PREPARED BY:

Awit, Rendel Mark (LEADER)

Mapa, Tobias

Genodia, Ma. Fe

Ordinario, Ma. Angela

Gurtiza, Sharlayne

Estonilo, Maria Cecilia

Toledo, Angelica Marie

Sagario, Geraldine

Hermosura, Kristine

Mendoza, David

Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system or sometimes called the circulatory system is consists of the heart, which is a muscular pumping device and a closed system of vessels called arteries, veins and capillaries. As the name implies, blood contain in the circulatory system is pumped by the heart to transport nutrients, waste products, gasses and hormones throughout the body. It also plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of the body temperature and provides clotting to stop the bleeding of an injury.

As we said, the Cardiovascular system is composed of the:

Heart

The heart is a hollow muscular organ which beats over 100,000 a day to pump blood around the body’s 60,000 miles of blood vessels. It is found thoracic cavity between the lungs and is protected by a cavity called the pericardium. Blood

The red, viscid fluid filling and circulating through the heart and blood vessels which is consists of cells and cell fragments called formed elements and water with dissolved molecules called blood plasma. Its function is to supply nutritive material to and carries waste away from the body tissues.

Blood Vessel

Blood vessels are channels for transporting blood throughout the body comprising of arteries, capillaries and veins.

Blood

The blood is a connective tissue containing many suspended cells and can be found flowing through the circulatory system transporting substances. These substances may include the digested food substances like amino acids and glucose, excretory products of the body, heat from the respiring body organs and tissues and oxygen and carbon dioxide for respiration. Apart from the transportation of substances, blood also serves to protect the body against pathogens.

Functions of Blood:

1. Transport of gasses, nutrients and waste products.2. Transport of processed molecules.3. Transport of regulatory molecules.4. Regulation of pH and osmosis.5. Maintenance of body temperature6. Protection against foreign substances7. Clot formation

Compositions of Blood

Our body is composed of 92% fluids tissues and 8% blood. 55% of this blood is made up of plasma constituting the fluid part of the blood and the other 45% are the cells and platelets that are also present in our blood.

o PlasmaA pale yellow fluid that consist of about 91% water; 7% proteins; and 2% other

substances, such as ions, nutrients, gasses and waste products. Plasma proteins include albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen.

o Formed ElementsThese are the cells and cell fragments found in the blood mostly consists of 95%

red blood cells (erythrocytes), 5% white blood cells(leukocytes) and cell fragments called platelets (Thrombocytes).

Hematopoiesis

It is the process of blood cell production which occurs in tissues such as liver, thymus gland, spleen, lymph nodes and bone marrow during fetal stage but after birth it only takes place in the bone marrow with the exception of some white blood cells forming in lymphatic tissues. The accepted theory on how this process work is called the monophyletic theory which means all matured blood cells of the blood came from a single population of cells called Pluripotent stem cells.

How it works:

Pluripotent stem cells multiply to produce more stem cells to ensure the lasting supply of stem cells or may multiply slowly into one of the five possible Unipotential stem cells which then multiply rapidly into the precursor of the specific matured blood cell they are intended.

Products of Hematopoiesis

o Red Blood Cells

Erythrocytes are biconcave disks, 6.5 to 8.5 mcm which does not contain nucleus but contains hemoglobin which colors the cell red. Its primary function is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the various tissues of the body and to assist in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

o White blood Cells

Leukocytes are spherical cells containing nucleus but white in color due to lack of hemoglobin. Its functions are protecting our body against invading microorganisms and to remove dead cells and debris from the tissues by phagocytosis. White blood cells have two forms according to their appearance, these forms are the: Granulocytes and Agranulocytes. Granulocytes are those large cytoplasmic granules while Agranulocytes are those with very small granules.

Granulocytes have three kinds:

Neutrophil- Nucleus with two to four lobes connected by thin filaments; cytoplasmic

granules stain alight pink or reddish purple; 10-12 mcm in diameter. Its function is to phagocytize microorganism and other substances.

Basophil- Nucleus with two indistinct lobes; cytoplasmic granules stain blue purple; 10-

12 mcm in diameter. Its function is to release histamine, which promotes inflammation, and heparin which prevents clot formation.

Eosinophil- Nucleus of bilobed; cytoplasmic granules stain orange red or bright red; 11-14

mcm in diameter. Its function is to release chemicals that reduce inflammation; attacks certain worm parasites.

Agranulocytes have two kinds:

Lymphocytes- Round nucleus; cytoplasm forms a thin ring around the nucleus; 6-14 mcm in

diameter. Its function is to produce antibodies and other chemicals responsible for destroying microorganisms; contributes to allergic reactions, graft rejection, tumor control and regulation of the immune system.

Monocytes- Nucleus round, kidney, or horse shoe shape; contains more cytoplasm than

does lymphocyte; 12-20 mcm in diameter. Its function is to phagocyticizes bacteria, dead cells, cell fragments and other debris within tissues.

o Platelets

Thrombocytes are cell fragments surrounded by a plasma membrane and they also contain granules.2-4 mcm in diameter. Their main function is to prevent blood loss by forming platelet plugs which seal holes in small vessels and form clots which help seal off larger wounds in vessels.

Blood Grouping

Not all human blood is the same. A person in need of a blood transfusion (transfer of blood from an individual to another) cannot be given blood from a randomly selected donor. Incompatibility of blood types is due in part to antigens. An antigen is a protein on cell surfaces that can stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies, which fight foreign invaders. Antibodies are very specific, meaning each antibody can combine only with a certain antigen. When the antibodies in the plasma bind to the antigens in the surface of the red blood cells, they form molecular bridges that connect the red blood cells together. As a result agglutination or clamping of the cells occurs. This also initiates the action hemolysis or rupture of the red blood cells. The debris formed from the ruptured red blood cells produce clotting within the small blood vessels as a result of these changes, tissue damage or death may occur. The antigen on the surface of red blood cells have been categorized into blood groups, these are:

o ABO Blood GroupThe most important blood group system is the ABO system. ABO antigens are

carbohydrates. There are three alleles at the ABO locus on the long arm of chromosome 9: A, B and O. The A gene results in the expression of A antigen on the red cells and the B gene results in the expression of B antigen. The O gene does not produce a detectable blood group antigen.

o Rh blood groupThe Rh blood group system is the second most important system and is the most

complex. It is important because it is associated with hemolytic transfusion reactions

and with development of severe hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN). Rh antigens are proteolipids and lack carbohydrate.

Blood Vessels and Circulation

Functions of the Peripheral Circulation

1. Carry the blood.2. Exchange nutrients, waste products and gases.3. Transport.4. Regulate blood pressure.5. Direct blood flow.

General features of Blood Vessel Structure

o Arteries- (Resembling a windpipe) are blood vessels that carry blood away from

the heart.o Elastic Arteries

- The largest diameter arteries and have the thickest walls. A greater proportion of their walls is elastic tissue, and a smaller proportion is smooth muscle compared with other arteries.

o Muscular Arteries- Frequently called distributing arteries.- Medium sized and small diameter arteries. The walls of the medium-

sized arteries are relatively thick compared with their diameter. Vasoconstriction- is the contraction of the smooth muscle in blood

vessel, decreases blood vessel diameter and blood flow. Vasodilation- is the relaxation of the smooth muscle in blood vessels,

increases blood vessel in diameter.

Capillaries- (Resembling fine hairs), where exchange occurs between the blood and

tissue fluid. Capillaries have thinner walls. Blood flows through them more slowly, and there are far more of them than any other blood vessel type.

- Capillary walls consist of endothelium which is a layer of simple squamous epithelium surrounded by a delicate loose connective tissue.

Precapillary Sphincters - Located at the origin of the branches. It regulates blood flow by smooth muscle cells.

Veins- Blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart.

Venules

- are tubes with a diameter slightly larger than that of capillaries and are composed of endothelium resting on a delicate connective tissue layer.

Small Veins- are slightly larger in diameter than venules. All three tunics are present in small veins. The tunica media contains a continuous layer of smooth muscle cells, and the connective tissue of the tunica adventitia surrounds the tunica media.

Medium Sized Veins- collect blood from small veins and deliver it to large veins. The three thin but distinctive tunics make up the wall of the medium-sized and large veins.- The tunica media contains some circular smooth muscle and sparsely scattered elastic fibers. The predominant layer is the outer tunica adventitia, which consist of primarily of dense collagen fibers.

Blood Vessels of the Pulmonary Circulation

The pulmonary circulation is a circuit of blood circulation in the cardiovascular system, serving exclusively the lungs, where red blood cells pick up oxygen and release carbon dioxide during respiration.

Deoxygenated blood is pumped out of the right ventricle of the heart into the pulmonary trunk, then to the pulmonary arteries and into the lungs. Via pulmonary veins, oxygenated blood is then drained into the left atrium. Blood is then circulated in the systemic circulation.

Blood Vessels of the Systemic Circulation: Arteries

o Systemic Circulation

- Flow of the blood through the system of blood vessels that carries blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the tissues of the body and back to the right atrium. Food products enter the system from the digestive organs into the portal vein. Waste products are removed by the liver and kidneys. All systems ultimately return to the "right heart" via the inferior and superior vena cavae.

o Aorta

- The largest artery in the body, the main artery for systemic circulation, carries blood from the left ventricle of the heart and passes through the thorax and abdomen.

Three Parts of Aorta

Ascending Aorta- branches into the "arch of the aorta."

Aortic Arch- the "brachiocephalic artery," which supplies blood to the brain and head, the left common carotid artery and the left subclavian artery originates here.

Descending Aorta- Although the descending aorta is positioned to the left of the body's midline, it gradually descends to directly in front of the vertebral column at the left of the 12th thoracic vertebra. The portion of the descending aorta above the diaphragm is called the "thoracic aorta" and gives off branches into the thoracic wall. These branches, the bronchial, pericardial, and esophageal arteries, supply blood to the organs for which they were named. Below the diaphragm, the descending aorta becomes the "abdominal aorta," stemming off into branches which reach the abdominal wall and various tissues and organs of the abdomen

o Arteries of the Head and Neck

Brachiocephalic artery Common Carotid Artery Internal Carotid Arteries External Carotid Arteries Vertebral Artery

o Arteries of the Upper Limbs

- The arteries of the upper limbs are named differently as they pass into different body regions, even though no major branching occurs.

Subclavian artery- located deep to the clavicle.

Axillary artery- in the axilla(armpit)

Brachial artery- located in the arm

Ulnar artery supply blood in the forearm and hand

Radial artery

o The Thoracic Aorta and Its Branches

- Branches of the thoracic aorta divided into two groups.

Visceral Arteries- supply thoracic organs such as esophagus, trachea, parietal pericardium, and part of the lung.

Parietal arteries- supply the thoracic wall.

Posterior intercostals arteries- arise from the thoracic aorta and aorta and extend between the ribs. It supply intercostals muscles.

Superior phrenic arteries- supply the diaphragm

Internal thoracic arteries- branches of the subclavian arteries.

Anterior intercostals arteries- extend between the ribs to supply the anterior chest wall.

o The Abdominal Aorta And its Branches

- There are two types of branches of the abdominal Aorta like those of the Thoracic Aorta.

The Visceral and Parietal groups.

- The Visceral Arteries are divided into Paired and Unpaired Branches

3 major Unpaired branches

Celiac trunk

- supplies blood to the stomach, pancreas, spleen, upper duodenum, and liver.

Superior Mesenteric Artery

- supplies blood to the small intestine and the upper portion of the large intestine.

Inferior Mesenteric Artery

- supplies blood to the remainder of the large intestine

3 paired branches

Renal Arteries

- supply blood to the kidney

Suprarenal Arteries (superior to the kidney)

- supply the adrenal glands

Testicular Arteries

- supply the testes in males

Ovarian Arteries

- supply the ovaries in females

Parietal Branches

- supply diaphragm and abdominal wall

Inferior Pyretic Arteries

- supply diaphragm

Lumbar Arteries

- supply the lumbar vertebrae and back muscles

Median Sacral Artery

- supplies the inferior vertebrae

o Arteries of the Pelvis

- The abdominal aorta divides at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra into common arteries. Each common iliac artery divides to form:

External Iliac Artery

- Enters lower limb

Internal Iliac Artery

- Supply the pelvic areas

- Supply organs such as urinary bladder, rectum, uterus, and vagina

- Supply blood to the walls and floor of the pelvis; the lumbar, gluteal, and proximal thigh muscles; the external genitalia

o Arteries of the Lower Limbs

- Like the arteries in the upper limbs, arteries of the lower limbs are named differently as they pass through different body regions:

Femural Artery

- Located in the thigh

Popliteal Artery

- Located at the posterior regions of the knee.

- The popliteal artery branches slightly inferior to the knee to give off the Anterior Tibial Artery and Posterior Tibial Artery.

Anterior and Posterior Tibial Artery

- Supply blood to the legs and feet

The anterior Tibial Artery becomes the Dorsal Pedis and the Posterior Tibial Artery gives rise to the Fibular, or peroneal, Artery.

Dorsalis Pedis

- Located at the ankle

Fibular Artery

- Supply the lateral leg and foot

o Veins of the Upper Limbs

Deep veins-drains the deep structure of the upper limbs, follow the same course as the arteries.

Brachial veins-the only noteworthy deep veins; accompany the brachial artery and empty into the auxiliary veins

Superficial veins-drain the superficial structure of the upper limbs and then empty into the deep vein.

Cephalic vein-toward the head; empties into the auxiliary vein and basilic vein, which becomes the auxiliary veins are the major superficial vein.

Median cubital vein-connects the cephalic vein or its tributaries with the basilic veins.

o Veins of the Thorax

- 3 major veins return blood from the thorax to the superior vena cava

Left brachiocephalic vein

Right brachiocephalic vein

Azygos veins

-blood drains from the anterior thoracic wall by way of the anterior intercostal veins. These veins is empty into the internal thoracic veins, which empty into the brachiocephalic veins.

-blood from the posterior thoracic wall is collected by posterior intercostal veins; which drains into the azygos vein.

o Veins of the Head and Neck

External and internal Jugular veins

- 2 pairs of major veins that drain blood from the head and neck.

External Jugular Veins

- More superficial of 2 sets

- They drain blood from the posterior head and neck.

- Empty primarily into the Subclavian Vein.

Internal Jugular Veins

- Much larger and deeper

- They drain blood from the brain and the anterior head, face and neck.

Internal Jugular Veins join Subclavian Veins on each side of the body and form Brachiocephalic which then joins to form the Superior Vena Cava

Veins of the lower limbs

The veins on this part were just like in the upper limbs for it also consists of deep and superficial groups.

o SUPERFICIAL VEINS- consist of:

Great Saphenous Veins:

- Originates over dorsal and medial side of the foot and ascends along the medial side of the leg and thigh to empty into femoral vein. Small Saphenous Veins:

- Begins over the lateral side of the foot and joins popliteal veins, in turn, becomes femoral vein. The femoral vein empties into external iliac vein.

Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis

Blood from the posterior abdominal wall drains through ascending lumbar veins into azygos veins. Blood from the rest of the abdomen and from the pelvis and lower limbs returns to the heart trough the inferior vena cava. The gonads (testes or ovaries), kidneys, adrenal glands and liver are the only abdominal organs outside the pelvis from which blood drains directly into inferior vena cava. The internal iliac veins drain the pelvis and join the external iliac veins. The common iliac veins combine to form the inferior vena cava. Blood from the capillaries within most of abdominal viscera, such as stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen, drains through a specialized system of blood vessel to the liver. The liver is the major processing center for substances absorbed by the intestinal tract. A portal system is a vascular system that begins and ends with capillary beds and has no pumping mechanism such as the heart between them. The hepatic portal system begins with capillaries in the viscera and ends capillaries in the liver. The major tributaries of the hepatic portal system are the splenic vein and the superior mesenteric vein. The inferior mesenteric vein empties into the splenic vein. The splenic vein carries blood from the spleen and pancreas. The superior and inferior mesenteric veins carry blood from the intestines. The splenic vein and the superior mesenteric vein join to form the hepatic portal vein, which enters the liver.

Blood from the liver flows into hepatic veins, which joins the inferior vena cava. Blood entering the liver through the hepatic portal vein ir rich with nutrients collected from the intestines, but it may also contain a number of toxic substances harmful to the tissues of the body. Within the liver, nutrients are taken up and stored or modified so they can be used by other cells of the body. Toxic substances are converted to nontoxic substances and are removed from the blood or are carried by the blood to the kidneys.

The term hematopoiesis refers to the formation and development of the cells of the blood. In humans, this process begins in the yolk sac in the first weeks of embryonic development. By the third month of gestation, stem cells migrate to the fetal liver and then to the spleen (between 3-7 months gestation these two organs play a major hempatopoietic role).

Next, the bone marrow becomes the major hematopoietic organ and hematopoiesis ceases in

the liver and spleen.

Every functional specialized mature blood cell is derived from a common stem cell. These stem cells are therefore, PLURIPOTENT.

It has been estimated that there is approximately 1 stem cell per 104 bone marrow cells. These stem cells represent a self-renewing population of cells.  These cells also must have the potential to differentiate and to become committed to a particular blood cell lineage.

Due to the low frequency of these cells and the inability to culture these cells in vitro, stem cells have been very difficult to study.

Rizal's European experience was complete with hanging out in bistros and cafes, sharing beer at country inns, and dressing for elegant balls, masked or otherwise.  Photo shows Rizal (left) be-turbanned for a party with friends Paz Pardo de Tavera, Luna, Nelly Bousted, [emphasis - rly], Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo and two unidentified ladies." In Excelsis: The Mission of Jose P. Rizal, Humanist and Philippine National Hero by Felice Prudenta Sta. Maria