the combination iar: briar, diary.

U renders the diphthong /juə/: pure, secure, furious. O is pronounced as /ɔ:/: boring, wore, sore.

Exercise 5. Supply the missing letter (letters). If there are two (or more) variants give both, translating the words into Armenian.

c_re, aff_ _r, p_re, h_re, f_ry, sh_ _r, sw_ _r, requ_re, w_re,

qu_ _r, f_ _rce, w_ _r, d_re, h_ _r, f_rious, nightm_re, p_ _r, d_ _ry, sp_ _r, squ_re, st_ _r, rep_ _r, r_ _r, f_ _r, t_ _r, exp_re, d_ring.

Exercise 6. Copy the sentences, choosing a suitable word from the list to fill in the blanks: (spare (2), fear, admire, dairy, tear, tyre, despair, pierce, desire, sheer, hire, sincerely, severe, diary, bear)

1. Your behaviour leaves much to be … . 2. They couldn’t go

any farther because one of the … had gone flat, and they had no … one. 3. We … people who succeed in spite of difficulties. 4. Reading this book is a … waste of time. 5. I … he is in great danger. 6. English people often sign their letters: yours … , followed by their name. 7. If you want to get there in time, you’ll have to … a cab. 8. Be careful, you will … your dress on that nail! 9. Few animals and almost no trees can … this … climate. 10. The boys rushed to the rabbit. It was Bob’s arrow that had … the little animal. 11. A … farm produces milk and butter. 12. A feeling of … came over him as the boat sank deep into the water. 13. The children rose half hungry after the … meal. 14. Only a few people now keep a … .

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Section 2. Sentence Structure. Emphasis in Writing Variations in sentence openings. The English language is characterized by fixed word order, which means that the subject normally comes before the predicate. This does not mean, however, that the subject always opens the sentence; it would be too monotonous. A necessity may arise in the course of writing to lay a special stress on this or that idea, detail, etc. This can be done by various means – lexical, morphological or syntactical. Variety can be introduced by placing appositives, attributes, adverbial modifiers or subordinate clauses first, as you will see from the following examples. 1) A single-word modifier: e.g. Cardinal Richelieu was shrewd and powerful and had enormous influence upon the King of France. – Shrewd and powerful, Cardinal Richelieu had enormous influence upon the King of France. The professor closed the door to the classroom quickly. – Quickly, the professor closed the door to the classroom. 2) A phrase modifier: e.g. Oxford has developed rapidly as an industrial and commercial centre since the 1930s. – Since the 1930s, Oxford has developed rapidly as an industrial and commercial centre. (prepositional phrase)

The inspector looked through several suitcases to find the hidden papers. – To find the hidden papers, the inspector looked through several suitcases. (infinitive phrase)

The Normans, after settling in Northern France, crossed to England and conquered it in 1066. – After settling in Northern France, the Normans crossed to England and conquered it in 1066. (gerundial phrase)

Confucius learnt a great deal about human nature, studying people’s actions. - Studying people’s actions, Confucius learnt a great deal about human nature. (participial phrase)

Francis sat in silence with a dumb look on his face baffled by what had happened. – Baffled by what had happened, Francis sat in silence with a dumb look on his face. (participial phrase)

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The forest ranger, an expert in forest fire control, talked to the campers about safety in the woods. – An expert in forest fire control, the forest ranger talked to the campers about safety in the woods. (appositive phrase)

Note that the part of the sentence placed first acquires a special stress. The appositive phrase in this case seems to have acquired a casual meaning, rather like: Being an expert in forest fire control, the forest ranger … 3) A subordinate clause. When writing in complex sentences, variety can be achieved by putting the subordinate clause before the main clause. One should remember, however, that in this case the idea expressed by the subordinate clause takes on a greater emphasis, and one should therefore use this inversion with discrimination: e.g. The gardener had to plant roses when they ran out of carnations. - When they ran out of carnations, the gardener had to plant roses. Exercise 1. Rewrite the following sentences, beginning them with the part of the sentence mentioned in parentheses.

1. Mr. Boyd was angry and began to defend his reputation with strong argument. (single-word modifier) 2. The pioneer was strong and healthy and lived to be 112 years old. (single-word modifiers) 3. Many philosophy students read Plato, the author of Socratic dialogues. (appositive phrase) 4. Shepherds are brilliant climbers, hard-working and tireless. (single-word modifiers) 5. Cousteau, a tireless researcher, began experimenting with skin-diving in 1936. (appositive phrase) 6. The mosaics at the University of Mexico, made by outstanding artists, are one of the most beautiful things to see in Mexico City. (participial phrase) 7. Their going was fairly easy at first. (a prepositional phrase) 8. The soft and crumbling snow made each step a potential disaster. (single-word modifiers) 9. A student may want to "map" ideas in his or her notebook to visualize a concept or theory. (infinitive phrase) 10. Eggbert ate the eggs even though he disliked them. (a subordinate clause) 11. Ending the solemn atmosphere the children laughed in spite of the warning. (prepositional phrase) 12. Leaves are falling, coming down in streams of gold and brown. (participial phrase)

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Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences, beginning them with the part of the sentence mentioned in parentheses.

1. …, the storm roared across the countryside although it wasn’t forecast. (a subordinate clause) 2. …, Mr. Caine obviously had a grave illness. (participial phrase) 3. …, Jane listened to music. (infinitive phrase) 4. …, advertisers both flatter and insult women in their campaigns. (a single-word modifier) 5. …, Jim sped down the highway at 80 miles per hour. (infinitive phrase) 6. …, she called her friend. (participial phrase) 7. …, the reader is insulted by the trite and shallow editorial. (prepositional phrase) 8. …, Larry brought out the industrial can of RAID ant spray. (participial phrase) 9. …, Jim hit the ball. (prepositional phrase) 10. …, Dr. Jones was on-call 24 hours a day. (appositive phrase) 11. …, the skydiver, in free-fall realized she forgot her parachute. (single-word modifiers) 12. … my cousin Danny plays a croquet. (prepositional phrase) 13. …, one should walk in the woods rather than read a book. (infinitive phrase) 14. …, I was just getting out of the shower. (a subordinate clause) 15. …, the troll waited for the English professor. (prepositional phrase) 16. …, the boy pleaded innocence with his mom. (gerundial phrase) 17. …, the swimmer struggled to the shore as waves crashed into him. (participial phrase) 18. …, we were tired and hungry when we arrived. (a subordinate clause)

Section 3. Writing Practice. Reproduction Writing

Reproduction is a traditional method of teaching foreign languages, particularly their written form. Learning a language depends largely upon our ability to imitate; it is through imitation, through repeated copying of ready-made patterns of grammatical and lexical usage that we achieve success in mastering a language.

However, language is in its very essence creative; thus at this stage, reproductions should form a balanced synthesis between imitation and creation. They are not confined to re-telling, though the student is required to render the story in a version which remains on the whole faithful to the original. In addition, the student may be

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asked to give his opinion of the story, to comment upon some episode, etc.

Exercise. Read the passage and do the assignments given below.

Miss Robinson had been taking driving lessons and trying to

pass her driving test for several years, but she had failed every time because she always became too excited and did silly things when she was driving a car. Now she was taking her test again, but she made so many mistakes that she was sure that she had no chance of passing, so she was surprised when the examiner nodded at the end of her test and said, “All right, Miss Robinson, I’m going to pass you.”

The next morning she went out in her car alone for the first time. Her face was red, her hands were sweating and she was hardly able to believe that it was no longer necessary for her to have a good driver with her in the car whenever she went out in it.

She came to the first traffic lights and was very glad when she managed to stop the car quite smoothly and at the right place in the street.

While she was waiting for the lights to change from red to green, an old lady came to the window of her car, and when Miss Robinson opened the window and looked out, the old lady asked whether she was going into the town.

“Yes,” Miss Robinson answered, “I am. I am going to the Public Library.”

“Will you please take me as far as the market-place?” The old lady asked. “I have an appointment at the hospital, and there isn’t a bus for another hour.”

Miss Robinson had still not really understood that at last she had passed her test, and now she surprised the old lady very much by answering, “I’m very sorry, but I can’t drive.”

(From Intermediate Comprehension Pieces by L.

A. Hill)

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Assignment 1. Answer the following questions. 1. Why did Miss Robinson think that she would fail her test

again? 2. What had Miss Robinson had to do before she passed her test, which she did not have to do after she passed it? 3. Why did the old lady speak to Miss Robinson? 4. Why was the old lady very surprised when Miss Robinson said she could not drive? 5. Why did Miss Robinson say that she couldn’t drive?

Assignment 2. (a) Reproduce the story, including a detailed answer to questions 4 and 5. (b) Compose a story for the old lady to tell her friends in the evening after the incident. Begin it in the following way: “I had a very strange experience this afternoon. I was going to town and wanted a lift because … .” Let the old lady also explain why she went up to Miss Robinson’s car, how the girl at the wheel looked, and what she thought of her behaviour.

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Lesson 2 Section 1. Spelling: Consonant Doubling

A. 1. Words are spelled with –ll-, -ff-, -ss-, -zz-: a) In the final position in monosyllables after short vowels represented by a single letter: -ll-: cell, fill, pull. -ff-: stiff, stuff, Jeff. -ss-: kiss, mess, fuss. -zz-, mainly in onomatopoeic words: buzz, fizz, jazz. b) Also in some words after long vowels: -ll- (a or o): ball, tall, roll. -ff- (a or o): chaff, staff, off. -ss- (a in five words): brass, glass, class, pass, grass. c) In unstressed final syllables: tariff, compass. 2. Words are spelled with –bb-, -dd-,-tt-, -gg-, -pp-, ll-, -ff-, -zz- before the final –le when preceded by a stressed short vowel if it is represented by a single letter: babble, pebble; fiddle, meddle, brittle, settle; struggle; apple, dapple; ruffle, shuffle; dazzle, puzzle.

Exercise 1. Join up the left parts of the proverbs with the right ones so that they make sense and find their Armenian equivalents:

1. I’ll trust him no farther than a. between asses but kicks. 2. Buy the cheapest market b. and ride out tomorrow. 3. Don’t curse the crocodile’s mother c. must pay the fiddler. 4. He who falls today d. have stiff horns. 5. A rolling stone e. all beer and skittles. 6. No weather is ill, f. before you cross the river. 7. Old oxen g. ‘tis folly to be wise. 8. One man’s loss h. makes a brittle wife. 9. Nothing passes i. I can throw a millstone. 10. Where ignorance is bliss j. gathers no moss. 11. They that dance k. may rise tomorrow. 12. A brilliant daughter l. if the wind be still. 13. Life is not m. is another man’s gain. 14. You saddle today n. and sell in the dearest.

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Exercise 2. Make phrases by joining together a word from the left column with a word from the right column:

1 sullen a. Falls 2. to shuffle b. of oneself. 3. pebbly c. the vacancy. 4. dazzling d. a sudden 5. all of e. oneself together 6. the apple f. roll 7. to pull g. of one’s eye 8. sausage h. looks 9. stiff i. sunshine 10. to fill j. beach 11. to make k. collar 12. the Niagara l. from foot to foot B. A final single consonant letter (except r and l) is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel (-able, -ing, -est, -er, etc.) if the last syllable of the word is stressed, and the final consonant is preceded by a short vowel represented by a single letter: red – redder, redden, reddish; begin – beginning; thin – thinned, thinner.

It is not doubled if (a) preceded by an unstressed vowel; (b) preceded by a vowel sound represented by two letters; (c) the suffix begins with a consonant: open – opened, opening; limit – limited, limiting; develop – developed, developing; repeat – repeated, repeating; look – looked, looking; turn – turned, turning; hot – hotly (but: hottest), forget – forgetful (but: unforgettable).

N o t e. The words handicap, kidnap, outfit, worship are exceptions: handicapped – handicapping; kidnapped – kidnapping; outfitted – outfitting – outfitter; worshipped – worshipping – worshipper.

Exercise 3. a) Form the Past Indefinite and the Participle 1 of the following verbs: slap, slim, warn, stop, slam, trim, skim, work, shrug, pat, knit, grip, pin, leap, nag, wrap, commit, look, omit, regret, slip, open, skin, fit, limit, grab, chat, trap, turn, worship, wed, shop, tip, wag, grin, plan, develop, repeat.

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b) Form the comparative and superlative degrees of the following adjectives: big, hot, sweet, mean, weak, sad, thin, clear, broad, cool, fat, deep, meek, dim, flat, slim, wet, low, bright, neat, lean, red.

C. Final r is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel (-able, -ing, -est, -er, etc.) if preceded by a letter representing a stressed vowel, no matter if it is long or short (but not a diphthong): oc'cur – oc'currence; re'fer – re'ferred; bar – barrister; fur – furrier; stir – stirring; ab'hor – abhorrent. But: 'differ – 'differed; appear – appeared; pre'fer - 'preference.

N o t e: Words with the consonant r in the root of two-syllable words after a stressed short vowel are spelled with –rr-: carry, marry, merry, hurry, porridge, squirrel, quarrel, terrace. Also in the word err and its derivatives erring, error.

Exercise 4. Form the Past Indefinite and the Participle 1 of the following verbs and mark the stress.

Offer, confer, war, flatter, infer, blur, stir, appear, administer,

occur, scar, abhor, prefer, differ, deliver, fear, bother, pour, linger, bar, clatter, murmur, lower, alter, recover, conquer.

Exercise 5. Open the brackets, doubling the final consonant of the root where necessary. Translate the sentences.

1. A fool bolts the door with a boiled car(r)ot. 2. A man

without money is like a bow without an ar(r)ow. 3. He that goes a bor(r)owing goes a sor(r)owing. 4. Meat and mass never hinder(r)ed man. 5. A foreign war is prefer(r)able to one at home. 6. Better twice measur(r)ed than once wrong. 7. Don’t cry her(r)ings till they are in the net. 8. He knows which side of his bread is butter(r)ed. 9. It is not work that kills but wor(r)y. 10. Whose car(r)iage is greediness, his companion is beggary.

D. Final l is doubled (British English) before a suffix beginning with a vowel (-able, -ing, -est, -er, etc.) irrespective of the stress if it is preceded by a short vowel represented by a single letter. It is not

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doubled if preceded by a long vowel sound represented by two letters or a diphthong: travel – travelled; expel – expelled; control – controllable; cruel – cruellest; jewel – jeweller (exception: parallel – paralleled, parallelism). But: reveal – revealed; peal – pealed.

N o t e 1: l is not doubled before –ish, -ist, -ism: devilish, liberalism, naturalist.

N o t e 2: Derivatives and compounds of some words in –ll (all, full, skill, will, etc.) drop one l: all – almighty, always, altogether, already; till – until; skill – skilful; full – fulfil.

Exercise 6. Form the Past Indefinite and the Participle 1 of the following verbs:

Quarrel, reveal, curl, appeal, apparel, cancel, travel, peal,

heal, annul, excel, compel, conceal, deal, expel, patrol, marvel, rebel, level, sail. Exercise 7 (revision). Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word given in the list below, making the necessary changes: (occu/r/ed, weep/p/ing, re/d/en, worshi/p/ed, acquit/t/ed, trave/l/ed, expe/l/ed, diffe/r/ed, murmu/r/ed, sti/r/ing, quarre/l/ed, wra/p/ed, regre/t/ed, fan/n/ed, revea/l/ed, cance/l/ed, prefe/r/ed, flog/g/ing, signa/l/ed, appea/r/ed)

1. She was so embarrassed that she began … . 2. King Midas

… gold and constantly declared his great love for it. 3. Their opinions on that point … . 4. A hideous face suddenly … in the window. 5. This event … in 1964. 6. He has … a lot. 7. After his death it was … that he had been a millionaire. 8. The boy was … from school. 9. The branches of the tree … . 10. It was 3 a.m. and no one was … . 11. The concert has been … . 12. He and his wife … constantly. 13. The first snow-fall … the end of autumn. 14. She said that she … to stay at home. 15. He … that the incident had taken place. 16. Mary … the gift attractively. 17. The judge is condemned when the accused is … . 18. Everyone takes his … in his own way. 19. … fire and forced love never did well yet. 20. The … bride makes a laughing wife.

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Section 2. Sentence Structure. Emphasis in Writing

The simplest way to emphasize something is by such words as just, quite, whatever, whoever, only, etc.: e.g. I saw him once. – I saw him just once. – I saw him only once.

What are you doing? – Whatever are you doing? – What on earth are you doing? Morthological means of emphasis include structures with do, will/would, and should. 1. The so-called emphatic do has many uses in English.

a. To add emphasis to an entire sentence: "He does like spinach. He really does!"

b. To add emphasis to an imperative: "Do come in." (actually softens the command)

c. To add emphasis to a frequency adverb: "He never did understand his father." "She always does manage to hurt her mother's feelings."

d. To contradict a negative statement: "You didn't do your homework, did you?" "Oh, but I did finish it."

e. To ask a clarifying question about a previous negative statement: "Ridwell didn't take the tools." "Then who did take the tools?"

f. To indicate a strong concession: "Although the Clintons denied any wrong-doing, they did return some of the gifts."

2. Will and would/used to plus infinitive are used to emphasize a habitual action in the present or in the past respectively: e.g. Grannies will spoil their grandchildren. (also denotes a willful action)

He would/used to go for a walk in any weather. 3. Would not (wouldn’t) emphasizes unwillingness to do something (in the past): e.g. They would not agree to our proposals.

She would not let him kiss her.

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4. To emphasize the sensations of pleasure, surprise, shock, or disapproval one may use some patterns with the mood auxiliary should, the so-called “emotional should”, as in the following: e.g. I was pleased that she should have taken the trouble to read my first novel.

Why should you accompany her there? She is old enough to look after herself.

“Emotional should” is very often introduced by the phrases it’s odd that …, it’s strange that … and the like, as in the following: e.g. It’s strange that he should be the only one to meet me.

It’s odd that you should be so forgiving. Exercise 1. Practise using emphatic connectives (whatever, whoever, etc.).

1. … has got to pay for it, it won’t be me. 2. … smashed my glasses shall pay for it, … he’s hidden himself. 3. Please take … one you want and bring it back … you want. 4. … it is you’ve found, you must give it back to … it belongs. 5. … the weather, we go biking at the weekend with … likes to join us. Exercise 2. Rewrite the sentences, beginning with it’s and using the pattern with emotional should. e.g. How odd! Both our wives have the same name. – It’s odd that both our wives should have the same name.

1. Quite naturally, you’re upset about what’s happened.2. It’s incredible! We’ve been living in the same street for two years and have never got to know each other. 3. You missed the one talk that was worth hearing. What a pity! 4. That’s curious! He asked you to come rather than me. 5. It’s typical of him. He expects everyone else to do all the work. 6. Isn’t it odd! They’re getting married, after all they’ve said about the marriage. 7. You have to pay as much tax. It’s crazy! 8. How splendid! You’ll be coming to live near us.

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Exercise 3. Complete the sentences, using the pattern with emotional should. 1. It is surprising … . 2. Isn’t it curious … . 3. It seems remarkable … . 4. It is proper … . 5. It seemed right … . 6. Is it natural … . 7. Isn’t it fortunate … . 8. It was most unusual … . 9. It looked funny … . 10. It is quite evident … . 11. Isn’t it wonderful … . 12. It is doubtful … . 13. It is a pity … . 14. It was a shame … .

Exercise 4. Use the appropriate means of emphasis in the following sentences. Then make up similar sentences. (The items to be emphasized are given in italics.)

1. Boys always fight. 2. She begged her father to let her go to college but he did not want to listen to her. 3. Mary always came over in the evening and played with us. 4. How odd that you have brought this particular book. 5. He wanted no more letters but his brother did not stop writing. 6. – I’m not quite sure whether the Boat Race takes place tomorrow, though … - It takes place tomorrow. 7. Last year’s spring tides caused much damage to property. 8. It is scandalous that you are treated like that. 9. Life goes on. 10. I am surprised that you have been deceived by such a trick. 11. It is shocking that people live in such overcrowded slums. Section 3. Writing Practice. Unfinished Stories

Normally students are required to complete the unfinished

stories, trying to imitate their style (herein unfinished stories are similar to reproductions). However, the stories may also be used as exercises combining reproduction practice with creative writing. Exercise 1. Complete the following passage using the key words and phrases provided or inventing something of your own. Pay attention to the use of articles. Find a suitable title for your story.

I had been invited to a New Year party by my old school friend Peter, who is now at art school. The party was to be held in the flat of

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his fellow-student and we were to meet there at 11:30. Knowing neither the host nor any of the people that were to be present, I felt a little nervous about going but Peter assured me there was nothing to worry about. He promised to come a little before 11:30, so as to be there when I arrived.

Peter’s friend lives in a new suburb, and I had quite a job finding the block of flats, as there were few people about, mostly strangers themselves. In the end it was nearly 12 o’clock when I rang the bell of Peter’s friend’s flat, or what I thought was his flat. (door flung open – ushered into large room – young people round table – no Peter – about to drink to the Old Year – glass pressed into my hand – toast to the New Year – hostess showed me to the flat I wanted – met with loud cheering – told of adventure). Exercise 2. Using your imagination or drawing on your friends’ experience, complete the following story. Find a suitable title for it.

The train was quickly gathering speed. I sat looking out of the window until the last twinkling lights of the town had disappeared, giving way to moonlit fields stretching away on both sides of the railway line. It was after midnight and as we were to arrive in London early the following day, I thought I might as well turn in. I was just about to go and get my bed-linen, when I saw the attendant coming along collecting the tickets. So I opened my bag to get mine ready for him. ...

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Lesson 3

Section 1. Spelling A. Mute Final e. R u l e 1. Final mute e is usually dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel letter; otherwise it would make two consecutive vowels: guide – guidance, amuse – amusing, fame – famous, refuse – refusal. But: age – ageing. N o t e 1. E is retained to show pronunciation in such words as: courage – courageous, advantage – advantageous, service – serviceable. N o t e 2. E is also kept after o: toe – toeing, shoe – shoeing, canoe – canoeing, tiptoe – tiptoeing. N o t e 3. Verbs ending in –ie change the –ie into –y before –ing to avoid a double i: die – dying, tie – tying, lie – lying. N o t e 4. Double e (ee) is retained before all suffixes except those beginning with e (-ed, -er, -est): agree – agreeable, see – seeing. N o t e 5. Rule 1 is not strictly observed in the case of monosyllabic words when they are not likely to be misread: likeable, saleable or likable, salable. R u l e 2. Mute e is retained before a suffix beginning with a consonant (to keep the pronunciation): safe – safely, nine – nineteen, whole – wholesome, care – careful. Exceptions to the rule: due – duly, true – truly, whole – wholly, argue – argument, nine – ninth.

Exercise 1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word given in the list below, adding the suffix –ly: Translate into Armenian. (mere, rare, true, vague, extreme, late, due, entire, affectionate, complete, whole)

1. Aunt Leonora came back from the kitchen, instantly seized

Herr Untermeyer … by the arm and led him to the window. 2. I paused once, looking back, to offer my help, but Mr Wilbram seemed … to be sunk in thought. 3. I loved the expression she used; but if it was intended to improve the troubled atmosphere, it failed … 4. Since Dinny said no further word on the subject occupying every

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mind, no word was said by anyone; and for this she was … thankful. 5. “Anyway,” she said, with one of those charming and … unexpected turns of mind, “Who’s for cheese?” 6. “We are … sorry to give this trouble,” said Colonel Schroff. 7. Then Mr. Barker appeared and showed him into the room, a comfortable room with lunch ready on the table and another table, … bare, evidently waiting for him to spread his papers on it. 8. One day he was called to the manager’s room, … reprimanded, and evidently pardoned in consideration of his long and faithful service. 9. I have a friend who, after an absence of many years, has … settled down in London, with a wife, a cat and a garden. 10. Strange faces smiled … . 11. Her interests were narrow, and she … journeyed farther than the corner grocery.

Exercise 2. Add the suffixes given in brackets to the underlined words. Translate into Armenian.

1. The dog’s master appeared, the beam of a flashlight dance(-

ing) before him. 2. I may as well mention here that she made an advantage(-ous) match with a wealthy, worn-out man of fashion. 3. It wasn’t from that dinner he remembered her, it was from notice(-ing) her in the street. 4. Glance(-ing) at his companion, he wondered if she also remembered it. 5. The only notice(-able) thing about his appearance was the way his silver hair and beard contrasted with the dark tan of his skin. 6. He knows the boy is very courage(-ous), but he is also young. 7. But most people are afraid of face(-ing) this part of their nature. 8. The few soldiers in the streets were grey-faced and tired-looking … One thing was notice(-able): they never seemed to laugh. 9. The mechanic, who is extremely knowledge(-able) about any kind of machinery, knew exactly how to get the gate open.

B. Final –y and its Modifications. R u l e 1. Words ending in –y preceded by a consonant change –y into –i before all endings except –ing: dry – dries, forty – forties, cry – cried, carry – carriage, clumsy – clumsier, pity – pitiful, happy – happily, merry – merriment. But: drying, crying, frying, applying. N o t e 1. Words ending in –y preceded by a consonant drop the –y before suffixes beginning with –i, -ic, -ical, -ism, -ist: economy –

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economic; history – historic, historical; geology – geological, geologist. N o t e 2. Final –y is retained:

(a) in personal names: Mary – Marys, Gatsby – the Gatsbys; (b) in some words before the suffixes –hood, -ish, -ist, -like, -

thing: babyhood, copyist, ladyship, anything, everything; (c) in some monosyllabic words before –er, -est, -ly, -ness:

shy – shyer, shyest, shyness; sly – slyer, slyest, slyly, slyness; dry – dryly, dryness (both forms are possible in dryer – drier, flyer – flier).

N o t e 3. Final –y changes to –e before –ous: piteous, beauteous, plenteous, duteous. R u l e 2. Final –y preceded by a vowel letter is retained before all suffixes: day – days; play – playful; pay – pays, payment; enjoy – enjoyable.

Exceptions: gay – gaily, gaiety; day – daily.

Exercise 3. a) Form adverbs from the following adjectives: busy, lazy, gay, sly, heavy, dry, happy, merry, shy, ready, lucky, icy, easy, tidy, pretty, angry. b) Give the comparative and superlative forms of the following adjectives: early, happy, witty, gay, grey, dry, shy, sly, easy, busy. c) Give the plural of the following nouns: day, country, beauty, joy, reply, irony, monkey, baby, lady, story, body, boy, hobby. d) Write down the forms of the third person singular of the Present Indefinite and the Past Indefinite of the following verbs: dry, play, cry, stay, try, delay, comply, betray, destroy, fry, repay, copy.

Exercise 4. Write out from a dictionary all the words derived from the following words and choose a suitable derivative to fill in the blanks: (rely, pay, deny, history, angry, essay, day, happy, shy, marry, mercy, apply, clumsy, industry)

1. I wish you all the … in the world. 2. He was well aware that

this particular debt demanded prompt … . 3. The bride’s parents did

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not approve of the … . 4. He likes to read … novels. 5. We’ve got a lot of electrical and other … at home, but my husband buys more and more. 6. Well-known critics and … spoke well of the young author’s book. 7. A teacher likes his pupils to be … and well-behaved. 8. The moment I dropped my gloves I hated myself and my … . 9. Mr. Sedley could not believe that his former friend could be so cruel, so … . 10. This was in some measure due to her … , which had not yet left her. 11. They were alone for an hour, because Tony was taking his … nap. 12. Lucy stopped and turned, and faced him … . 13. The prisoner’s … of his guilt surprised everyone. 14. He is quite a … person.

C. Diagraphs -ei- and -ie-. Below are given two lists of words spelt with the diagraphs -ei- or -ie-. Note that the words in the first list are mostly of Latin and French origin. Some of them have the letter c in the root.

Explain what they mean, give some derivatives if possible and memorize them. Pay attention to their pronunciation.

A. -ei- ceiling deceive receipt conceit foreign seize conceive perceive sovereign deceit receive

B. -ie- achieve grief relief believe grieve relieve besiege handkerchief retrieve brief mischief shield chief niece shriek field piece siege fiend priest thief yield Note the pronunciation of the diagraph -ie- before -r: pierce,

fierce /iə/. There is an English saying about words with ei/ie representing

the sound /i:/: ‘I’ before ‘E’ Except after ‘C’.

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Exercise 5. Fill in the blanks with the words from the above lists. Translate the sentences.

1. If you suppose this boy to be friendless, you … yourself. 2.

He told me how you came there after dark like a … . 3. She made a sniffling sound and began to unbuckle a heavy …-case that she carried. 4. There are two lovely moulded … and the rooms are a beautiful shape. 5. I had found again the lark’s nest. I … the yellow beaks, the bulging eyelids of two tiny larks, and the blue lines of their wing feathers. 6. The tear-stained and sagging face twisted grotesquely into the grimace of extreme … . 7. In all these weeks he had never come to so close an intimacy with George as his friend immediately … . 8. Sophie knew that it was her only chance to win him back, and she … upon it. 9. I don’t know why but his … and his superior air made me laugh. 10. Their … charge against him as always in such cases was: “He does it to get into the lime-light.” 11. She saw that Kitty was prepared to … and unconsciously she assumed a more gracious tone. 12. She had forgotten how pleasant and how agreeable it was to … attention. 13. In those first days of the … she was so frightened by the bursting shells she could only cower helplessly. 14. A … of agreement went up, then everybody fell silent. 15. Lying was so … to him that I could always guess when he tried to … me. 16. By some magic this man seemed able by his mere presence to … our suffering. 17. The woman darted at his pipe, which he had put on a … of newspaper and blew some imaginary ash from it. 18. She tried to … her son, to save him from punishment, as every mother would have done.

Exercise 6. Find synonyms for the italicized words from the following list. Translate the sentences. (belief, to conceive, to deceive,mischievous, to perceive, to relieve, to retrieve, to shield, shriek, chief)

1. Are you sure that the shoe has not simply been mislaid? I

cannot understand what use one shoe could be to anyone. 2. What she saw mentally was a kaleidoscope, no more, no less. 3. Very soon the boy learned that he had been misled by those to whom he had looked for guidance and instruction. 4. We were very glad to hear

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that you had arrived safely. 5. A commonly held opinion is that the main difficulty in writing is the choice of words. 6. I heard a murmur of voices, then screams of girlish laughter and everything was quiet again. 7. The girl was as fresh and pretty as a spring flower and as playful as a monkey. 8. By the end of the week I could get back only half of what I hoped to. 9. When I came out of the dark cellar into the bright sunshine I couldn’t see anything and for some minutes I stood covering my eyes with my hand.

Section 2. Sentence Structure. Emphasis in Writing Inversion. Syntactical means of emphasis involve changes in word order. English is more rigorous than Armenian in its word order. While in Armenian you may freely experiment with word order to stress this or that element of the sentence, in English complete inversion (predicate first and then subject) is restricted to special cases. This kind of inversion is possible only with a verb of movement or position, and this verb is almost always in the present indefinite or past indefinite. The verb to be can be used with this kind of inversion after a superlative. e.g. Best of all was(P) the Christmas(S) pudding.

In front of me lay(P) the whole valley(S). Last but not least walked(P) my grandfather(S), bearing a

large birdcage. This kind of inversion is rather rare; it is literary, and students

are advised either to avoid it altogether, or use it with great care and moderation.

Exercise 1. In the following sentences inversion is possible if you put the italicized part first. Pay attention to the verbs.

1. The pirate ship lay far out to sea. 2. An eerie castle loomed through the fog. 3. The problem of reconstruction came after the war. 4. The street vendors are most picturesque of all. 5. Ridge after ridge of snow-clad peaks stretched away into the distance. 6. A huge house stands near the top of the hill in the midst of tall cypresses. 7. The lady came into the room and greeted every body. 8. Love comes

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first, marriage comes then. 9. The rain came down and washed the spider out.

Cleft Sentences. A very common (and safer for a foreign learner) means of emphasis is the so-called “emphatic construction” of the type it is … who (for emphasizing the subject of the sentence), it is … that (for emphasizing other parts of the sentence). Almost any part of the sentence (except the predicate) may be given a special stress with the help of this construction. Let us take each part of the following sentence in turn and emphasize it: e.g. He told me the news yesterday in the theatre.

It was he who told me the news. (subject) It was this news that he told me yesterday. (object) It was to me that he told the news. (indirect object) It was in the theatre that he told me the news. (adv. mod. of

place) It was yesterday that he told me the news. (adv. mod. of

time) A variant of this, containing a negation, and used with

adverbial modifiers of time is still more emphatic: e.g. It was not until yesterday that he told me the news.

In the same way we may emphasize a clause: e.g. He told me the news when we were in the theatre. - It was when we were in the theatre that he told me the news. Exercise 2. Emphasize the italicized words, phrases or clauses using cleft sentences as appropriate. Sentences may be combined into one.

A. 1. Bertrand Russell died in 1970. His philosophical writings made him well-known all over the world. 2. Lord Nelson was famous for his naval exploits. A column was erected in his memory in Trafalgar Square in London. 3. I wanted to talk to his wife, not to him. 4. His father has offered him a partnership. 7. His first speech was better than his second. The second speech was broadcast. (combine with but) 8. The Saxon King Egbert united all England in the year 829. 9. They reached home at midnight. 10. We met at the weekend. 11. The name of the book escapes me (but I remember everything else).

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B. 1.Bilbo found that out (after Tolkien).2.I fled Mijanoshita only to escape from one terror to another (after Kipling).3.I failed to take two pounds upon a very bad day (after Doyle).4.I could get the facts only by trying begging as an amateur (after Doyle).5.It occurred me in the pause that followed that Mark Twain might possibly have other engagement (after Kipling).6.The middle people are dangerous (after B Shaw).7.Wordsworth’s poetry was not widely recognized by his compatriots until 1830 (after Legouis).8.A full appreciation of Raphael’s powers can be gained only in Rome (after Cox).9.The thought becomes explicit only in the last line of the poem; the rest of the poem gives only pictures and sounds that prepare our feeling (after Neilson).10.Then Poirot received a brief note from Lady Willard, window of the dead archeologist, asking him to go and see her at her house in Kensington Square (after Christie).11.Let us not misunderstand each other, Lady Willard. You are not asking me a general question. It has a personal application, has it not? (after Christie).12.He fancied that only by force of will she kept herself upright (after Strange). Section 3. Writing Practice. Unfinished Stories Exercise 1. Write a story of about 100-120 words, using the pairs of sentences given below. (You have been given the first and last sentences of your story and should supply those, which come between.) Find a suitable title for your story.

The voice was familiar but I could not recognize the face. … … … His disguise was perfect.

Exercise 2. Complete the following passage making a story. Find a suitable title for your story.

I was driving to my friend’s in the country in the middle of the

winter when a heavy snowstorm started and stopped me from going either forwards or backwards.

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Lesson 4 Section 1. Spelling: Silent Consonants

A. 1. The consonant b is silent (a) in –bt (before t): debt, doubt, subtle; (b) in –mb (after m): limb, lamb, climb, dumb, crumb, thumb, tomb, comb. N o t e: However, b is always pronounced in its medial position in such words as timber, number, amber, etc.

2. The consonant c is silent (a) in (-)sc(-) before e, i, y, initially: scene, scientist, scissors, scythe; medially: descend, discipline, fascinate; finally: acquiesce, reminisce; (b) in –scl- in a few words: muscle, corpuscle; (c) before t in a few words and also in some names of English counties: Connecticut, Gloucester, Leicester; (d) in acqu- (from Lat. prefix ad- + qu-): acquaint, acquire, acquit; (e) in exce-, exci- (from Lat. prefix ex- + qu-): excellent, except, excite; (f) in four loans from Russian: czar, czarevna, czarina, czarevitch.

3. The letter-combination ch is silent in a few words: yacht, fuchsia.

4. The letter g is silent (a) initially in gn-: gnat, gnaw, gnash, gnarl, gnome; (b) finally in –gm,- ign: paradigm, sovereign, resign, feign, design; (c) medially in the words: champagne, signor(a), chignon, cognac. N o t e: However, in some derivatives g is always audible in its medial position: malignant, resignation, signal, etc.

Exercise 1. Insert the appropriate word with silent b, c or g from the above lists.

1. The building was of a modern … but inside it was panelled

with carved oak. 2. The only way to deceive him is to … a heart attack and ask him to call for an ambulance. 3. At the station they saw no one … porters and a villager or two unknown to them. 4. His fingers are all … . 5 Give me a … and … and I’ll make of you the most stylish woman in St. Beam. 6. He was certain of seeing unique and astonishing … . 7. I owe him a … of gratitude for the numberless

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favours he has done me. 8. All the … and uncertainty made her feel miserable and unhappy. 9. The boy was … from birth but didn’t suffer because of it, as he never realized what he lacked. 10. John was … by the hypnotic atmosphere. 11. Bread … were always scattered under the kitchen window and birds used to feast there. 12. The dog … the bone, and it was more delicious than anything he had ever tasted. 13. He got so … over the idea that he thought he should go at once. 14. Then, above that humid silence, there came a nagging song like the song of a … . 15. The boys were sure the treasure was under the … old oak. 16. He … his teeth in pain but no moan escaped his lips. 17. We had to … ourselves to doing without the most necessary things. 18. I am a very bad … . I will do anything to make a human being feel better even if it is unscientific. 19. The epitaph on the … stone was solemn and beautiful. 20. … are imaginary dwarfs living under the ground and guarding treasures.

B. 1. The letter-combination gh is silent in (a) –igh(t): high, sigh, thigh, bright; (b) –eigh(t): sleigh, weigh, neighbour, height, weight; (c) –aight: straight; (d) –aught: haughty, naughty, slaughter, taught; (e) –ough(t): dough, ploughman, thorough, though, thought, etc.

2. The consonant h is silent initially in (a): hour, honest, heir; (b) exh-: exhaust, exhibit, exhort; (c) gh-: ghastly, ghost, ghetto; (d) kh-: khaki, khan, Sakhalin; (e) th-: thyme, Theresa, Thames, and medially in: Mathilda, Anthony, Esther; (f) rh-: rhinoceros, rheumatism, rhythm, rhetoric, Rhine, rheostat, and also finally: catarrh; (g) wh-: whale, wheat, whence, white, whimsical, whelm, whim, whiz, whisky, whirl, whisker, whisper; medially (a) between a stressed and an unstressed vowels: Graham, prohibition, vehicle, vehemence; (b) between a consonant and an unstressed vowel: silhouette, gingham, burgher, and also in: spaghetti, Fahrenheit; (c) in –ham: Birmingham, Tottenham, Buckingham, Durham, and finally after a vowel: ah, bah, eh, oh, hurrrah, etc. N o t e: wh stands for /h/ in: who, whole, whooping-cough, whore.

Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with the words from the above lists.

1. He was not so large, - he ...only one hundred and forty

pounds. 2. The man next to me was a …man who had never been to

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London and was most anxious to see St. Paul’s. 3. This American car was indeed the finest … that had ever appeared in the village. 4. When the storm was at its … the ship cracked in the raging waves. 5. Whenever they came he would speak with great … about the misery caused by idle and lazy habits. 6. Only a … analysis of the results disclosed the secret of the phenomenon. 7. He was a heavy-… champion and gave spectacular performances of physical strength. 8. He looked upon the war as a … calamity, or a more … crime. 9. The door of his … , who lives downstairs is shut like an angry face. 10. His legs in … boots supported his bulky body like columns. 11. I never thought that … could be any good – persuasion was my weapon. 12. A … of relief escaped her lips when she saw that her letter hadn’t been posted. 13. His … answer left no room for doubt. 14. The …-boat we met on our way back helped us with water.

C. 1. The consonant k is silent in kn- (in its initial position): knead, knit, knee, kneel, knife, knight, knock, knob, knot, knuckle. N o t e: However k becomes ck before n in medial position: acknowledgement.

2. The consonant p is silent (1) initially in pn-: pneumonia, pneumatic; ps-: in the words containing pseudo-, psych(o)-, psalm-; pt-: pseudonym, Ptolemy, psychology; (2) medially in –spb-: raspberry; (3) also in a few words: receipt, corps, sapphire, cupboard, coup.


1. The two families are … together by common interests. 2. He

… to pick up his hat. 3. She wandered into the fruit-garden, among the … and currant bushes, without any wish to pick and eat. 4. The ship had been badly … about by the storm. 5. What difference did it make whether she had died of … or not. 6. Below the wardrobe was a gas stove, and beside the bed was a wooden food … with a small portable radio on it. 7. She took the … from the drawer and quickly cut the loaf. 8. He thought that by signing this work with a … he could mislead the reading public. 9. Our cook said that she hated … dough. 10. The old woman had an unpleasant habit of scratching her

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head with a … needle. 11. All parents need some knowledge of … . 12. People were standing about in … waiting for news.

Exercise 4. Copy the following sentences supplying the missing silent letters. Translate the sentences.

1. On that day, August 6 1945, the first atomic bom_ was

dropped on Hiroshima. 2. It was ex_austing work, carried on, hour after hour, at top speed. 3. I had to help him into the boat, for he had brought back his gun and a _napsack heavy with provisions. 4. Dum_ terror made him drop the hammer and rush out. 5. The end came one morning after a month of illness, during which silence rei_ned in the house and all the family went about on tiptoe. 6. In post-war England forei_ners who showed their passports could have goods sent home at a much lower price. 7. Aunt Laura wasn’t what you’d call comfortably off, but she was an _eiress. 8. With the invention of _neumatic tools many problems of technology were solved. 9. No s_ientist worthy of the name could say such a thing. 10. A stout man in a red sweater came out and si_ned the book for the driver. 11. The word ‘lady’ originally meant ‘bread-_neader’ and ‘lord’ – ‘bread-guarder’. 12. When people get very dull and are almost ready to kill themselves for dullness, their doctors advise them to have a change of s_enery, and a change of company. 13. Aubrey said that if I posed before the Titian it would be wonderful publicity for the ex_ibition. 14. Then he went to his camp and filled his hat with cake-crum_s to feed the little birds. 15. I am very much inde_ted to him and this inde_tedness is a burden to me. 16. All his friends knew he was in the habit of going to a _sychiatrist now and then. 17. He would have been unfei_nedly sorry to see his respected friend duped and deceived.

D. 1. The consonant l is silent in: (a) –alf / alv-: calf, half,

calves, halfpenny; (b) –alm: alms, almond, balm, calm, palm, salmon; (c) –a(u)lk-: chalk, stalk walk, Fa(u)lk; (d) –olk: folk, yolk, Norfolk; (e) –oln / -olon: Lincoln, colonel; (f) –olm-: Holmes, Stockholm; (g) could, should, would, and in inflected and derived forms from them.

2. The consonant n is silent in –mn finally and in inflected forms: autumn, column, solemn, condemn, hymn.

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N o t e: However, n is always pronounced in their derivatives: autumnal, solemnity, etc. But: solemnly has a silent n.

3. The consonants s and z are silent in some words of French origin and in recent French loans: aisle, chamois, chassis, Illinois, Arkansas, corps, isle, island, pince-nez, rendezvous, and in inflected and derived forms from them.


1. Smith meant to be … , but as they went along Queen Street

the perspiration began to break out on the back of his neck and the … of his hands. 2. When they rode out in the morning they passed cattle, rusty young bullocks with great horns, and a few cows and … . 3. The hall was decorated with precious stones, the roof was supported by … of gold. 4. She was guilty of a misdeed, which he felt unable to … . 5. … in Moscow is mostly cold and rainy, because of the constant northerly winds. 6. A group of … dancers came to the town and performed in the town hall. 7. The piece of … cake fell from my hands as I sat stupefied. 8. They swore a … oath never to part, and to share all their joys and troubles. 9. The villa was surrounded with …-trees and the view from the window was marvellous.

E. The consonant t is silent (a) medially in –stl- and –st(h)m-: bristle, castle, nestle, jostle, rustle, thistle, bustle, whistle, wrestle, Christmas, asthma, and also postpone; (b) finally in –ften, -sten and in some words of French origin: fasten, christen, hasten, moisten, ballet, buffet, argot, debut, bouquet, and in inflected and derived forms from them. N o t e: However, t is pronounced in haste, pistol, Christ, soft, hostel, crystal, etc.

Exercise 6. Copy the sentences, opening the brackets, and translate them.

1. The child (ï»Õ³íáñí»É) close to Alice. 2. The (³Ùñáó) had

been built in the year 1405 and there was still much of the original structure standing. 3. I heard a (ËßËßáó) in the grass behind me and, turning sharply, saw Dina Bond picking her way toward me. 4. I stared into the darkness, the hairs on the nape of my neck (µÇ½-µÇ½

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Ï³Ý·Ý»É). 5. Then she again heard the sounds of (Çñ³ñ³ÝóáõÙ). 6. You took five iron hoops, and fixed them up over the boat, and then stretched the canvas over them, and (³Ùñ³óÝ»É) it down: it would take quite ten minutes, we thought. 7. They (Çñ³ñ Ññ»É) one another out in turns. 8. The flake floated on the air, carrying the seed of the (áõÕï³÷áõß). 9. I awoke to the sounds of (³×³å³ñ³Ýù), for the servants were all up and down to prepare pies, game and poultry. 10. The project had to be (Ñ»ï³Ó·»É). 11. Miss Deila (ßï³å»É) immediately to her sister’s room; and I withdrew to my studio to busy myself with drawings.

F. The consonant w is silent (a) initially in wr- and wh-: wrestle, wrinkle, wriggle, wrist, playwright, wrap, wrath, wreath, wrench, wreck, wren, wretched, overwrought, wry, wrong, wring; (b) medially between a consonant and a vowel: two, sword, answer, Greenwich, Norwich; (c) initially and medially in (-)aw(-): awe, awful, awkward, crawl; (d) initially, medially and finally in (-)ow(-): owe, own, crowd, powder, brow, blow, meadow; (e) initially, medially and finally in –ew(-): news, shrewd, new, few, grew, nephew, screw, and in inflected and derived forms from them.


1. Soon began the service, which the … outcasts had to endure

as the price of their lodging. 2. There he lay for the remainder of the weary night, nursing his … and his wounded pride. 3. “You might … up the goods before you deliver them,” the stranger said gruffly. 4. Mr. Everad’s forehead … with the effort and he turned a worried face towards Miss Carter. 5. Tim came to Morley, took him by the … and, turning him about, began to lead him quickly back the way he had come. 6. Henry turned to me with a … smile. 7. The girl threw herself into a chair and … her hands, but made no reply. 8. I understand her generous anxiety, poor girl, after she had innocently … him. 9. I was as … and shy with her as if I had been a lad in my teens. 10. This didn’t seem to promise to the … material for an interesting play in the last act. 11. The President has asked me to be his personal representative at the ceremony tomorrow, to cast a … on the sea. 12. “We are both too … ,” he said. “We will speak of this

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again tomorrow.” 13. Paola gave a contemptuous … of her shoulders. 14. The only person he knows here is Peggy with her little boy … beside her. Section 2. Sentence Structure Parallel structures. Parallelism, or expressing similar ideas in similar grammatical terms, makes for brevity, coherence and balance of style. Here are a few examples of parallel structures. e.g. The girl was small, plump and fair. (homogeneous predicatives expressed by adjectives)

Finding a flat and beginning her job were the next steps in her life. (homogeneous subjects expressed by gerundial phrases)

This pattern seems fairly obvious and easy to follow, but it is not always quite so simple in practice. There are two types of faulty parallelism which usually betray a lapse in logic:

a. The doctor recommended plenty of food, sleep and exercising. (Here elements similar in idea are not made similar in form; there are two nouns and a gerund. The correct version is: … food, sleep and exercise.)

b. She has travelled by land, sea and aeroplane. (The elements are similar in form (nouns) but on different generalization levels; the correct version is: by land, sea and air, or by train, boat and aeroplane.)

Parallel forms may be used with the correlative conjunctions both … and, either … or, neither … nor, not only … but also.

Sometimes it is possible to avoid repeating an element common to both parts of the parallel structure (e.g. a preposition, pronoun, article or phrase), e.g. And because of the memories it holds and the comfort it provides my room is a constant source of pleasure. (because of not repeated) The team was praised for its courage and endurance. (for its not repeated)

A general rule to follow is to repeat the initial word or phrase in a parallel structure whenever it is necessary to make the meaning clear. In a succession of that-clauses, for example, the meaning is usually clearer if the introductory that is repeated in every clause,

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e.g. The boy denied that he had entered the house and had taken the money. (ambiguous) - The boy denied that he had entered the house and that he had taken the money.(clear)

In a comparison phrase it clarifies the meaning if you repeat the preposition: e.g. The weather was a greater handicap to the invading army than the enemy. (ambiguous) – The weather was a greater handicap to the invading army than to the enemy. (clear) Exercise 1. Rewrite the following sentences, correcting the faulty parallelism.

1. The ambassador spoke with warmth and in a humorous way. 2. Earlier in his life the famous writer had been a waiter, a tour guide, a mechanic and taught at school. 3. His lectures are witty, interesting and he plans them well. 4. Thomas Hardy achieved success both as a church architect and by writing poetry. 5. To swim in the lake is more pleasant than swimming in the sea. 6. The tutor recommended several books for supplementary reading and that we should go and see a play dealing with our subject. 7. Nuclear physics has led to research in improving communications, and in how to make people healthier. 8. Come to the meeting prepared to take notes and with some questions to ask. 9. The moral of the fable is that industrious men are always rewarded and light-mindedness is always punished. Exercise 2. The following sentences sound ambiguous. Clarify their meaning, introducing the necessary conjunctions or repeating prepositions. 1. I forgot that my research paper was due on Tuesday and my teacher had said he would not accept late papers. 2. The insurance man knew that we had paid our bill and we had our receipt. 3. He said that this party had never had many adherents and there were fewer party members today than ever before. 4. It is a time not for words but action. 5. My summer work proved not only interesting but I also learned much from it. 6. It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. 7. I wondered whether I should continue with it or should I give it up.

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Appositives. The appositive may be used to express details in a compact way. Consider the following passage:

I was born in Middleville. It’s a real small town. Most of the people in it are farmers. They raise cows for milk and a lot of apples. Still, it’s the county seat of Whiteside County.

The fault here, besides wordiness, wrong parallelism and the use of contracted forms, is monotony of syntactical construction. Using appositives you may rewrite it in a more efficient style:

I was born in Middleville, a small dairy and apple-growing community and the seat of Whiteside County.

The following example shows you how to combine two sentences into one with the help of appositives, and thus achieve a more mature style.

The custom of kissing under the mistletoe was once an old Druid religious ceremony. It is now a pleasant part of Christmas. – The custom of kissing under the mistletoe, once an old Druid religious ceremony, is now a pleasant part of Christmas.

Note that appositives of this type are set off by commas. Exercise 3. Combine the following sentences using the appositive.

1. Lutetium was discovered in 1905. It is one of the rare earth elements. 2. The room looked drab and familiar. It bore no resemblance to the mysterious chamber he had seen two years ago. 3. My father is a congenial person and he has not made an enemy in his life. 4. The word radio has now replaced wireless in everyday speech. Until the 1960s it was a technical term. 5. Discotheque became a part of the English vocabulary towards 1965. This is a French word meaning “a record library”. 6. From the Slavonic family of languages comes robot. It is a Czech word in origin. 7. Doris Lane was due to arrive at noon for some colossal shopping at his boutique. She was a film actress. 8. Linda was overjoyed. She began to cry. Absolute participial construction. As the absolute participial construction does not exist in Armenian, students are unaccustomed to using them. Yet quite often an absolute phrase is the best way of expressing an idea – graceful, with a minimum number of words,

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breaking the monotony of too many subordinate clauses, introducing a new rhythm.

Compare the following sentences: a. After his patience had been exhausted, the teacher ordered

the pupil to leave the classroom. b. His patience exhausted, the teacher ordered the pupil to

leave the classroom. The adverbial clause of the first sentence is expressed by an

absolute construction in the second. We see that the absolute construction expresses the same idea with greater economy and force.

There are two types of absolute constructions: 1) the nominative and 2) the prepositional absolute constructions. Either of them may or may not contain a participle: e.g. 1) The concert (being) over, we went away.

2) He walked slowly, with his hands (thrust) deep in his pockets.

Absolute participial constructions are generally separated by a comma, except those introduced by with, which occur fairly often without a comma.

However useful the absolute construction may be, it should be used in moderation. Remember, too, that these constructions (except those introduced by with) are characteristic of formal style. Exercise 4. Reconstruct the following sentences so that each contains an absolute construction.

1. Since the case was ended, the jury adjourned. 2. The banquet began at midnight, when a large orchestra played a fanfare. 3. When all things were considered, the couple decided to postpone their wedding date. 4. His scholarship was certain, so he made plans to leave for Belgium. 5. She sat in the chair, her face was turned towards the light. 6. Their camping equipment was packed and they were ready to depart. 7. The father’s patience was exhausted, and he ordered his child into the yard. 8. She opened her bag, her hands were shaking. 9. There was no note on the table, the back numbers of foreign magazines were scattered on the floor.

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Section 3. Writing Practice. Composition Technique Description. There are two kinds of description: technical and suggestive. Technical description gives an objective account of the appearance or structure of a thing. Read the following description of a sitting-room:

As you come into the room you notice a piano with a low music-stool in front of it. Next to the piano a tall bookcase is standing against the wall. On the left there is a large window. Under the window there is a radiator but you can’t see it because it’s behind the settee. On the settee there are two cushions. the fire-place is at the other end of the room. On each side of the fire-place there is an arm-chair. In the center of the mantelpiece there’s a clock and above it an oval mirror. On the right you can see a standard lamp.

Opposite the fire-place you can see a small table with an ash-tray and some newspapers on it. By the table there’s a small chair.

The floor is covered with a beautiful thick carpet. An electric light is hanging from the middle of the ceiling. At night, when it gets dark, we switch on the light and draw the curtains. During the day the light comes in through the window.

Suggestive description evokes an impression of a place, scene, or person. It is primarily emotional. In describing a place or a scene the student shpuld first determine the central emotional effect which he wishes to arouse. Then the student should select the details which will most effectively develop this impression and present them as vividly as he can.

For an illustration, see the passage by John Galsworthy quoted from The Apple Tree:

Spring was a revelation to him this year. In a kind of intoxication he would watch the pink-white buds of some backward birch tree sprayed up in the sunlight against the deep blue sky, or the trunks and limbs of the new Scotch firs tawny in violet light or again on the moor, the galebent larches which had such a look of life when the wind streamed in their young green, above the rusty black underboughs. Or, he would lie on the banks, gazing at the clusters of clog-violets, or up in the dead blacken, fingering the pink,

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transparent buds of the dewberry, while the cuckoos called and yaffles laughed, or a lark, from very high dripped its beads of song. Exercise 1. Write a description of the following. (First decide the impression you wish to give, then make a list of the main things you intend to mention to give the impression; arrange them in what you consider the best for your purpose.)

a. A new hotel in your city; b. The street you live in; c. The University you study at; d. A village you spent your holidays in;

Exercise 2. Disaster Scene.

For this exercise you will write a disaster scene that takes place

in a restaurant. Disaster doesn't necessarily mean explosions of the Die Hard movie type. Write a disaster that's based on a personal/ psychological conflict. It might be easier to first think of your characters and what they are doing at the restaurant. What is their relationship to each other? What are they talking about? What type of restaurant is it? What do they order? Use sensory details to make the scene come alive. Remember to show, don't tell. Use dialogue if possible. Have fun with it. Don't be afraid of sounding ridiculous or unbelievable. Just have fun with it. Happy writing!

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Lesson 5 Section 1. Spelling. A. Words with the Diagraph -gu-. The diagraph -gu- may occur at the beginning or at the end of a word, and is pronounced as /g/. Explain what the words given in the list mean and give their derivatives if possible. Copy the list.

guarantee guile catalogue league guard guilt colleague plague guerilla guinea epilogue prologue guess guise fatigue rogue guest disguise the Hague vague guide guitar intrigue vogue In the middle of a word -gu- is pronounced as /gw/: to

distinguish /dis'tiŋgwiʃ/, language /'læŋg wiʤ/, linguistics /liŋ'gwistiks/. N o t e: argue /'a:gju:/ - argument, tongue /tʌŋ/.

Exercise 1. Fill in the blanks with the words from the above list. Translate the sentences.

1. This man, to whom so much had been given, and from

whom, in consequence, so much was expected, this … of yours, has betrayed the trust imposed on him. 2. I was … in the head from lying in the hay. 3. A pause ensued, and suddenly I felt overcome by a profound and hopeless … . 4. All the people who had low-grade jobs were perpetually … for high-grade jobs, and all the people with high-grade jobs were counter-… to stay where they were. 5. There was no sincerity in the man, but there was a good deal of craft and … as well as shrewdness. 6. They were here not a half-hour after you’d gone, those …, and they tore my house apart to find you. 7. I saw that now he wished with all his heart that he had held his … . 8. He saw that she was going to hit him again, and lifted his arm to … his face. 9.

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Then to prevent … I must decide for you all. 10. Mr. Smith tried to talk to me about the picture, but he was incoherent, and I had to … at what he meant. 11. He felt that they were all in … to call her away. 12. He did not want to be involved in this dangerous … .

Exercise 2. Replace the italicized words with those given in the list below. Translate the sentences. (argue, colleagues, vague, guardian, rogue, distinguished, languor /'læŋgə/, blackguard /'blæga:d/)

1. Mr. Campbell reasoned with his visitors about Edward

Brown. 2. “He is quite a scoundrel and besides an eminent one.” Mr. Campbell finished and weariness appeared on his yellow face. 3. One of his companions, Mr. Forester, said, “I suppose we should know the opinion of Mr. Stone, as defender of Ted Brown’s interests. 4. His words were of the same uncertain quality. 5. Deceit and hypocrisy are no credit to anybody.

B. Words with the Diagraph -qu-. The diagraph -qu- is pronounced in different ways, depending on its position in the word, for example: quick /kw/, cheque /k/. A list of such words is given below. Copy it and make sure that you know their pronunciation and meaning. Give some derivatives.

quaint adequate squat quality consequence squeak quantity earthquake squeeze quarrel eloquence squirrel quartet equal tranquil queen equip antique queer equivalent brisque quest (inquest) exquisite conquer queue frequent grotesque quiet inquire oblique quit inquisitive physique quite liquid picturesque quiver require technique

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quote sequence unique acquaint square bouquet acquire squash parquet

N o t e: liquor /'likə/, quay /ki:/


1. Their … little Chinese faces were screwed up into strange

grimaces. 2. But though his words were repentant, there was obviously something … about his behaviour. 3. Crowds of workers were … up in front of the station. 4. There was the usual gesticulating crowd on the … . 5. Its delicate branches against the winter sky, its … leaves in summer had stood before my bedroom window all my life. 6. She was still … by the many friends she had made. 7. Her guest did not omit … after her husband’s health. 8. He was different with; notwithstanding his shyness you felt in him an … kindness. 9. That lady’s resolution had given way to terror the moment she had … Manfred. 10. But though he said nothing of any … , there was something in his personality, which prevented him from being dull. 11. I was confused as a boy in his first passion, who cannot speak because he has no … word. 12. It was really a crowd and Marion was immediately … between two pretty women on a sofa. 13. Edward’s … brought tears to our eyes. 14. And when he forgot them and began to chatter, to wave his hands, he became at once … . 15. The castles built by the Normans exist today as … ruins in the grounds of large country houses. 16. He was very vain of his … . 17. Though apparently being good friends, they often … . 18. A small chamber about seven feet deep and four feet … lay open to us. 19. At the sound of his name John’s mouth … with rage and disgust. 20. She was still very young, but she was described to us as an extraordinary person, who had … London in a few months.

Exercise 4. Replace the italicized words with those given in the list below. Translate the sentences.

(to acquire, antiquity, to quieten, frequently, to quarrel, exquisite, to require, to quit, quite)

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1. I didn’t like the man either, but I didn’t like him for entirely another reason. 2. Shakespeare is the author most often quoted. 3. It should be added that the work of the interpreter demands great presence of mind. 4. To tell the truth, I didn’t expect to find in him so delicate a sense of beauty. 5. I’m told that he has fallen out with the girl he was going to marry. 6. The boy was still crying bitterly and no one tried to calm him down. 7. It can be demonstrated that this custom has survived in Greece since ancient times. 8. Learning the vocabulary of a foreign language is not simply learning a fresh set of labels to attach to familiar meanings. 9. I had been staying at the hotel only two days when I was given notice to leave it.

C. Words with the Diagraph -ch-. The words spelt with the diagraph -ch- , given below, are mostly international words. The diagraph -ch- is pronounced as /k/. In words of French origin the diagraph -ch- is pronounced as /ʃ/.

Explain what the words given in the list mean and give their derivatives if possible.

ch - /k/ ache character Christmas anarchy chemist chronicle anchor choir chrysanthemum architect cholera echo archaeology choreography epoch archaic chorus mechanic chaos Christian melancholy orchestra psychology scheme scholar schooner stomach technique ch - /ʃ/ chagrin chauffeur machine champagne chauvinism moustache charade chef-d’oeuvre niche parachute

N o t e: yacht /jɔ:t/; schedule /'ʃedju:l/ - Br., /'skedju:l/ - Am.

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1. She had … and intrigued all her life. 2. I often wondered at

the beauty which now and then men create out of the … . 3. He is doing a post-graduate course in psychiatry and … , she is taking a diploma in … . 4. After a moment he realized that Felicity was the severe Miss Lemon’s … name. 5. She devoted herself with …-like efficiency to her employer’s affairs. 6. I was like the man who is so frightened of cancer that he will not go to the doctor for … ache. 7. The girls would come down after their studies were over, then they sang in … or listened to the piano. 8. It was almost impossible in that quiet room, listening to the nun, to realize that on the other side of these four walls … was raging. 9. When the …-making speech of the president was printed in the newspapers, it aroused warm comment. 10. His throat was … , and he wanted to cry. 11. It was near … by the time all was settled. 12. The detective laughed and the hall … the sound in a great ha-ha. 13. Notwithstanding, George smiled at himself as he combed his hair and twirled his … . 14. They considered his drinking … at dinner to be a mad thing to do.

Exercise 6. Replace the italicized words with those given in the list below. Translate the sentences. (technical, schools, to scheme, melancholy, character, to echo, chaotic, archaic, characteristic of, scheme)

1. He is a good lawyer; ask him to advise you on your plan. 2.

She described the man and his manner of asking questions; it was so typical of my friend Poirot that I knew at once who the man was. 3. The writer achieves a humorous effect by making his hero use old-fashioned words when he speaks with his wife. 4. What seems only confused movements at first sight may in fact be governed by some strict laws, which have not yet been discovered. 5. I fired twice and the hills sent the sound back. 6. Once it was my aim to study all sides of his nature. 7. The seat opposite me was occupied by a sad-looking gentleman with a big guards-man’s moustache. 8. He had planned all this time to arrive unexpectedly and to spoil the party. 9. Of the several different branches of Greek philosophy, it was stoicism,

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which gave the most attention to languages. 10. Special terms are often necessary as they eliminate a good deal of ambiguity.

D. Words with the Diagraph -ph-. The diagraph -ph- occurs mainly in international words of Greek origin and is pronounced /f/. Below is a list of words spelt with the diagraph -ph- . Explain their meaning and give some derivatives.

alphabet pheasant physics atmosphere phenomenon physiology emphasis philanthropy physique epitaph philharmonic prophet geography Philip sophisticated hyphen philology sphere metaphor philosophy sphinx orphan phonetics symphony pamphlet phrase telegraph paragraph physical telephone phantom physician triumph phase physicist trophy

N o t e: (a) The pronunciation of the final e and -ph- in the following words: apostrophe /ə'pɔstrəfi/, catastrophe /kə'tæstrəfi/, shepherd /'ʃepəd/, nephew /'nevju(:)/ or /'nefju:/.

(b) ‘Physician’ is an archaic word for a doctor, except in certain professional medical contexts.


1. You cannot reproach one who has no ear for music because

he’s bored at a … concert. 2. They were like human beings suddenly flung out of the old settled routine by some … . 3. One day you may realize that … is not my strongest quality. 4. Almost in every book of hers is a character who is interested in occult … . 5. And I noticed that I always wrote to her of Edward as a hero, a … . 6. I suggested laying more … on the positive nature of his activity. 7. I heard the …

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now for the first time and it struck me as quite shameless. 8. “He was just a hog; vain of his … ,” he said with contempt. 9. Mrs. Reed wanted to get rid of the poor little … and therefore she sent Jane to Lowood School. 10. “What have you got as game?” – “I got a … and a woodcock.” 11. There was an … of calm and peace about the place. 12. … is a branch of linguistics dealing with the system of sounds in the language. 13. I said I must look into Plato. I always meant to do some … .

Exercise 8. Replace the italicized words with those given in the list below. Translate the sentences. (sphere, to phrase, phrases, to triumph over, prophets, emphasis, to emphasize, phenomena)

1. He often speculated on different things that happened in

nature and society. 2. In learning foreign languages some people attach special importance to the study of their phonetic system. 3. The stress was put on the wrong word, and the sense of the whole paragraph became obscure. 4. The new doctrine was quickly spreading over the English-speaking world and he was one of its advocates. 5. He was said to be a man who could always defeat any opposition. 6. The manuscript was spoiled: many word-groups and even whole sentences were rubbed out. 7. I didn’t mind what he said but I didn’t like how he expressed it. 8. In those days politics was outside the field of my activities. Section 2. Sentence Structure Avoid a succession of simple sentences. When you begin learning a foreign language, short simple sentences are the best you can manage. You are at the level of a child who speaks in a series of short sentences: My trike was lost. I found my trike. It was behind the garage. I lost it last night. It was wet. It rained on it. With time, after you have mastered enough grammar you should be able to present the same ideas in a more sophisticated form: Bobby found his tricycle behind the garage, where he had left it last night when it began to rain (note the change in tenses, too).

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Combine ideas logically. Sentences may lack logic and therefore clarity because they are overloaded with unrelated and often incompatible details, e.g. The library, old and dusty and well lit with bright new lamps, was a melancholy place to work in. Melancholy seems to be related to old and dusty, but not the new lightning, so this last detail should either have been omitted or expressed in a subordinate clause: The library, though well lit with new lamps, was old and dusty and therefore a melancholy place to work in. Here is another example of muddled logic in writing. Military training teaches a person to stand upright and walk with his head up; this helps in future life because it becomes a habit and so many people have the habit of walking stooped and this leads to poor health and poor appearance. If you write sentences like these, your remedy is to go back to the first principles of thought communication: say one thing at a time; say it as simply and as clearly as you can; say it so that it cannot be misunderstood. Let us dissect these sentences in order to discover what the writer was trying to say. Military training teaches a person to stand upright and to walk with his head up. (that is enough for one sentence) Good posture (that is, evidently, what the writer means by this and it) becomes habitual, which leads directly to better health and better appearance. As you see, the improved version is shorter, clearer and more sophisticated in syntax. Exercise 1. (a) Join the following parts of sentences using the conjunctions as, since, because, now that.

1. We did not expect you. You did not let us know you were

coming. 2. The shops have shut. We could go home. 3. You did not understand the question. I will repeat it. 4. It is raining heavily. I will not go out. 5. I did not tell him. I was afraid I would hurt his feelings. 6. You had better not stay too long. I have a lot of work to do. 7. We should go home. The sun has set. 8. He is sure to pass his examination. He has worked so hard. 9. She has bought a car. It will be easy for her to get to work. 10. I did not go to the theatre. I could not get tickets.

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(b) Join the following pairs of sentences using so … that, such … that where necessary.

1. He was glad to see me. He asked me to stay the night. 2. He

was tired. He could not get up in the morning. 3. I have many friends abroad. I cannot write to all of them. 4. He is a good driver. I am surprised to hear he has had an accident. 5. He is an interesting person. It is a pleasure to hear him talk. 6. It is a good film. it would be a pity to miss it. 7. She was very angry. She refused to see him. 8. It is a beautiful evening. We should go for a walk. 9. He is a shy person. He dislikes talking to strangers. 10. We arrived early. We had to wait for over an hour.

(c) Join the following parts of sentences using the conjunctions given

in brackets, omitting the phrase it doesn’t matter if / how. 1. I wrote to him several times. I received no answer.

(although) 2. He plays well. He is still not good enough for the football team. (in spite of the fact that) 3. We are determined to get there. It does not matter how far away it is. (however) 4. The journey takes too long. It does not matter if you go by plane. (even if) 5. I’m sure he won’t come. It does not matter how long you wait. (however) 6. We are going on an excursion. The weather is bad. (in spite of the fact that) 7. He speaks French well. He has never been to France. (even though) 8. She was very busy. She was able to help me. (although) 9. I should not work for him if I were you. It does not matter if he offers you a big salary. (even if) 10. I still think the film is poor. It does not matter if so many people enjoyed it. (even though) Exercise 2. Combine each group of sentences to form one complex sentence. You may make any necessary changes in the arrangement of material and in the wording, but must not change the sense of the original. (Skeleton structures have been suggested to indicate possible approaches to the syntax, but they are not obligatory.)

1. I returned to the city. I had been born there. I had been absent for many years. Many of its narrow streets had been

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demolished. So had their picturesque houses. They had made way for shopping thoroughfares. These were modern but undistinguished. I was dismayed to find this. (When … I was dismayed to … .) 2. The bubonic plague raged in Europe during the Middle Ages. The name given to it was “The Black Death”. It carried off thousands of the population. In some cases, it exterminated whole towns and villages. (“The Black Death” … , carrying … and … exterminating … .) Exercise 3. Combine each group of sentences so as to form not more than two complex sentences. You may make any necessary changes in the arrangement of material and in the wording, but must not change the sense of the original.

1. Sir Christopher Wren (1632 – 1723) had already attained distinction as an astronomer. He was only sixteen then. Nevertheless, later, he seriously took up the study of architecture. This was not till he was nearly thirty. The most precious fruit of this study was St Paul’s Cathedral. 2. Queens’ college was the second royal foundation at Cambridge. King’s College was the first. The former is distinguished from the college of the same name at Oxford in a certain respect. It owes its foundation to two Queens. One was Margaret. She was the wife of Edward the Fourth. This is why the apostrophe comes after the s. 3. The Pilgrim Fathers were a group of English Puritans. They first spent some years in exile in Holland. They did this to escape religious persecution. They later sailed to America in the Mayflower. They established a colony at Plymouth in Massachusetts. Exercise 4. Explain what is wrong with the following sentences. Suggest a more logical version if possible. If the ideas are not logically connected, say so.

1. One of them was red-faced, another was young and lean. 2. The art dealer got two thousand dollars for the portrait, so he paid the painter his twenty-five dollars and ordered him to do another picture, a landscape. 3. Her father was overwhelmed with financial worries, he was a painter. 4. He was a heavy man, and I could hardly help him. But he still wanted to ride to T. It was impossible for him. He

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could not mount the horse. 5. The family got poorer and poorer, and now Bella lived alone in a very big house. 6. Although he was a rich man, he was lame from birth.

Section 3. Writing Practice. Composition Technique Character Sketch. The character sketch like the description of a place is designed to evoke an impression (of excitement, enthusiasm, fury, admiration, etc.), to express an attitude, to produce an essentially emotional effect. In the character sketch the effect is likely to be somewhat more complex, because it is concerned with human personality

The writer of a character sketch analyses the traits of the character and depicts them as vividly and concretely as he can. He does not merely inform the reader about them, but appeals to the reader’s senses and emotions.

The reader should come to feel that he knows the person who is the subject of the sketch. If he does have this feeling, the character sketch is successful. For illustration, here is a passage from literature. Note the linguistic devices the author uses to achieve such a marvellous effect describing an old man.

An old man in a brown bowler walked slowly along the path. His narrow trousers, in a pale brown whipcord, were cut in the style of the nineties. The sleeves of his long waisted coat were so tight that one wondered how his great yellow hands could pass through them. He was like an old grasshopper, left over from last year to shuffle when it could not leap. He reached a bench, stared at it a long moment, tapped it with his stick as if to require something of it. Then he turned himself carefully round; bringing into the spring sunlight, pale as a primrose, his dull face, hollow-cheeked and dry; the great orbits of his sunk eyes, the long nose fallen at the tip; his white moustache, of thin separate hairs like glass threads. This face expressed resolution and some alarm. A string of muscle jerked in the shadow of the cheekbone. Suddenly he swung forward from the hips, placed both hands upon the knob of his stick, and broke at the knees. His look of alarm became intense, his long flat feet jerked upwards, he collapsed upon the seat as if his body had telescoped

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into itself, like a picnic breaker. But in a moment it began to rise again; the clothes to fill. The old man straightened his back, raised his chin; until, upright at last, he pulled down his waistcoat, settled his hat, and looked about him. He had now the air of success.

(By Joice Cary)

Exercise 1. Conversations Overheard

Place yourself where you'd likely find groups of people. It

could be in a restaurant, a grocery aisle, bank line, beauty parlor or anywhere else you can think of. You are the narrator, relaying the conversation (s) you overhear to the reader. You will be telling the stories of the people you overhear. The dialogue you overhear will have basic content, but it is your job to relay the subtexts--underlying meaning--to the reader. The conversation you overhear can be gossip, or revealing a secret, or the simple differences between the characters you overhear. It's up to you where you take it, what your characters talk about, what they look like and how your narrator interprets it. It's not as hard as it sounds. Think of the conversations you've eavesdropped on while waiting in the check out line or at the next table in the restaurant. Now create a scene. Have fun with this! Exercise 2. Write a story of about 100-120 words, using the pairs of sentences given below. (You have been given the first and last sentences of your paragraph and should supply those, which come between.) Find a suitable title for your story.

“But I haven’t got any money,” I said to the waiter. … … …

I spent half the night washing dishes.

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Lesson 6

Section 1. Spelling A. Suffixes -en and -ness. (a) -en is a Germanic suffix met in verbs; added to adjectives and sometimes to nouns to form verbs (transitive and intransitive).

M o d e l: mad + en = madden (to make mad); red + en = redden (to make red, or to become red). (b) -ness is a Germanic suffix used to form abstract nouns from adjectives. Exercise 1. Form verbs from the words given below by adding the suffix -en and fill in the blanks. Translate the sentences. (deep, hard, height, sick, sharp (2), dark, haste, deaf, length, quiet, tight)

1. Bill got out a long-bladed pocket-knife and … it on a stone.

2. The lines of his face … and into his eyes came a fighting look. 3. Roy put his hand on her arm quickly to … her. 4. It is terrible. It … me to think of it. 5. The fair was in full swing. The noise was … . 6. This plan he was now … to put into execution. 7. The spring came and with it a hundred new delights; Peggy watched the … days. 8. He … the belt around his slim waist. 9. Her copy of Science and Health and her Quarterly were on a table beside her bed in the … room. 10. Now every impression was … , every part of me singularly aware: eyesight, hearing, sense of smell, all had been in some way … . 11. The word was uttered in a hasty whisper that seemed to … the ensuing silence.

Exercise 2. Form nouns from the adjectives given below by adding the suffix -ness and fill in the blanks. Translate the sentences. (rude, happy, ready, bold, kind, dark, mad, sleepless, ugly, weak)

1. He was not polite. But this time I didn’t mind his … . 2. Her

eyes were tawny and bold; and in their … lay a curious innocence. 3. It was a shapeless red-brick house, but we did not think twice about its … , since there was room to be together. 4. Suddenly he smiled at

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me with great … . 5. This afternoon he was filled with a … so complete, so unashamedly present in his face, that it seemed a provocation to less contented men. 6. The guards fired only twice for fear of killing one of their own in the … . 7. I’ll tell you what my … is: I get into fights and I’m always hungry. 8. It was sheer … to go out in such weather so late at night. 9. The … with which she accepted his proposal surprised me but little. 10. It distressed her to realize that … was robbing her cheeks of colour.

B. Nouns with the Suffix -er. -Er is an active suffix. In Modern English it is added to verbs to form nouns which have the meaning: (1) a person who does smth: to bake – baker; (2) machine, instrument performing some operation: to polish – polisher; to mix – mixer; to wash dishes – dishwasher.

When -er is added to nouns or adjectives, the corresponding nouns mean: (1) a person concerned with smth: geography – geographer; (2) a person born in that place: London – Londoner.

N o t e: law – lawyer. Exercise 3. Insert a suitable word. Translate the sentences. (waiter, lawyer, writer, driver, employer, manager (2), reporter, hitch-hiker, teacher, angler, designer, New Yorker, producer, owner)

1. He was a clerk in a … office and had worked his way up

from an office boy to a respectable position. His … called him Mr. Sunbury and sometimes asked him to see an important client. 2. The young … was thinking of Kate Swift, who had once been his school … . 3. The … was aware of certain drawbacks to his comfort, but content beamed from his rimless glasses. 4. Mr. Barbulis was … , … and staff of a drug-store. 5. He was like all … . From the very beginning he wanted to write. 6. A truck skidded and swerved but by some miracle it missed him. The … stuck his head out and shouted, “What’s wrong with you? Trying to commit suicide?” 7. “I work at a restaurant,” he said. The girl drew back. “Not as a …?” she asked. – “I am … in that restaurant you see with that brilliant electric sign Restaurant.” 8. There are drivers who feel a fierce prejudice against, not to say hatred of, … . 9. The fishing match is, to many … the crowning event of the year. 10. She was at grammar school and had

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ideas about becoming a dress … . 11. No … ever came to see her, cigar in one hand and a film contract in the other. C. Nouns with the Suffix -or. Nouns with suffix -or have the same meaning as nouns with the suffix -er: to act – actor, to agitate – agitator, to accelerate – accelerator. There are some nouns with the suffix -or which cannot be traced to any verb used in English are are formed from verbs which are rarely used. A list of such nouns is given below. Find their meaning and pronunciation in a dictionary:

ancestor, author, bachelor, benefactor, debtor, doctor, emperor, proprietor, rector, sailor, sculptor, spectator, senator, tailor, major, mayor, orator, predecessor, traitor, warrior, perambulator.

N o t e: the following words below are spelt with the suffix -

ar: beggar, burglar, liar, pedlar, pillar, scholar. Exercise 4. Form nouns from the following verbs by adding the suffix -or. Translate the nouns and memorize them.

Accelerate, collect, commentate, conduct, conquer, create,

decorate, demonstrate, edit, elevate, excavate, illustrate, indicate, innovate, inspect, instruct, invent, investigate, liberate, narrate, navigate, operate, originate, persecute, profess, prosecute, protect, refrigerate, ventilate.

N o t e: compose – compositor. Exercise 5. Insert a suitable word and translate the sentences. (editor, possessor, senator, emperor, proprietor, accelerator, predecessor)

1. The girl had taken her six stories from the brief-case and

handed them to the newspaper … . 2. Lawrence felt growing within him a cold hatred toward the utterly vicious man who had once been his … . 3. The figure of the old man vanished slowly into the shadows, and his place on the bench was taken immediately by a man younger and better dressed than his … . 4. He put his foot on … with such force that the car shot forward, tyres screaming on the

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asphalt. 5. His light summer business suit did not shout aloud that its … was likewise the … of numerous millions of dollars and property. 6. He had never had time to love; he had been president of the chamber of commerce, mayor of the city, state … , but he had missed love. 7. When the peace comes, we will buy a little house and a garden, and be as happy as … .

Section 2. Sentence Fragments

Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become disconnected from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to correct them is to remove the period between the fragment and the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the newly combined sentence.

Fragment (phrase or dependent clause)

Possible Revision

Mr. Brown offers many majors in engineering. Such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.

Mr. Brown offers many majors in engineering, such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.

I need to find a new roommate. Because the one I have now isn't working out too well.

I need to find a new roommate because the one I have now isn't working out too well.

You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine

journalists often use a dependent clause as a separate sentence when it follows clearly from the preceding main clause, as in the last example above. This is a conventional journalistic practice, often used for emphasis. For academic writing and other more formal writing situations, however, you should avoid such journalistic fragment sentences.

Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been left unattached to the main clause; they are written as main clauses but lack a subject or main verb.

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Fragment (incomplete main clause/no main verb) Possible Revisions

A story with deep thoughts and emotions.

Appositive: Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper," a story with deep thoughts and emotions, has impressed critics for decades. Direct object: She told a story with deep thoughts and emotions.

Toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.

Complete verb: Toys of all kinds were thrown everywhere. Direct object: They found toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.

A record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired.

Direct object: I've noticed a record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired. Main verb: A record of accomplishment began when you were first hired.

Fragment (incomplete main clause/no subject) Possible Revisions

With the ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.

Remove preposition: The ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.

By paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader unwilling to propose innovative policies.

Remove preposition: Paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader unwilling to propose innovative policies.

For doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.

Remove preposition: Doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired. Rearrange: Phil got fired for doing freelance work for a competitor.

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These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as mixed constructions, that is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They start one way (often with a long prepositional phrase) but end with a regular predicate. Usually the object of the preposition (often a gerund, as in the last two examples) is intended as the subject of the sentence, so removing the preposition at the beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.

Exercise 1. The sentences below appeared in papers written by students. Act as their editor, marking a C if the sentences in the group are all complete and an F if any of the sentences in the group is a fragment. Could you tell these writers why the fragments are incomplete sentences? Revise them.

____ 1. The scene was filled with beauty. Such as the sun sending its brilliant rays to the earth and the leaves of various shades of red, yellow, and brown moving slowly in the wind.

____ 2. He talked for fifty minutes without taking his eyes off his notes. Like other teachers in that department, he did not encourage students' questions.

____ 3. Within each group, a wide range of features to choose from. It was difficult to distinguish between them.

____ 4. A few of the less serious fellows would go into a bar for a steak dinner and a few glasses of beer. After this meal, they were ready for anything.

____ 5. It can be really embarrassing to be so emotional. Especially when you are on your first date, you feel that you should be in control.

____ 6. The magazine has a reputation for a sophisticated, prestigious, and elite group of readers. Although that is a valuable judgment and in circumstances not a true premise.

____ 7. In the seventh grade every young boy goes out for football. To prove to himself and his parents that he is a man.

____ 8. She opened the door and let us into her home. Not realizing at the time that we would never enter that door in her home again.

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____9. As Christmas grows near, I find myself looking back into my childhood days at fun-filled times of snowball fights. To think about this makes me happy.

____10. Making up his mind quickly. Jim ordered two dozen red roses for his wife. Hoping she would accept his apology.

____11. They were all having a good time. Until one of Joe's oldest and best friends had a little too much to drink.

____12. Although it only attained a speed of about twelve miles an hour. My old rowboat with its three-horsepower motor seemed like a high-speed job to me.

____13. With my brother standing by my side, I reached for the pot handle. Tilting the pot way too much caused the boiling water to spill.

____14. The small, one-story houses are all the same size and style. With no difference except the color.

____15. Being a friend of mine like he was when we first joined the soccer team. Together we learned a lot.

Exercise 2. These paragraphs need proofreading for possible fragments. Revise them.

1. How can a person find patriotism in a local night club?

Well, it did not take me too long. About four weeks ago in a little night club in Louisville, Kentucky, a couple of my friends, Rick and Lon, the duo who were providing the entertainment that night for the club.

2. For the past twenty years, the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan has been measuring the level of Americans' trust and confidence in their politicians and quasi-political trust and confidence in their political institutions and their leaders. "Political" being all levels of government, and "quasi-political" churches, labor unions, large professional/business associations, educational institutions, and the like. The result is that a very sharp decline has taken place every year since 1964.

3. For 200 years Americans believed in better jobs, better homes, a better life for one's children. This confidence no longer exists. Polls now indicate that fewer Americans who feel they are better off today than they were five years ago. A public-opinion

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analysis group has found that large numbers of Americans, at some times and in some places, see themselves as lower on the ladder. Adding worse living conditions and anticipation of further decline over the next five years.

4. Well, in looking at the picture at the left you see an old lady. She has a very funny look on her face. As if she's lonely and just wants to be left alone. She also looks as if she has seen a lot and experienced lots of things.

5. A president is an appointed leader. Someone who is a decision maker in the executive branch of our government. This doesn't necessarily mean that the person the people elect is capable. Just hopefully assumes. Assumes through his past record as a politician, over the years' buildup of experience and handling situations.

Exercise 3. The following paragraph has no capital letters or periods to mark the beginnings and ends of sentences. Add capitals, periods, commas, and/or other punctuation that may be needed to make the word groups into complete sentences. Your goal is to be sure that there are no fragments.

my brother was always my best friend when I was a child

especially as we two were almost alone in the world we lived with our old grandmother in a little house, almost a shack, in the country whenever I think of him now I see a solemn, responsible boy a boy too old for his years who looked out for me no matter what once there was a bully John Anson who looked enormous to me though he was probably an average twelve-year-old John had it in for me because he liked Littice Grant who liked me he decided to beat me up right before her eyes I was lucky my brother came by he didn't interfere any he just stood there somehow though his presence gave me confidence I licked the stuffing out of John Anson if my brother hadn't been there I don't think I could have done it.

Section 3. Writing Practice. Composition Technique Character’s Setting . A character’s setting helps the reader (and author) get to know the setting. The author must know the world in

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which her character lives in order to know intimate details about her. Here are some exercises that will help set your character in her setting. First, start your character in his/her bedroom, in front of the closet. Write for ten, fifteen minutes about the clothes hanging in the closet, the shoes, the belts. Is it neat, color coordinated or arranged haphazardly? Does your character have to dig for accessories or is everything put together? Or perhaps your character has no concern toward accessorizing. Describe your character getting dressed and moving around in the room. The furniture, the décor, knickknacks, etc., are all important. Did she hang onto a favorite doll from childhood? Does your character have expensive items mixed with dime store items? Once your character is dressed, move him/her outside. Next, have your character go on a walk in the neighborhood, on her way to her favorite place. If her favorite place isn’t close enough to reach by foot, then describe it from a moving car. Don’t record her impressions or thoughts. Just write everything straight-forward as she passes everything. The trees (what types?) flowers, fences, cars, etc., etc. It might help to sketch a map. Name the streets, shops, anything that she would pass. Okay, now she’s in her favorite place. Describe it again, without her thoughts or impressions. Just straight-forward again. Hone in on details, even if they seem ordinary. Start with the door or whatever type of entrance. Then move inside the space. Describe sights, sounds, smells. Touch all the senses. N o t e: You may not use all these details in your story. But the more details you know, the better you know your character, and the more real you can make your character for your readers. Hope this will get you started… Exercise1. Read the excerpt from David's journal he wrote one autumn and do the assignments.

By the side of J.P. Brown's grain-field I picked up some white

oak acorns in the path by the wood-side, which I found to be unexpectedly sweet and palatable, the bitterness being scarcely perceptible. . . . Such as these are no mean food. . . . Their sweetness

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is like the sweetness of bread, and to have discovered this palatableness in this neglected nut, the whole world is to me sweeter for it. . . . I should be at least equally pleased if I were to find that the grass tasted sweet and nutritious. It increases the number of my friends; it diminishes the number of my foes.

Assignments. Now take yourself to an autumn day, past or

present. Are there special chores that mark the season? Is it spent with different people? What sensory details can you remember? Use all senses. What are you doing? Where are you? What is the mood, atmosphere? Freewrite this scene for fifteen minutes. As always, don't stop to edit, don't worry about whether it makes sense. Use all your senses. Use strong verbs and nouns. Go deep. Let go.

Exercise 2. Think of a situation to illustrate the following proverbs:

1. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 2. Don’t cry out before you are hurt. 3. The course of true love never did run smooth. 4. Confession is good for the soul.

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Lesson 7 Section 1. Spelling A. Adjectives with the Suffixes -able, -ible. The suffixes –able/-ible are Latin in origin (L. suffix –bilis). They came through French and are active in Modern English. They are added mainly to verbs to form adjectives, and sometimes to nouns or even phrases (eatable, readable). Among them there are many adjectives borrowed from Latin or French (audible, edible). here is a list of adjectives for you to memorize. Explain what they mean.

-able: agreeable, amiable, available, capable, considerable, disreputable, indispensable, inevitable, liable, memorable, miserable, probable, remarkable.

-ible: audible, compatible, contemptible, edible, forcible, horrible, illegible, incredible, intelligible, negligible, plausible, possible, terrible, responsible, sensible, visible.

Exercise 1. Form adjectives from the given verbs and nouns, and explain their meaning. Pay attention to their spelling and pronunciation. Use a dictionary.

M o d e l: to accept – acceptable; to rely – reliable; to conceive – conceivable; to value – valuable.

N o t e: after c and g the letter e is retained: to notice – noticeable; to mange – manageable.

to avoid, to bear, to convert, to suit, to admire, to advise, to compare, to cure, to imagine, to measure, to remove, to change, to exchange, to force, to replace, to trace, to envy, to justify, to pity, to vary.

Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with the words given below. Translate the sentences.

(adorable, indistinguishable, incurable, reasonable, audible, disagreeable, imaginable, disreputable, imperceptible, inconceivable, incapable, admissible, indispensable, available, responsible, invaluable, reliable, suitable, irrevocable, valuable, unmistakable)

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1. He felt that there was something … in the world’s suffering.

2. I didn’t forget that sense of anxiety and tension which had upset me during the night, but it became … . 3. Augustus, my … brother, is completely infatuated about her. 4. This separation was a great grief to me and I blamed myself for being … of that moral courage necessary to acknowledge the evil nature of man. 5. He would eat fresh fish for breakfast if … . 6. From the start, Palmer took it that something catastrophic and … had occurred. 7. He was aware of an immense load of responsibility; it was … from love. 8. Sometimes the pulsing of the drums was all but …, at others they seemed to be beating only just round the corner. 9. But the minute hand of the electric clock above his bed jumped forward with an almost … click. 10. This was quite possibly true, but not, in the present circumstances, … . 11. Dr. M. West, a member of this distinguished group of workers on vocabulary selection, is … for the compilation of a work which will prove … to all teachers of the English language. 12. In my opinion she was the most … of all ladies. 13. They have warned the doctor, guarded their tongues, done everything … to prevent her from learning the truth. 14. He thought of the … distance a man travels. 15. I hardly think that Mrs. Allon is a very … person. 16. Presently the child gave a little sigh, very slight, but … . 17. He was looked upon by his supervisors as a … officer. 18. His wrist-watch was a … thing made by a famous clock-maker. 19. This dictionary had achieved international recognition as an … practical reference book to English as a foreign language. 20. He shook his head, “It’s almost … . I’ll never understand unless you explain.”

Exercise 3. Choose synonyms for the italicized words from the following list: (amiable, disagreeable, amicably, sensible, miserable, habitable, incredible, considerable, liable)

1. Many children under ten are subject to colds, even those

who are lucky enough not to catch common children’s diseases. 2. The police are after you, it is not very clever of you to come here in the day-time. 3. The landlady was a very kindhearted old lady but with some prejudice against foreigners. 4. Though all the shutters

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were closed, the house with its white walls and red roof looked fit to be lived in. 5. A large amount of important information went through unknown channels to the enemy’s side. 6. The boy would have been my age if such an unbelievable thing had not happened to him. He had been killed in a fight. 7. The hostess greeted us in a most friendly way and asked if we would like to interview her in her garden. 8. She has a pleasant voice but very unpleasant manners. 9. For some days after his departure I felt lonely and unhappy and didn’t want to see anyone.

B. Words with the Suffixes -ant (adj.), -ance (noun). Here we draw your attention to some high-frequency words, adjectives and nouns, with the derivational suffixes –ant, -ance. In the word lists given below you will find groups of related words in which these suffixes regularly occur in their derivational function, i.e. forming adjectives and nouns from verbs.

(a) verb adjective noun attend attendant assistance assist assistant assistance (b) guide guidance utter utterance (c) arrogant arrogance relevant relevance Sometimes there is only a noun ending in –ance:

circumstance, countenance, nuisance.

Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks with the words given below. Translate the sentences. (nuisance, ignorant(2), intolerance, acquaintance, assistant, allowances, reluctance(2), radiant, appearance(3), hindrance, assurance, resemblance)

1. He had a formidable reputation as a hard, ruthless man,

whose god was perfection and whose greatest … was for any weakness or sentiment which undermined it. 2. I went to the telephone with a feeling of undefined … . 3. There was no point in ever coming back, since I was nothing but a … to Toby. 4. I had the impression our … had been slight, and was of a year or two earlier.

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5. Most people I met, even on the technical committees, were still … of the whole project. 6. With perfect … he ran his scissors across the stuff, folded it, made it into a parcel, and handed it to the dark-skinned customer. 7. I went across the passage to the little room where my personal … was sitting. 8. What was the girl like? Would you say there was any … between her and me? 9. Albert, you must get dressed. You’ve simply got to put in an … straight away. 10. You must make … for an old man like myself, who comes to his decisions slowly. 11. “I never loved him,” she said, with perceptible … . 12. The man’s … was singular. 13. Now Bateman asked himself if Arnold Jackson could think him … of the most terrible scandal that Chicago had ever known. 14. I discovered in due course that Mona’s chief … on the posters had been to advertise toothpaste. 15. Then his face broke into a … and understanding smile. 16. It was a …, not to be able to put him in his place.

Exercise 5. Find words related to the verbs given below and use them in sentences of your own.

Annoy, signify, inherit, enter, reassure, repent, abound,

tolerate, resist, forbear.

C. Words with the Suffixes –ent, -ence, -ency. The suffixes are of Latin origin, -ent occurring in adjectives, -ence, -ency in nouns. The latter form abstract nouns, mainly from adjectives and verbs: decent – decency, efficient – efficiency; exist – existence, prefer – preference.

Here is a list of words for you to memorize. verb adjective noun differ different difference insist insistent insistence,

insistency urge urgent urgency eloquent eloquence intelligent intelligence insolent insolence violent violence

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Exercise 6. Fill in the blanks with the words given below. Translate the sentences. (convalescent, self-sufficient, reticence, imminent, confidence(2), impertinent, impatience, consistent, prominent, occurrence, convenience)

1. A momentary … rose in her. The whole thing was such a

waste. 2. Uncle Harry’s offer of a partnership and on such excellent terms was an unexpectedly happy … . 3. She had smiled to herself, men were so transparent. She was a little amused at William’s old-fashioned … . 4. She doubted Joan’s sincerity. But surely the child couldn’t be so … . 5. There was a small rest house at the station for the … of travellers, where they were served with what meals they might need. 6. Cargill is doing very valuable and important work; his methods in treating tuberculosis have met with such striking success that he is a very … figure in the medical world. 7. When Harry was Barbara’s age he was curiously withdrawn and … . 8. He had complete … in his own judgement and soon his employers were sharing that … . 9. People should react to external stimuli in a manner … with their basic characteristics. 10. He was so evidently … that Packy felt there would now be nothing inhuman in asking for details of the affair. 11. Day became afternoon, became dusk and … evening.

Section 2. Paragraph Structure

A paragraph consists of a number of sentences which are

closely related, and deal with the same topic. A well-constructed paragraph should possess a) unity, b) logical sequence of thought, c) variety of length and construction.

By unity we mean that one main theme is dealt with. This theme may be expressed or understood. The main information is usually conveyed in the topic sentence. The remainder of the paragraph is an enlargement of this. A paragraph lacks unity when two different topics are treated in it. The topic sentence can be expressed by the first sentence, then comes the development and the last sentence rounds off the whole. The topic sentence may be

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expanded in a number of ways or it may come as the climax of a series of preparatory sentences.

A logical sequence of thought. A paragraph cannot be regarded as satisfactory unless the sentences are arranged in a clear and logical order. Each sentence must lead to the following and all must be linked up. The connection between the sentences will be shown by their logical order. Certain pronouns, adverbs and conjunctions are frequently used (thus, hence, further, consequently, however, moreover, etc.).

Varying length and construction. It is impossible to say how long a paragraph should be. The length of a paragraph is largely determined by its purpose and by the length of the work which it is a part of. Variation of paragraph length is as important as variation of sentence length within the paragraph. It creates a sense of rhythm and movement which aids the reading.

The paragraph is itself part of a larger unit of a section or chapter and must, therefore, fit neatly into that unit. It must show some reference to preceding or following paragraphs, perhaps by introducing a series of ideas or summing up a collection of statements. This means that a paragraph may have not only a topic sentence but also a linking sentence which takes up the thread of previous paragraphs or which states the theme to be developed in the next.

Now, examine the opening paragraph paying attention to its unity and logical sequence of thought. The topic sentence conveying the main information is given in bold type.

Once upon a starless midnight there was an owl who sat on the branch of an oak tree. Two ground moles tried to slip quietly by, unnoticed. “You!” said the owl. “Who?” they replied, in fear and astonishment, for they could not believe it was possible for anyone to see them in thick darkness. “You, two,” said the owl. The moles hurried away and told the other creatures of the field and forest that the owl was the greatest and the wisest of all animals because he could see in the dark and because he could answer any question. “I’ll see about that,” said the secretary bird and he called on the owl one night when it was again very dark. “How many claws am I holding up?” said the secretary bird. “Two,” said the owl and that was right.

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Exercise 1. Arrange these sentences in a logical order. 1. George always shaves and dresses before eating. Sometimes

he falls asleep again. Then he brushes his teeth, puts on his coat, and says goodbye before he leaves for the office. When the alarm clock rings, George wakes up and turns it off. If this happens, his mother wakes him up so that he won’t be late for work. After he finishes breakfast, he usually reads the morning newspaper.

2. Begin by breaking the eggs into a bowl, adding small amounts of salt, pepper, and milk. When the butter in the frying pan has melted, pour in the egg batter. To make a small omelet you need three eggs, a slice of cheese, salt, pepper, butter, milk, a frying pan, a bowl and a spatula. Then heat the frying pan over a medium gas, melting a small amount of butter in it. After the eggs are partially cooked, place a slice of cheese on them and fold one half of the omelet over the other half. Remove from the frying pan and serve. Exercise 2. Join the following short sentences together to make a single paragraph using the following conjunctions: and, but, so, as, while, if, when, because, etc.

1. I saw some lovely dresses in a shop-window. 2. I was

walking along Regent Street. 3. I couldn’t buy one. 4. I didn’t have enough money with me. 5. There was a sale in the shop. 6. I knew if I waited until tomorrow they would all be sold. 7. I got on a bus. 8. I went straight home. 9. I grabbed my purse. 10. I came out again. 11. I went back to the shop. 12. It was full of women all talking excitedly. 13. I looked at several dresses. 14. I chose one that was marked five pounds. 15. I opened my purse to pay for it. 16. I found, to my dismay, there was only three pounds in it. 17. Fortunately, the shop assistant was sympathetic. 18. She promised to keep the dress for me. 19. I left three guineas as a deposit.

Exercise 3. Study the following passage and work at the assignments given below: 1. Find the key sentence in the first paragraph. 2. Copy out the sentences that develop the key sentence.

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3. Prove that the first paragraph is well-constructed, that it possesses unity, logical sequence of thought and length. 4. Give the paragraph a title. 5. Paraphrase the paragraph.

Thus I learned from life itself. At the beginning I was only a little mass of possibilities. It was my teacher who unfolded and developed them. When she came, everything about me breathed of love and joy and was full of meaning. She has never since let pass an opportunity to point out the beauty that is in everything, nor has she ceased trying in thought and action and example to make my life sweet and useful.

It was my teacher’s genius, her quick sympathy, her loving tact which made the first years of my education so beautiful. It was because she seized the right moment to impart knowledge that made it so pleasant and acceptable to me.

My teacher is so near to me that I scarcely think of myself apart from her. How much of my delight in all beautiful things is innate, and how much is due to her influence, I can never tell. I feel that her being is inseparable from my own, and that the footsteps of my life are in hers. All the best of me belongs to her – there is not a talent, or an aspiration or a joy in me that has not been awakened by her loving touch.

(After Helen Keller) Section 3. Writing Practice. Composition Writing.

A composition is a creative literary work, conveying several problems or dealing with one problem in detail. It is too often the area where students lack confidence because they are on their own and have no guidelines on which to base their work. Creative writing demands a good knowledge and awareness, a special ability to present facts and ideas clearly, concisely and attractively. It is true that you cannot teach students to write any more than you can teach them to paint, but you can definitely guide them to develop a technique. Before writing on any subject it is necessary to have a stock of ideas relative to it.

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Beginning of Compositions. A good beginning is of great importance, for we naturally desire to hold the readers’ attention from the first. The opening paragraph should appear to be natural and it can always be direct. It is a good plan to get right into the subjest to be discussed, arrest the attention of the reader with the first sentence. There are many ways of beginning a composition, among them: a) general reflection; b) by giving a definition and thus immediately introducing the subject; c) a quotation or a proverb; d) an anecdote; if appropriate, this is a neat way of beginning. Whatever the form opening, it should make the reader hungry for more. Ending of Compositions. The ending should obviously prove to the reader that the subject has been nicely rounded off; that the whole is finished and complete. The Body of a Composition. After you have considered the making of a skeleton or framework on which to base a composition turn to the skeleton whose bones must be clothed. Before beginning to write, it is best to think of various points in the skeleton, make up your mind what you want to say under the heading and gradually expand each into a paragraph. Examine your skeleton to make sure that there is a development from the opening paragraph to the end. When writing a composition remember the stages of your work:

1. Collect your material. 2. Select the information you need. 3. Arrange the material in the order of presentation according

to your plan. 4. Write down the main topics of each paragraph. 5. Under each topic indicate the development. 6. Make a rough draft. 7. Correct the rough draft and make your final copy.

Exercise. The aim of this exercise is to help students to write compositions by going over corresponding language notes. These notes will give them constructive guidance on composition writing, providing them with possible alternatives, useful phrases, language accuracy and structural harmony.

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A Dream. Useful phrases and sentences: 1. A Pleasant Dream A. I had a dream ... [NOT: I saw a dream ...]

I saw someone (something) in my dream I dreamt of someone (something).

B. I dreamt I was ... – flying // London [Paris, France, etc.] - houses below // Like dolls’ houses - arrived // London airport in a couple of hours - took me // hour or so // get to my hotel - hotel // Oxford Street - was // first trip to London Everything looked so different I was just about to – speak to the Queen // visit Westminster Abbey // enter Buckingham Palace – when ... I was in – Hyde Park // Trafalgar Square // St. Paul's Cathedral – when ... alarm clock woke me up // mother woke me up // time to go to college // telephone rang

C. I hope my dream will come true - pity // wasn't true - pity // only a dream - hope // visit London one day

2. A Bad Dream (A Nightmare) A. Last night I had a bad (horrible, terrible) dream [a nightmare]

I saw I was ... – I had eaten a heavy meal I had received some bad news I had been reading a frightening book I had been watching a horror film I had a high temperature

B. I dreamt I was alone in a strange house: - no lights in it - heard // strange moan - someone grabbed // arm - held to the floor - lights went on - knife was held to my throat - wanted my money

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- was scared // gave all my money - tied to a chair - robbers disappeared into the night - screamed at the top of my voice - neighbour came // telephoned the police - free again

C. - hope // happy - never have such a nightmare again ... mother woke me up ... telephone rang - alarm clock woke me up I woke up suddenly

Points to think about: • Do you often dream? [Do you like dreaming? Why? – Why

not?] • What sort of dream did you have last night? [nice – bad –

exciting – a nighmare] • Have you ever had a dream that was so bad you could not

forget it? • Can you think why you had that dream? Do you know if it

meant anything? • How would you feel if that dream came true? • What can you do to avoid having dreams?

a) not eat too much before sleeping b) not have worries (problems) c) not overwork (over-tired)

• Have you had a dream that came true later? What was it about?

Some helpful words and expressions: the next day – on the contrary – after all – moreover – during – even if – another thing is – finally.

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Lesson 8

Section 1. Spelling A. Words with the Suffixes -ous, -eous, -ious, -uous. -Ous, -eous, -ious, -uous are adjectival suffixes which came into English mainly through loans from French. They are used to derive adjectives from nouns: poison – poisonous; villain – villainous; glory – glorious. The adjectives with these suffixes have the meaning “full of …; of the nature, character or appearance of”. As a rule they are unstressed, so make sure you spell them correctly. 1. Suffix –ous. E x a m p l e s: danger – dangerous, joy – joyous, nerve – nervous, murder – murderous, thunder – thunderous, generous – generosity, enormous – enormity.

Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences. Write out adjectives ending in –ous and adverbs ending in –ously and find nouns related to them.

1. Rembrandt had one enormous advantage over the majority of his neighbours; like most other artists he had a purpose in life. The souls of the men he painted speak their strange longings through their eyes, their senses are miraculously acute, not for sounds and odours and colour, but for the subtle sensations of their souls. 2. “Hallo,” remarked Henry humorously. “You are beginning to take interest?” 3. We’re a bit jealous of Jenny, but her independence is part of her charm. 4. He interrupted her to tell her of the anonymous letter he had received and that it had haunted him until he had to come and see what it was all about. 5. I must say – even though I knew what mother is – I must say it sounds rather marvellous. 6. All the men who dictated letters to them became immense characters, comic, grotesquely villainous, or heroic and adorable. 7. Then with something like amorous urgency, he went to the telephone, rang up the Anglo-Baltic, and sternly demanded Mr. Borstein. 8. I began to like New York, the racy, adventurous feel of it at night. 9. Since no one prevented me, I followed them into the apartment, which was tremendously wrecked. 10. As a young man in the Navy he had once made ships himself, full rigged ships inserted miraculously into

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whisky bottles. 11. This new job isn’t any more dangerous than any of the other things. 2. Suffix –eous. E x a m p l e s: courage – courageous, advantage – advantageous, spontaneous – spontaneity, righteous – righteousness, miscellaneous – miscellany.

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into Armenian. Paraphrase those parts of the examples in which you find adjectives in –eous.

1. His friendship with Miss Dolly was almost instantaneous. 2.

I may as well mention here that Georgiana made an advantageous match with a wealthy, worn-out man of fashion. 3. He loved the disorder of the old eighteenth century farm house, the collection of miscellaneous objects of all kinds that littered the rooms. 4. Like many men who appear spontaneous at a first meeting, we each had a vein of reserve. 5. She was years older than he was and she was hideous. 6. If he had not paused on the landing to dispose of his overcoat, their entrance would have been simultaneous. 7. The voices were courteous, silky, and just perceptibly tense.

3. Suffix –ious. E x a m p l e s: envy – envious, fury – furious, industry – industrious, mystery – mysterious, study – studious, curious – curiosity, notorious – notoriety, serious – seriousness. N o t e: -y of the noun changes into –i.

Exercise 3. Fill in the blanks with the words given below. Translate the sentences. (cautious, obvious, self-consciously, furiously, overconscientious, ingenious, ambitious, mysterious(2), conscious)

1. She was a great and very … artist. 2. I did not even wonder

how … his surrender was; we were too much in the middle of events to care. 3. I was watching him to develop into a …, subtle and far-sighted man. 4. I’m afraid we should all be mildly surprised if your … friend can really persuade us that we can afford the unaffordable. 5. He was without … arrogance, but he had the blood of kings in his veins, as have all the older English families. 6. It seemed to him …

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that government policy was wrong. 7. I had told her to go hours before, but she was … . 8. The waitress returned to give them some … thick soup, which looked like gum. 9. “And where did you get to, Dad?” – “Went to a concert,” he replied, a trifle … . 10. This time Mr. Sweet clapped …, and so did the fierce man, and so did everybody else, even the violin players in the orchestra.

4. Suffix –uous. E x a m p l e s: ambiguous – ambiguity, continuous – continuity, incongruous – incongruity, ingenuous – ingenuity, superfluous – superfluity.

Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences. Find related nouns for the adjectives in –uous.

1. A faintly contemptuous, faintly triumphant gleam showed in

his eyes. 2. Many other little sisters I knew were reduced to an inconspicuous, subservient position by a little tact. 3. Brady was not ignored by the girl who then entered; in fact he saw from her ingenuous eyes that she was fascinated by him. 4. There was something incongruous in the words with which the narration ended. 5. I am pleased to find my cousin so virtuous. 6. The rain beat strongly against the panes, the wind blew tempestuously. 7. None of them carried a pound of superfluous flesh; they all had an enthusiasm for the works of Mr. Ernest Hemingway. 8. Turgis disliked this contemptuous tone. 9. Simon was acutely aware that his professional status was highly ambiguous.

B. Words with the Prefixes en-, in-, de-, dis-. The prefixes en- and in- came into English through French and Latin. They are pronounced in the same way since, like all other prefixes in modern English, they are unstressed. Thus the spelling of the words with these suffixes must be memorized.

The prefix en- (allomorph em-) has the following meanings: (1) ‘make (into) …’: enfeeble, enable, enlarge, enrich, enslave; (2) ‘wrap in, wrap up …’: embrace, enclose, enwrap; (3) ‘put in …’: enchain, enfold. However, in many cases the meaning of the prefix is hard to define: its meaning, as that of other affixes, depends on the

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meaning of the word it is tucked on to (adjectives, nouns, verbs), e.g. enlist, enforce.

The prefix in- (allomorphs im-, il-, ir-) has two meanings: (1) ‘not’: incomprehensible, indiscreet; (2) ‘want, lack, absence of’: inability, incredulity, injustice. E x a m p l e s: visible – invisible, logical – illogical, moral – immoral, rational – irrational, sensible – insensible, convenience – inconvenience, humanity – inhumanity, ability – inability. The prefix de- imparts to the affixed word the following meanings: ‘deprive of, rid of, rid of the character of’; ‘reverse, undo’ (what is denoted by the verb). E x a m p l e s: code – decode, fame – defame, forest – deforest, throne – dethrone, centralize – decentralize, civilize – decivilize, mobilize – demobilize, form – deform. N o t e. In words, which are not analyzable as derivatives, the prefix is a purely structural element: describe, destruction (cf. proscribe, obstruction).

The prefix dis- imparts to the affixed word an oppositive or negative meaning, the meaning of ‘asunder’, ‘the reverse of …’ E x a m p l e s: agree – disagree, arm – disarm, enchant – disenchant, advantage – disadvantage, content – discontent, comfort – discomfort. N o t e. In words, which are not analyzable as derivatives, dis- is a purely structural element: disturb, dissuade, distract (cf. perturb, persuade, attract). Exercise 5. Form new words from those given below using the prefixes en-(em-) or dis-. Use them in sentences of your own.

Approve, ability, arrange, bitter, body, box, capsule, charge, circle, courage, embody, figure, frame, hearten, lodge, mount, obey, own, regard, shrine, shroud. Exercise 6. Translate the following sentences. Pick out the prefixed verbs and list them together with the adjectives or nouns to which en- is prefixed.

1. In the back row, Miss Elsie Thornton pressed the black-gloved fingers of one hand to her eyes and encircled Jacy Cross with her free arm. 2. Even a criminal is entitled to know the nature of the

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crime before being convicted. 3. By doing so you endanger your chances of success. 4. I was entrapped into contradicting myself. 5. Then Wicher entrusted the final details of the performance to a thin-shouldered boy of 16 from White River, whose ambition it was to be a mechanic with a travelling carnival. 6. We sat there, the whisky warming our bodies, watching enraptured the geography of this archipelago unfold. 7. The cypress trees had been planted so close together in the first place that now their branches entwined and formed an almost impenetrable hedge. 8. Dicky was silent for a moment. Then he glanced down at his feet, thickly encrusted with rapidly drying mud. 9. Flying enables us to cover immense distances in a short time. Exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with the words given below. Translate the sentences. (distraction, dissociate, disable, display, disinclination, disappoint, dishonest, disarm, disapproval, discourage, dissemination, distribute, disgrace)

1. It is difficult to … weakness from old age. 2. Your son … great intelligence. 3. The conference prohibited the … of nuclear weapons to other countries of the world. 4. … soldiers should be cared for by the state. 5. By frankly admitting that he was not a scholar he … criticism. 6. Some people have a strong … for work. 7. What he heard shocked him, but he hesitated to express his … . 8. Your words have … me. 9. The teacher … the books among the children. 10. He complained that there were too few … in their community. 11. The weather has been very … this spring. 12. The continued use of war as a method of trying to settle disputes is a … to humanity. 13. The girl was discharged for being … .

Section 2. Paraphrase: Write it in your Own Words

A paraphrase is... • your own rendition of essential information and ideas

expressed by someone else, presented in a new form.

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• one legitimate way (when accompanied by accurate documentation) to borrow from a source.

• a more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses concisely on a single main idea.

Paraphrasing is a valuable skill because... • it is better than quoting information from an undistinguished

passage. • it helps you control the temptation to quote too much. • the mental process required for successful paraphrasing

helps you to grasp the full meaning of the original. 6 Steps to Effective Paraphrasing

1. Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.

2. Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a note card.

3. Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you later how you envision using this material. At the top of the note card, write a key word or phrase to indicate the subject of your paraphrase.

4. Check your rendition with the original to make sure that your version accurately expresses all the essential information in a new form.

5. Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have borrowed exactly from the source.

6. Record the source (including the page) on your note card so that you can credit it easily if you decide to incorporate the material into your paper.

Some examples to compare. The original passage:

Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse quotations in the final [research] paper. Probably only about 10% of your final manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source materials while taking notes. Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976): 46-47.

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A legitamate paraphrase: In research papers students often quote excessively, failing to

keep quoted material down to a desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the material recorded verbatim (Lester 46-47) An acceptable summary:

Students should take just a few notes in direct quotation from sources to help minimize the amount of quoted material in a research paper (Lester 46-47). A plagiarized version:

Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes, resulting in too many of them in the final research paper. In fact, probably only about 10% of the final copy should consist of directly quoted material. So it is important to limit the amount of source material copied while taking notes.

Exercise. On a separate piece of paper, write a paraphrase of each of the following passages. Try not to look back at the original passage.

1. "The Antarctic is the vast source of cold on our planet, just

as the sun is the source of our heat, and it exerts tremendous control on our climate," [Jacques] Cousteau told the camera. "The cold ocean water around Antarctica flows north to mix with warmer water from the tropics, and its upwellings help to cool both the surface water and our atmosphere. Yet the fragility of this regulating system is now threatened by human activity." From "Captain Cousteau," Audubon (May 1990):17.

2. The twenties were the years when drinking was against the law, and the law was a bad joke because everyone knew of a local bar where liquor could be had. They were the years when organized crime ruled the cities, and the police seemed powerless to do anything against it. Classical music was forgotten while jazz spread throughout the land, and men like Bix Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong, and Count Basie became the heroes of the young. The flapper was born in the twenties, and with her bobbed hair and short skirts, she symbolized, perhaps more than anyone or anything else, America's break with the past. From Kathleen Yancey, English 102 Supplemental Guide (1989): 25.

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3. Of the more than 1000 bicycling deaths each year, three-fourths are caused by head injuries. Half of those killed are school-age children. One study concluded that wearing a bike helmet can reduce the risk of head injury by 85 percent. In an accident, a bike helmet absorbs the shock and cushions the head. From "Bike Helmets: Unused Lifesavers," Consumer Reports (May 1990): 348.

4. Matisse is the best painter ever at putting the viewer at the scene. He's the most realistic of all modern artists, if you admit the feel of the breeze as necessary to a landscape and the smell of oranges as essential to a still life. "The Casbah Gate" depicts the well-known gateway Bab el Aassa, which pierces the southern wall of the city near the sultan's palace. With scrubby coats of ivory, aqua, blue, and rose delicately fenced by the liveliest gray outline in art history, Matisse gets the essence of a Tangier afternoon, including the subtle presence of the bowaab, the sentry who sits and surveys those who pass through the gate. From Peter Plagens, "Bright Lights." Newsweek (26 March 1990): 50.

5. While the Sears Tower is arguably the greatest achievement in skyscraper engineering so far, it's unlikely that architects and engineers have abandoned the quest for the world's tallest building. The question is: Just how high can a building go? Structural engineer William LeMessurier has designed a skyscraper nearly one-half mile high, twice as tall as the Sears Tower. And architect Robert Sobel claims that existing technology could produce a 500-story building. From Ron Bachman, "Reaching for the Sky." Dial (May 1990): 15. Section 3. Writing Practice. Composition Writing. Exercise 1. Sounds of Silence

Writers are told to "use all senses." Here's a different twist on using the senses. For this exercise, we're going to describe silence. The challenge is in describing something that is not there. In this exercise, you are not allowed to use words like "silence" or "quiet." Show the reader the silence through other details. To get started on this exercise, you might want to sit in silence. Listen. Take note of what you hear. You can also start this exercise by freewriting

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for ten or fifteen minutes about silence in order to get warmed up. Then write a scene in which you describe silence. Use the setting to fit the tone and mood. It can be anything you want. Try to do at least a page. As always, have fun with it!

Exercise 2. Using your imagination or drawing on your friends’ experience, complete the following story. Find a suitable title for your story.

I woke up with a start and sat up, wondering for a moment where I was. There was nothing but the sea around me, and only in the distance could I make out the faint line of the coast. My skin was burning, but I felt chilly because of the fresh breeze which was blowing from the land. The breeze must have carried me out to sea while I lay asleep on my lilo (air mattress), I thought, feeling cold with fear. ...

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Lesson 9 Section 1. Spelling: Homophones

Note: Homophones are words, which are pronounced in the

same way, but spelled in a different way. Exercise. Copy the following homophones and look up their meanings in the dictionary. Insert in the blank spaces the appropriate word from following group of homophones: a) (air – heir / bare – bear / beach – beech / beat – beet / birth – berth / bean – been / berry – bury / brake – break)

1. He got up with an … of relief and yet reluctance. 2. For a moment I could not feel my heart. It had stopped … . 3. The classroom should be … during the break. 4. I saw the mother sitting at the table, her head … in her hand. 5. The garden looked … and deserted. 6. I suddenly pushed open the garden gate and stepped inside to pick some … from the nearest bush. 7. John was the only … to his uncle’s estate. 8. He knows how many … make five. Don’t try to fool him with that suggestion. 9. The upper … was occupied by a young man who never took part in our conversation. 10. Wait a bit. We’ll discuss it in the … . 11. While we were cutting up potatoes, carrots and …roots for the soup I looked up and suddenly burst out laughing. 12. The news that Mrs. Davis had given … to a daughter seemed to make no impression on her relatives. 13. Jerry was the first to … the silence. 14. The … has a massive body, coarse heavy fur and relatively short limbs. 15. I can’t … the way you treat that man. 16. We hired a boat and rowed along the coast until we found a beautiful secluded … . 17. A wood of mostly poplars and … and fringed with reeds stretched along one bank. 18. I’ve always … treated as a gentleman. 19. The driver put on the … and the car stopped.

b) (bow – bough / course – coarse / cell – sell / cent – sent – scent / current – currant / dear – deer / dew – due / die – dye)

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1. The main … was steak with vegetables. 2. What a … little kitten! 3. The front part of the ship is called the … . 4. ‘To expire’ is a synonym for ‘to …’ 5. A … is the hundredth part of the US dollar.. 6. The meeting is … to begin at 4 o’clock. 7. His hands were … and roughened by years of hard work. 8. The … is a structural unit of plant and animal life. 9. He climbed onto the huge … of a pine. 10. He was not a young man any longer; age had … his head. 11. The grass and leaves of the trees were covered with … . 12. Two dollars! That was too … for such a trifle. 13. Don’t … this book, you may need it in future. 14. He could … trouble the moment he stopped onto the porch. 15. The doctor was … for immediately. 16. We had reached the bridge over the river and stood there, gazing down at its strong … . 17. Her hair had been … to exactly the same beautiful shade as Sophie’s. 18. I opened the gate and saw some … bushes and a line of white flowers fringing the path. 19. A man can … but once. 20. An adult male … is called a stag.

c) (fare – fair / flower – flour / for – four – fore / fir – fur / feet – feat / gate – gait / great – grate / grown – groan / hair – hare)

1. She liked violets more than any other … . 2. The wounded man … when they tried to lift him. 3. The … of the four soldiers was highly praised by everyone. 4. I have a … desire to spend a fortnight in the country. 5. At the … I met a strangely familiar man dressed in black. 6. … is the finely ground meal of grain. 7. What he saw there made his … stand on end. 8. The part of the arm between the elbow and the wrist is called the … arm. 9. We were decorating the …-tree when our guests came. 10. He was met by a …-skinned young girl with a beautiful crown of black hair. 11. He walked with an awkward, stooping … which was due to nervousness. 12. Her singing … on my ear. 13. First catch your … , then cook it. 14. What is the … from here to Moscow? 15. There were apples, peanuts, and milk on the table, but never enough of even this primitive … . 16. Put your shoes on the … , they are wet. 17. He is …-up and must be responsible for his actions. 18. Hastily she grabbed her … coat and ran out. 19. These are good pills … a cough, but you must not take more than … pills at a time. 20. The dog followed the hunter at his … .

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d) (heal – heel / hoarse – horse / hole – whole / key – quay / lain – lane / lead – led / meat – meet / made – maid / mail – male)

1. He ate three … oranges. 2. Though he worked hard he had difficulty in making both ends … . 3. I often met this man wandering in the … late in the evening, looking at the boats. 4. It could be Tina! You must have been … astray by her strong resemblance to Sophie! 5. Don’t look a gift … in the mouth. 6. He had … motionless on the ground for an hour or so before he heard steps. 7. One man’s … is another man’s poison. 8. If you want the letter to get there quickly, send it by air … . 9. The landlady showed him upstairs and gave him a … to his room. 10. Don’t worry! It’s just a scratch; it’ll soon … . 11. They talked themselves … , but never came to an agreement. 12. … animals are often larger than the females. 13. The symphony is in a major … . 14. I like to stand on the … and watch the steamers make their landing. 15. She likes shoes with high … . 16. The … in the ground was covered with some fir branches. 17. She … up her mind not to interfere. 18. The … pencil does not, and never did, contain any … . 19. The door was opened by the … , who told me that the master was out. e) (main – mane / miner – minor / night – knight / pain – pane / prey – pray / pear – pair – pare / pail – pale / piece – peace)

1. He tore the letter into … and burned them in the fireplace. 2. The horse’s … was decorated with paper flowers and ribbons for the occasion. 3. The rain beat at the window … .4. By way of a … psychological experience she decided to spend the night at a hotel. 5. That … I never thought of sleeping. 6. These worries … upon his mind. 7. He turned … when I told him we had found the gun near the house. 8. May he rest in … , poor soul! 9. His father worked as a … in that town. 10. In the Middle Ages a mounted soldier serving under a feudal superior was called a … . 11. He never took … to get a proper education. 12. She knelt down and began to … . 13. Very soon he was forced to … down his expenses. 14. Take some water from the … and wash your face. 15. Drive along the … road and then take the second turning to the left. 16.The woman carried a basket

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full of huge golden … . 17. A … pipe is a pipe smoked by the North American Indians as a token of … . 18. Now she found herself putting on a … of small pearl earrings and a single row of pearls.

f) (plain – plane / rain – reign – rein / root – route / road – rode – rowed / sale – sail / sheer – shear / sole – soul)

1. He jumped on his horse and … away. 2. She was red as a beet-… . 3. She kept a tight … on her husband. 4. There are … brown curtains at the window of my bedroom. 5. In slow and clumsy fashion I … about half a mile up the river, Sophie doing the steering with a short scull. 6. He is the … of humour. 7. To … means to remove wool from sheep with large scissors, or … . 8. … geometry deals with figures whose parts all lie in one … . 9. He used to come to our place every Sunday, … or shine. 10. Which … did he take? 11. She turned on to a narrow country … and went on faster. 12. She … into the room and stopped to be admired. 13. That building was designed during the … of Queen Victoria. 14. Be sure to buy this book: it is on … now. 15. Would you like … for your lunch? – Oh, I don’t like fish. Can I have some meat, please? 16. Does this boat … , or has it got an engine? 17. Ladies wore gaiters made of their old wool shawls and cut up carpets; the … of their shoes were made of wood. 18. The … reason for my staying here at all is your poor state of health. 19. She was wearing stockings of … silk. 20. They had hardly enough food to keep body and … together.

g) ( steel – steal / stare – stair / steak – stake / sight – site / seen – scene / sew – sow / through – threw / tale – tail)

1. I know that I can … and hem much better than my Aunty Em. 2. My grandmother doesn’t read much now. Her … is failing. 3. She managed to … a glance at the man. 4. Jane … the apple away because it was rotten right … . 5. Don’t … at the poor girl. She is embarrassed as it is. 6. I’d like a nice … for my dinner. 7. We can’t agree on this point, but please don’t make a … . 8. … the wind and reap the whirlwind. 9. She managed to… a glance at the man. 10. A long flight of … led down to the sea. 11. A … is a thick sharpened stick used to support a tent for young trees or plants. 12. Soames

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found a beautiful … for his new house. He had never been … since that day. 13. Children like fairy- … , but when they grow older, they prefer … of adventure.14. By the time I got to the churchyard I began to feel as if someone had tied a … knot across my brain. 15. To … one’s wild oats means to live immorally, usually when young. 16. As a man … , so shall he reap. 17. If you mix iron with carbon and make it hard and strong by heating you will get … . 18. There were distressing … when the earthquake occurred. 19. I could not make head or … of what he had told me.

h) (vein – vain – vane / whether – weather / which – witch / where – wear – ware / write – right – rite / wait – weight / weigh – way / waist – waste)

1. There is too much … in this house. 2. After you pass the … house, turn to the … . 3. It was in … that the old lady asked her if she was aware she was speaking to Miss Pinkerton. 4. In England apples are sold by … and oranges at so much a piece. 5. How often do you … yourself? – Twice a week. But it does not seem to help. I’m not getting any thinner. – That is not the … to lose … . You should diet. 6. She was so thin that … stood out against her pale skin. 7. … we go or … we stay, the result is the same. 8. A … is a person who professes or is supposed to practise magic, especially black magic. 9. You are old enough to know the difference between … and wrong. 10. She was not really bad, just … and thoughtless. 11. I don’t know … way we must take. 12. The … … on top of the town hall pointed east. 13. Joseph Seddley was as vain as a girl. He had dozens of … coats, a special one for every occasion. 14. … can I find shoes for everyday …? 15. … a minute. Will you stand on the scales, please? I must put down your … . 16. Don’t … your time reading this book. 17. He used to keep a hard … shop. 18. He behaved in a strange … , as if performing some peculiar … . 19. There are all kinds of silver … for sale here. 20. … to me as often as you can, please.

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Section 2. Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing

What are the differences among quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing? These three ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own writing differ according to the closeness of your writing to the source writing.

• Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original author.

• Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your own words. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader segment of the source and condensing it slightly.

• Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source material.

Why use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries? Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries serve many purposes. You might use them to . . .

• provide support for claims or add credibility to your writing • refer to work that leads up to the work you are now doing • give examples of several points of view on a subject • call attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree

with, highlight a particularly striking phrase, sentence, or passage by quoting the original

• distance yourself from the original by quoting it in order to cue readers that the words are not your own

• expand the breadth or depth of your writing Writers frequently intertwine summaries, paraphrases, and

quotations. As part of a summary of an article, a chapter, or a book, a writer might include paraphrases of various key points blended with quotations of striking or suggestive phrases:

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e.g. In his famous and influential work On the Interpretation of Dreams, Sigmund Freud argues that dreams are the "royal road to the unconscious" (page), expressing in coded imagery the dreamer's unfulfilled wishes through a process known as the "dream work" (page). According to Freud, actual but unacceptable desires are censored internally and subjected to coding through layers of condensation and displacement before emerging in a kind of rebus puzzle in the dream itself (pages).

How to use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries? Practice summarizing the following essay, using paraphrases and quotations as you go. It might be helpful to follow these steps:

• Read the entire text, noting the key points and main ideas. • Summarize in your own words what the single main idea of

the essay is. • Paraphrase important supporting points that come up in the

essay. • Consider any words, phrases, or brief passages that you

believe should be quoted directly. There are several ways to integrate quotations into your text.

Often, a short quotation works well when integrated into a sentence. Longer quotations can stand alone. Remember that quoting should be done only sparingly; be sure that you have a good reason to include a direct quotation when you decide to do so.

Exercise. A sample essay for summarising, paraphrasing, and quoting.

So That Nobody Has To Go School If They Don’t Want To by Roger Sipher A decline in standardized test scores is but the most recent indicator that American education is in trouble. One reason for the crisis is that present mandatory-attendance laws force many to attend school who have no wish to be there. Such children have little desire to learn and are so antagonistic to school

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that neither they nor more highly motivated students receive the quality education that is the birthright of every American. The solution to this problem is simple: Abolish compulsory-attendance laws and allow only those who are committed to getting an education to attend. This will not end public education. Contrary to conventional belief, legislators enacted compulsory-attendance laws to legalize what already existed. William Landes and Lewis Solomon, economists, found little evidence that mandatory-attendance laws increased the number of children in school. They found, too, that school systems have never effectively enforced such laws, usually because of the expense involved. There is no contradiction between the assertion that compulsory attendance has had little effect on the number of children attending school and the argument that repeal would be a positive step toward improving education. Most parents want a high school education for their children. Unfortunately, compulsory attendance hampers the ability of public school officials to enforce legitimate educational and disciplinary policies and thereby make the education a good one. Private schools have no such problem. They can fail or dismiss students, knowing such students can attend public school. Without compulsory attendance, public schools would be freer to oust students whose academic or personal behavior undermines the educational mission of the institution. Has not the noble experiment of a formal education for everyone failed? While we pay homage to the homily, "You can lead a horse to water but you can't make him drink," we have pretended it is not true in education. Ask high school teachers if recalcitrant students learn anything of value. Ask teachers if these students do any homework. Quite the contrary, these students know they will be passed from grade to grade until they are old enough to quit or until, as is more likely, they receive a high school diploma. At the point when students could legally quit, most choose to remain since they know they are likely to be allowed to graduate whether they do acceptable work or not. Abolition of archaic attendance laws would produce enormous dividends.

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First, it would alert everyone that school is a serious place where one goes to learn. Schools are neither day-care centers nor indoor street corners. Young people who resist learning should stay away; indeed, an end to compulsory schooling would require them to stay away. Second, students opposed to learning would not be able to pollute the educational atmosphere for those who want to learn. Teachers could stop policing recalcitrant students and start educating. Third, grades would show what they are supposed to: how well a student is learning. Parents could again read report cards and know if their children were making progress. Fourth, public esteem for schools would increase. People would stop regarding them as way stations for adolescents and start thinking of them as institutions for educating America's youth. Fifth, elementary schools would change because students would find out early they had better learn something or risk flunking out later. Elementary teachers would no longer have to pass their failures on to junior high and high school. Sixth, the cost of enforcing compulsory education would be eliminated. Despite enforcement efforts, nearly 15 percent of the school-age children in our largest cities are almost permanently absent from school. Communities could use these savings to support institutions to deal with young people not in school. If, in the long run, these institutions prove more costly, at least we would not confuse their mission with that of schools. Schools should be for education. At present, they are only tangentially so. They have attempted to serve an all-encompassing social function, trying to be all things to all people. In the process they have failed miserably at what they were originally formed to accomplish.

Section 3. Writing Practice. Composition Writing

Exercise 1. Happy New Year

Happy New Year! For many of us, a New Year signifies celebration—beginning with a clean slate and starting over, letting

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go of past regrets, making new resolutions. For others it merely means changing the calendar. Not this year. All of us are going to celebrate. We’re going to start the New Year with a party.

Spend ten to fifteen minutes filling out the blanks below. Don’t worry about complete sentences, grammar, or spelling. If money, location, time, etc., were no object, what would your ideal New Year party be like?

Describe the Place/location: (where would you throw the party?)

Theme: (formal, casual, costume, beach theme, oldies, etc.) Decorations: (Do not use adjectives. Describe specific

decorations) Lighting: Food and drink: (list specific foods and drinks as well as

whether it’s buffet style, sit-down, etc. Music/Entertainment: (what type of music? Is it live or

recorded? Do you have any other performers/acts?) Describe what you are wearing: Who is at your party? Now list three reasons for your party. Usually parties are

thrown with a purpose in mind. Be more specific than “celebrating a new year.” Is it to make a specific resolution? Is it to say good-bye to someone or something? Is it to forgive? To one-up someone? Or whatever else.

Now that you’ve set the scene for your party, you’re going to attend it. Spend fifteen minutes freewriting about the party, using what you’ve listed above. Describe yourself making a grand entrance and go from there. Somewhere in the scene, you will lift up a glass (of whatever) and make a toast. The rest of the scene is up to you. Again, don’t worry about spelling or grammar. Do not edit. No crossing out. Use all senses. Be specific. Take a deep breath….and go!

Exercise 2. No Plot

In fiction writing classes, we are taught that something must

happen in our stories, that all action has a cause and effect relationship. This happens because of this, then this because of that,

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and so on. We are taught to avoid writing stories where the character sits and thinks about things. But now it’s time to break the rules. Jerome Stern said, “Great art is formed from the broken rule.”

Here’s the exercise: Write a scene where someone is sitting somewhere and

thinking about things. Your character can be sitting in the living room in front of the television, in a bathtub, lying in bed sleepless, or wherever else you can think of. Link five thoughts and their associations back at least ten years. Link those with your setting, like for instance: flickering images on the television, the bubbles dissolving in the tub, the water growing cold, the changing light in the room, outside noises, the progression of the digital clock, etc. If you’ve done this successfully, you and your reader will know your character’s life story without ever having left his spot.

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Supplementary Material on Writing Practice

Exercise1. Read the following passage and work at the assignments given below:

One Sunday morning in winter I went for a walk along the sea-shore. It was a cold day and the beach was deserted. At the end of the beach I sat down to rest. A small white dog suddenly appeared and lay down at my feet. I stroked its head and it licked my hand. When I started to walk home it followed me and I couldn’t get rid of it. It had a collar on, but there was no name on it, so when I got home I rang up the nearest police-station. I told the sergeant in charge that I had found a small white dog, and that I would keep it until its owner claimed it. I gave him my name and address. Two days later a lady came to my home to claim the dog. She said she had lost it because it hated riding in cars, and on that Sunday it had jumped out of the open window of her car without her noticing. She offered me ten shillings, but of course I refused to take the money. She called the dog “Scotty” and it followed her as obediently as it had followed me. I was quite sorry to lose such a friendly little animal.

Assignment 1. Relate this incident as it might be told by the dog’s owner. Assignment 2. Imagine the conversation between the man who found the dog and the police sergeant. Write about ten lines of dialogue. Exercise 2. (a) First read the following passage:

Jim arrived home and discovered that he had forgotten to take

his door key. He rang the bell, but nobody came to open the door. He rang again and waited, but still there was no answer. He walked round the house to see if he could find an open window, but they were all locked. It was beginning to rain and he didn’t know what to do. Dorothy, his wife, had obviously gone out, and he didn’t know where she had gone to, or when she would return. He waited for half an hour. Still nobody came. Finally, feeling wet and cold and angry, he picked up a big stone and threw it through the kitchen window. Just as he had unlocked the window and was climbing it he heard the front door open. His wife had come back.

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(b) Retell this incident as it might be told by Dorothy. Begin like this:

Jim, my husband, always arrives home from work at 6 p.m.

One evening I had to go out unexpectedly… Exercise 3. Complete the following passage using the key words and phrases provided or inventing something of your own. Pay attention to the use of articles. Find a suitable title for your story.

Douglas and Robert were camping. One evening they broke their lantern, and made another putting a candle inside a cigarette tin and tying the tin to one of the tent-poles.

(suddenly tent fell down; candle had burnt tent-pole; tent caught fire; night in open air; end of camping holiday) Exercise 4. Complete the following passage making a story. Find a suitable title for your story.

I was leaving the cinema late one night when I slipped on the

stone stairs and broke my leg. Exercise 5. Write a one-paragraph story of about 100-120 words, using the pair of sentences given below. (You have been given the first and last sentences of your paragraph and should supply those, which come between.) Find a suitable title for your story. 1. “It’s your last chance,” said a voice. … … … Someone had forgotten to turn the radio off. 2. “I don’t like this hat either,” said the lady. … … … The floor was covered with hats. 3. A bird flew down the tree and rested on the fence. ... ... ... Sensing danger, the bird flew away just as the cat was ready to spring. Exercise 6. Using your imagination or drawing on your friends’ experience, complete the following story. Find a suitable title for your story. 1. It must have been about two in the morning when I returned home. I tried to wake up my mother by ringing the door-bell, but she was

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fast asleep, so I got a ladder from the shed in the garden, put it against the wall, and began climbing towards the bedroom window. I was almost there when a sarcastic voice below said: “I don’t think the windows need cleaning at this time of the night.” I looked down and nearly fell off the ladder when I saw ... 2. “I have never yet lost my way in the forest,” said Alexander defensively when the path which was supposed to take them to the station had petered away to nothing. “Well, you seem to have this time,” Jane observed caustically, putting down her heavy basket full of mushrooms. “And the last train leaves in less than an hour. Whatever shall we do?” she added after a short pause. ...

Exercise 7. Write a descriptive sketch of any of the following. Aim at making your portrait natural and life-like.

a. Your oldest or youngest relative; b. An interesting character whom you know; c. Your neighbour; d. Your fellow-student.

Exercise 8. Write something you remember that sums up the important feelings you have about your grandfather (grandmother).

You might want to start off with a list, listing everything about

your grandfather that comes to mind. If an image keeps surfacing, focus on it and freewrite for fifteen minutes. Write for fifteen minutes even if your thoughts jump around and don't force yourself back on track. If you can't remember something exactly push through it. You can make it up if you need to. When the fifteen minutes is up, read your piece aloud. This is an exercise you can return to again and again.

Here are some prompts to get you started: * Thinking about my grandfather... * I remember when my grandfather... * The last time I saw my grandfather... * Here are the facts about my grandfather... * If there is one trait I seem to have inherited from my grandfather...

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Exercise 9. Good-bye Scene.

For this exercise, you’re going to create a good-bye scene. You may approach this in any way you want. You may use it as an extension of the New Year writing exercise, where good-bye might mean saying good-bye to the previous year, old hurts, or whatever else. Or you may write a good-bye scene that has happened to you personally in your life. You are not restricted to writing it exactly as happened. You may change the events to fit the scene. Another option is to write a good-bye scene between two characters of a story you’re working on. To focus on what you’re going to write, freewrite for ten or fifteen minutes with the keyword, “good-bye.” When you’re warmed up, write the scene

Here are the requirements for the scene: • The scene must be at least 200 words. • The conflict should be apparent to the reader through the

action, description, and dialogue. • The scene should have a beginning, middle, and ending. • You must use dialogue in the scene. • Use concrete words and images. Focus on using strong verbs

and specific nouns. Avoid modifiers. Exercise 10. The aim of this exercise is to help students to write compositions by going over corresponding language notes. These notes will give them constructive guidance on composition writing, providing them with possible alternatives, useful phrases, language accuracy and structural harmony. What I Would Do If I Were Rich Useful phrases and sentences: A. Everyone has dreams [I, too, have dreams] - work hard to make money - can become rich if I become a ... - always enter lotteries in the hope of winning My ... is very rich - will give me a lot of money B. If I had ... pounds I ... First of all I would buy a fast car

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I would give it all to needy people I don’t ever want to be rich but if one day I ... I’m poor but happy I would give money to ... I would buy everything I have ever wanted [computer, video, etc.] Only with a lot of money – would I be able to ... // could I ... // can you ...

I would travel the world [overseas, abroad, exotic countries] I’d have a big house with a swimming pool I would give money so that a new theatre (school, art gallery,

museum ...) could be built in my town - live in luxury I would give money to promising young artists - help young people to be successful in their career - would go on wild spending sprees [buy everything in the

shop] C. It often brings problems I don’t think money brings happiness Money brings too many worries - not spend it all at once leaving me with nothing for the rest of my life - can make your old friends your enemies People might only like you because you are rich You will be envied [people will envy you] You must be careful D. - hope I’ll be rich one day - won’t be long before I become rich - try to win the football pools Money will make life comfortable I will start my own business when I leave school - well off (well-to-do) I can’t think of any way I can become rich If I become rich, it will be by accident I’m pretty sure that I have no chance of becoming wealthy - hope I will win a lot of money – on the football pools // in a lottery – some day - hope my dream will soon come true

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I wait in hope to see what the future brings Points to think about:

• How do you think you might become rich? a) by working hard b) your own business c) lottery – football pools

• What would you buy if you were rich? a) property – house – holiday house b) clothes – luxury items c) car, etc.

• Would you save some money? Why? • What would you enjoy most? • Would you give any money away? Why? – Why not? • Who would you give it to? Why? • What are the disadvantages of being rich? • How important is money in helping you find happines in

your life? • Do you really need a lot of money?

Some helpful words and expressions: at least – as long as – in other words – besides – at once – in spite of – however – in fact

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Sources

1. Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab (OWL) /Purdue University – Indianapolis, Indiana, 2003.

2. Writing Power/ Nancy White – published by Kaplan Educational Centers And Simon & Schuster, New York, 1997.

3. Грамматика современного английского языка для университетов / Кверк Р., Гринбаум С., Лич Дж., Свартвик Я. = A University Grammar of English / Quirk R., Greenbaum S., Leech G., Svartvik J – М.: “Высшая школа”, 1982. – 391 с.

4. Письменная практика: Учеб. пособие для сту-дентов пед. ин-тов по спец. # 2103 “Иностр. яз.”/ И. А. Уолш, А. И. Варшавская, И. А. Василевич и др. – М.: “Просвещение”, 1983. – 208 с.

5. Пособие по письменной практике (на англ. яз.): Учеб. пособие для студентов фак. и ин-тов иностр. яз./ С. Б. Берлизон, Е. А. Чапник и др. – Л.: “Просвещение”, 1976. – 223 с.

6. Пишите по-английски правильно = Spell it cor-rectly: Учеб. пособие по орфографии англ. яз./ А. В. Куценко. – М.: ООО “Издательство Астрель”: ООО “Издательство АСТ”, 2001. – 160 с.

7. Сборник упражнений по синтаксису сложного предложения в английском языке: Учеб. пособие для студентов старших курсов ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз./ Л. А. Бармина, Б. И. Бирштейн и др. – М.: “Высшая школа”, 1973. – 152 с.

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