Xerxes I of Persia 1

Xerxes I of Persia

Xerxes the GreatKing of Kings of Persia

Xerxes I, from Hadish Palace at Persepolis.

Reign 486 to 465 BC

Coronation October 486 BC

Born 518 BC

Birthplace Persia

Died 465 BC (aged 54)

Place of death Persia

Buried Persia

Predecessor Darius the Great

Successor Artaxerxes I

Consort Amestris, Esther?

Royal House Achaemenid

Father Darius the Great

Mother Atossa

Religious beliefs Zoroastrianism

Xerxes I of Persia (/ˈzɜrksiːz/; Old Persian: Xšaya-ṛšā IPA: [xʃajaːrʃaː] meaning "ruling over heroes";[1] Greek:Ξέρξης [ksérksɛːs]; Hebrew: ׁאֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹש, Modern Aẖashverosh Tiberian ʼĂḥašwērôš), also known as Xerxes the Great(519–465 BC), was the fifth King of Kings of Persia.

Life

Youth and rise to powerImmediately after seizing the kingship, Darius I of Persia (son of Hystaspes) married Atossa (daughter of Cyrus the Great). They were both descendants of Achaemenes from different Achaemenid lines. Marrying a daughter of Cyrus strengthened Darius's position as king.[2] Darius was an active emperor, busy with building programs in Persepolis, Susa, Egypt, and elsewhere. Toward the end of his reign he moved to punish Athens, but a new revolt in Egypt (probably led by the Persian satrap) had to be suppressed. Under Persian law, the Achaemenian kings were required to choose a successor before setting out on such serious expeditions. Upon his great decision to leave (487–486 BC),[3] Darius prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his

Xerxes I of Persia 2

successor. Darius's failing health then prevented him from leading the campaigns,[4] and he died in October 486BC.[4]

Artabazanes claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children, because it was an established custom all over theworld for the eldest to have the pre-eminence; while Xerxes, on the other hand, urged that he was sprung fromAtossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom. Some modern scholarsalso view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the uniquepositions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa have had.[5] Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject",while Xerxes was the eldest son born in the purple after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was acommoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.[6]

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC[7] when he was about 36 years old.[3]

The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to the great authority of Atossa[2] and his accessionof royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.[8]

Almost immediately, he suppressed the revolts in Egypt and Babylon that had broken out the year before, andappointed his brother Achaemenes as governor or satrap (Old Persian: khshathrapavan) over Egypt. In 484 BC, heoutraged the Babylonians by violently confiscating and melting down[9] the golden statue of Bel (Marduk,Merodach), the hands of which the rightful king of Babylon had to clasp each New Year's Day. This sacrilege led theBabylonians to rebel in 484 BC and 482 BC, so that in contemporary Babylonian documents, Xerxes refused hisfather's title of King of Babylon, being named rather as King of Persia and Media, Great King, King of Kings(Shahanshah) and King of Nations (i.e. of the world).Even though Herodotus's report in the Histories has created certain problems concerning Xerxes's religious beliefs,modern scholars consider him a Zoroastrian.[10]

Campaigns

Invasion of the Greek mainland

Xerxes I of Persia 3

Xerxes attending the lashing and "chaining" of theHellespont (Illustration from 1909)

Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army toinvade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task ofpunishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for theirinterference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis and theirvictory over the Persians at Marathon. From 483 BC Xerxesprepared his expedition: A channel was dug through the isthmus ofthe peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in thestations on the road through Thrace, two pontoon bridges laterknown as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across theHellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies ofXerxes, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians,Egyptians and Jews.[11]

According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attemptto bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyedthe flax and papyrus cables of the bridges: Xerxes ordered theHellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times and hadfetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge theHellespont was successful.[12] Xerxes concluded an alliance withCarthage, and thus deprived Greece of the support of the powerfulmonarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum. Many smaller Greekstates, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly,Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.

Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughlyone million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Persian Immortals. More recent estimates place thePersian force at around 60,000 combatants,[13] as no land at the time could have supported foraging of such anextravagant number of soldiers, especially in the rough and semi-desertic Persian territories of Syria, Iraq andTurkey where the army would have amassed.

Thermopylae and AthensAt the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the muchlarger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanxafter a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains.After Thermopylae, Athens was captured and the Athenians were driven back to their last line of defense at theIsthmus of Corinth and in the Saronic Gulf.What happened next is a matter of some controversy. According to Herodotus, upon encountering the deserted city,in a fit of rage uncharacteristic even for Persian kings, Xerxes had Athens burned. He immediately regretted thisaction and ordered it rebuilt the next day. However, Persian scholars dispute this view as pan-Hellenic propaganda,arguing that Sparta, not Athens, was Xerxes's main foe in his Greek campaigns, and that Xerxes would have hadnothing to gain by destroying a major center of trade and commerce like Athens once he had already captured it.

Xerxes I of Persia 4

Inscription of Xerxes the Great near the Van Citadel

At that time, anti-Persian sentiment was high among manymainland Greeks, and the rumor that Xerxes had destroyed the citywas a popular one, though it is equally likely the fire was startedby accident as the Athenians were frantically fleeing the scene inpandemonium, or that it was an act of "scorched earth" warfare todeprive Xerxes's army of the spoils of the city.

At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greekside and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks receivednews of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. Xerxes wasinduced by the message of Themistocles (against the advice ofArtemisia of Halicarnassus) to attack the Greek fleet underunfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution ofthe Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set upa winter camp in Thessaly.[citation needed]

Due to unrest in Babylon, Xerxes was forced to send his army home to prevent a revolt, leaving behind an army inGreece under Mardonius, who was defeated the following year at Plataea.[14] The Greeks also attacked and burnedthe remaining Persian fleet anchored at Mycale. This cut off the Persians from the supplies they needed to sustaintheir massive army, and they had no choice but to retreat. Their withdrawal roused the Greek city-states of Asia.

Construction projects

The rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam north ofPersepolis, copying that of Darius, is usually assumed

to be that of Xerxes

After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persiaand completed the many construction projects left unfinished byhis father at Susa and Persepolis. He built the Gate of all Nationsand the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are thelargest and most imposing structures of the palace. He completedthe Apadana, the Palace of Darius and the Treasury all started byDarius as well as building his own palace which was twice the sizeof his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that ofDarius, though on an even more gigantic scale.[15] He alsomaintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed theSusa Gate and built a palace at Susa.[16]

Death

In 465 BC, Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus, the commander ofthe royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persiancourt (Hazarapat/commander of thousand). Although Artabanusbore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a Hyrcanian,his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religiousquarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons inkey positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achamenids.[17]

In August 465 BC, Artabanus assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Greek historians givecontradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown PrinceDarius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge thepatricide by killing Darius.

Xerxes I of Persia 5

But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. AfterArtaxerxes discovered the murder he killed Artabanus and his sons.[18] Participating in these intrigues was thegeneral Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achamenids from losing their control of thePersian throne.[19]

ChildrenBy queen Amestris:• Amytis, wife of Megabyzus•• Artaxerxes I• Darius, the first born, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus.• Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I.• Achaemenes, murdered by Egyptians.•• RhodoguneBy unknown wives:• Artarius, satrap of Babylon.•• Tithraustes• Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas satrap of Egypt.• Parysatis[20]

• Ratashah[21]

Cultural depictionsXerxes often identified with Ahasuerus, a persian king mentioned several times in the Bible and a key figure in theBook of Esther.Xerxes is also the central character of the Aeschylus play "The Persians". Xerxes is the protagonist of the operaSerse by the German-English Baroque composer George Frederic Handel. It was first performed in the King'sTheatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.[citation needed]

The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown prince Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus(Megabise) and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his operalibretto Artaserse, which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such asJohann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach.Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, and particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes'portrayal in works of popular culture, although more often than not in a negative light, often portraying him asranging from unsympathetic to megalomaniacal. For instance, he was played by David Farrar in the fictional filmThe 300 Spartans (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He alsofeatures prominently in the graphic novel 300 by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation 300 (2007), asportrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant god-king. This portrayal hasattracted controversy, especially in Iran.[22]

Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also referenced Xerxes, such as thevideo game Assassin's Creed II and the film One Night with the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) wasportrayed by British actor Luke Goss. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game Civilization II and III(along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Cyrus the Great and Darius I.[citation needed]

Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achemenids, especiallyDarius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. His vision of history goes against the grain ofGreek histories.[citation needed]

Xerxes I of Persia 6

References[1] http:/ / www. iranicaonline. org/ articles/ xerxes-1-name[2] Schmitt, R., Atossa in Encyclopaedia Iranica.[3][3] Dandamaev, M. A., A political history of the Achaemenid empire, p. 180.[4] A. Sh. Shahbazi, Darius I the Great, in Encyclopaedia Iranica.[5][5] R. Shabani Chapter I, p. 15[6][6] Olmstead: the history of Persian empire[7][7] The cambridge history of Iran vol. 2. p. 509.[8][8] The Cambridge ancient history vol. V p. 72.[9] R. Ghirshman, Iran, p.191[10] M. Boyce, Achaemenid Religion in Encyclopædia Iranica. See also p. 101.[11][11] Farrokh 2007: 77[12] Bailkey, Nels, ed. Readings in Ancient History, p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., USA, 1992.[13] Barkworth, 1993. The Organization of Xerxes' Army. Iranica Antiqua Vol. 27, pp. 149-167[14] Battle of Salamis and aftermath (http:/ / www. livius. org/ a/ battlefields/ salamis/ salamis. html)[15] Ghirshman, Iran, p.172[16][16] Herodotus VII.11[17][17] Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p 873[18][18] Dandamayev[19][19] History of Persian Empire-Olmstead p 289/90[20][20] Ctesias[21] M. Brosius, Women in ancient Persia.[22] Boucher, Geoff "Frank Miller returns to the '300' battlefield with 'Xerxes': 'I make no apologies whatsoever'" (http:/ / herocomplex. latimes.

com/ 2010/ 06/ 01/ xerxes-300-frank-miller-300-zack-snyder-300/ ), "The Los Angeles Times", June 01, 2010, accessed May 14, 2010.

Bibliography

Ancient sources• The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato in History of Herodotus.• The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia in History of Herodotus.

Modern sources• Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A political history of the Achaemenid empire. Brill Publishers. p. 373.

ISBN 90-04-09172-6.• The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. 2004. ISBN 1-59308-102-2.• Shabani, Reza (1386 AP). Khshayarsha (Xerxes). What do I know about Iran? No. 75 (http:/ / www.

iranculturestudies. com/ persian/ whatsiran. html) (in Persian). Cultural Research Burreau. p. 120.ISBN 964-379-109-2.

• Shahbazi, A. Sh. "Darius I the Great" (http:/ / www. iranicaonline. org/ articles/ darius-iii). EncyclopaediaIranica. vol. 7. Routledge & Kegan Paul.

• Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Achaemenid dynasty" (http:/ / www. iranicaonline. org/ articles/ achaemenid-dynasty).Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul.

• Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Atossa" (http:/ / www. iranicaonline. org/ articles/ atossa-achaemenid-queen). EncyclopaediaIranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul.

• McCullough, W. S. "Ahasuerus" (http:/ / www. iranicaonline. org/ articles/ ahasureus). Encyclopaedia Iranica.vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul.

• Boyce, Mary. "Achaemenid Religion" (http:/ / www. iranicaonline. org/ articles/ achaemenid-religion).Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul.

• Dandamayev, M. A (1999). "Artabanus" (http:/ / www. iranicaonline. org/ articles/ artabanus-achaemenid).Encyclopædia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Retrieved 2009-02-25.

• Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 301. ISBN 0-297-16727-8.

Xerxes I of Persia 7

• Schmeja, H. (1975). "Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (ZuHerodot 6,98,3)". Die Sprache 21: 184–88.

• Gershevitch, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran 2. CambridgeUniversity Press. ISBN 0-521-20091-1.

• Boardman, John; al., et (1988). The Cambridge ancient history V. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-22804-2.

• Barkworth, Peter R. (1993). "The Organization of Xerxes' Army". Iranica Antiqua 27: 149–167.

Xerxes I of PersiaAchaemenid dynasty

Born: 519 BC Died: 465 BC

Preceded byDarius I the Great

King of Kings ofPersia

485 BC – 465 BC

Succeeded byArtaxerxes I

Pharaoh of Egypt485 BC – 465 BC

Article Sources and Contributors 8

Article Sources and ContributorsXerxes I of Persia  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=566278607  Contributors: 1130130, 3210, A Softer Answer, A. Parrot, A.J.Chesswas, ABF, AHert, Abce2, Abune,Academic Challenger, Access Denied, Adam Bishop, Adoughnut12345, AgadaUrbanit, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Akatie, Alan Canon, Alan Liefting, Alanmaher, Alansohn, Aldux, Alessio.aguirre,Alex Middleton, Ali besharatian, Ali.Sanaei, Ali110, Alice Mudgarden, Aloysius the Gaul, Amaury, Amizzoni, Amphetachronism, Anaxial, AndperseAndy, Andre Engels, Andrew J. Maher,Andrewpmk, Angr, AnnekeBart, Anon1765, AnonMoos, Anonymous44, Anoushirvan, Anþony, Arad, Arbero, Ardeshire Babakan, Arthena, Arvand, Ashwinlee2892, Askahrc, Astral, Atlacatl,Avanduyn, Ave Caesar, Avoided, Avono, AxelBoldt, BGManofID, Baa, Bachrach44, Baldhur, BanRay, Bar Code Symmetry, Batman2010, BazookaJoe, Beh-nam, Benjy613, Benyon22, Bigpad,Binabik80, Biruitorul, BlueAg09, Blueberrybuttermilkpancakes, Bluezy, Bobafett356, Bogdan, BomBom, Borgardt, Bremerenator, Brianga, Briangotts, Bricology, Brigade Piron, Bryan Derksen,Bumm13, CIreland, Cadsuane Melaidhrin, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cantiorix, Captmondo, CardinalDan, Carl Caputo, Caypartis, Chaleyer61, Charles Matthews, Chewings72,Chimesmonster, Chris 73, Chris Weimer, ChrisGualtieri, Chrispiotrowski, Christian List, Churchic, Colejerkone, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Costos, Coverage1600, Cpl Syx, Cplakidas,CranialNerves, Crazyindiangirl123, CredoFromStart, Cseibert1, Cst17, Ctta0s, Cureden, Cyrus111, Cyrus777, D3gtrd, Daftwork, Dan Gluck, Daneshju2006, Danlibbo, Danny, Dariush of Persia,Daveh4h, Dbachmann, Ddd0dd, DeadEyeArrow, DeadTotoro, Deanster123, Deflective, Dejvid, Demonic Baboon, Dempsey01, Den fjättrade ankan, Dick Shane, Dick34, Digidestine, Dijan,Dimadick, Dimos836, Dinamyte, DionysosProteus, Discospinster, Djbutiman, Dkechag, Dmws, DopefishJustin, Dougweller, Dr. Blofeld, Dr. Persi, DragonflySixtyseven, Dreadstar, Dreyk,Dukeofomnium, Dwayne, Dysepsion, E0steven, Ebonawit, Efyoo, Ekem, Ekren, Ekrumme, El C, Electricserge, ElhamHD, EliasAlucard, Eliyak, Emerson54, EnviroGranny, Enviroboy, EnzoAquarius, Epbr123, Eqdoktor, Equal Enjoy, Eric12, Erik9, EunseokLee, Excirial, Ezra Theiss, Faisal shekhani, Falcon8765, Fantasizer Wiki, Farmokopole, FateClub, Father Chaos, Favonian,FeanorStar7, Feinoha, Fethers, Fishal, Flix11, Flominator, Fluffernutter, Freakofnurture, FreemDeem, Friedjack, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Fæ, Gac123, Gaius Cornelius, Gary King, Gennarous,Geoff Bonanno, Geomancer T-1000, George Church, Gilarski, GilbertoSilvaFan, Gilgamesh, Glane23, GoShow, Gollumova, GorillaWarfare, Gre regiment, Greg, Gveda, HannesP, Hanzo66,HarryKG, Harvzsf, Hghyux, Hippietrail, HistorianCP, Historydude1978, Honbicot, Hornplease, Houshyar, Hurst0788, Hæmoclysm, I am PINGAS, ITS MiLkBoNe, IZAK, Ida Shaw, Igoldste,Im.a.lumberjack, Imladros, Imotio, Indon, Ioscius, Iridescent, Isaacsurh, Ishte, Isis, It Is Me Here, Itai, J.delanoy, J04n, JBK405, JCarriker, JForget, JMK, JNW, Jagged 85, Jake Wartenberg,Jamescooly, Janedoewalks, Java7837, Jclemens, Jcstrummer, Jeffrey Mall, Jeffreymcmanus, Jenks24, Jeronimo, Jguk 2, Jhinman, Jj137, Jlaramee, Jmccready8, Jmrowland, Jmundo, JodyB, JohnHill, John K, John of Reading, John254, Jonipoon, Joseph1528, Joshmax, Juggernautthunderclap, Justin Bacon, Kaaveh Ahangar, Kain Nihil, Kakofonous, Kashk, Keegan, Keilana, KeithH,Kendrick7, Kevin12xd, Khalidkhoso, Kingpin13, Kintetsubuffalo, Kntrabssi, Koavf, Konczewski, Kostisl, Kpunw, Krellis, Ksommerville, Ktsquare, Kuratowski's Ghost, Kwamikagami,KyraVixen, LOL, Lacrimosus, Lakers, Languagehat, Laoris, Laotewang, Lastbetrayal, LaurenCole, Ld100, Leafyplant, Leandrod, LeaveSleaves, Lectonar, LeinSora, Lfh, Lifelonghalo, Llywrch,Lord Emsworth, Lordpezhman, Louiebb, Lugia2453, Luna Santin, MER-C, MURIEL43, Macaddct1984, Malleus Fatuorum, Marco bisello, Mardavich, Mark Latham, Markh, Mashton220,Matdrodes, Mathsci, Matia.gr, Matt Bianco, Mattloto, Matty essy, Maxim, Maxstokols, Mazarin07, Maziarc, Maziargh, Mboverload, Mehrshad123, Mehrunes Dagon, Mhacdebhandia, MichaelGrant, Michael Hardy, Michael riber jorgensen, Michael93555, Michaelm 22, Mimihitam, Minimac, MissDawnie, Missjessica254, Mmcknight4, Mohamed abdulaal, Mohamed648, MoogleUK,Mork222, Mr Yenicen, Mr. Wheely Guy, Mr.Z-man, MrRadioGuy, Mustafaa, Mysid, MysticalDescent, NEPats, NERIC-Security, NGC 2736, Naderbami, NatusRoma, Naveedpedram,NawlinWiki, NekoDaemon, Nev1, NewEnglandYankee, Newkai, Nightscream, Ningauble, Noodlez84, Norm mit, NuclearWarfare, Nuno Tavares, Nuttycoconut, Obradovic Goran, Ohiostandard,Omicronpersei8, Orange Suede Sofa, Orioane, Ostanes, Otisjimmy1, Ow my brain!, OwenX, PFHLai, Parsamirm, Patman2648, Paul Barlow, Pbroks13, Peculiarbean, Pejman47, Per Honor etGloria, Persepolis lotus, Petri Krohn, Pewwer42, Philip Trueman, PiMaster3, Piano non troppo, Piniricc65, Platypus222, Poineuler, Poison the Well, Pooper57, Porterhud, Prashanthns, Prashidi,Prestonmcconkie, Pstanton, Pythagoras.lym, Qasim Arif Sethi, R'n'B, RTC, Radiman007, Raeky, Rainbow87, Random user 39849958, Rarevogel, Rayis, Recognizance, Relata refero, Revent,Rich Farmbrough, Richard Weil, Richfife, Ricky81682, Rikapt, Riley Huntley, Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Rlendog, Rlquall, Roastytoast, Roberta F., Robocoder, RogDel, Romistrub, Romney yw,Ronhjones, Roodi2000, Roozbeh, Roscius, Rosenknospe, Rpvdk, Rrburke, Rschmertz, Ryulong, SMcCandlish, Sadra1, Sailsbystars, Samloveridge, Sanjetti, Sardanaphalus, Satsujin, Sceptre,Schmackity, SchuBomb, ScottW, Scwlong, Sdgjake, Sdjhsadhsjd, Seaphoto, Selket, Serafín33, Shauni, Sheynhertz-Unbayg, Shipmaster, Show no mercy, Shrommer, Shurakai, Sicilianshotgun,SidP, Sirgregmac, Skip8619, Sly2fly, Smitdl00, Smplguy, Snowmanradio, Solipsist, Solipsisticmirror, SpaceFlight89, SpartansUnite, Spencer, Spider 2200, Spin2cool, SpookyMulder, StAnselm,Stefanomione, Sti571, Stor, Storkk, Str1977, Strobilus, Sulgran, Sulla16, Supersume, Synapticus, Synchronism, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TOO, TRAJAN 117, TYelliot, Tahmasp,Tamiltony, TangentCube, Tassedethe, Tbhotch, Tdchbru, Technomad, Ted87, Tekleni, That Guy, From That Show!, The Anome, The Anonymouse, The Behnam, The Dark Peria, The dog2, Theriesen, The taylor, The undertow, TheXenocide, Theda, Thingg, Thisisbossi, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Til Eulenspiegel, Timwi, Tiria, Tizio, Tnxman307, Tomchiukc, Tomcruiseisafudgepacker,Tommy2010, Tommyt, Topher385, TreasuryTag, Treybien, Triona, Tritium6, Trusilver, Tslocum, Twooars, Ukexpat, Umedard, Uncle Dick, Uncle Scrooge, Unschool, Untifler, UserDoe, Uspn,Utcursch, VMS Mosaic, VPliousnine, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Velvetron, Versus22, Vicki Rosenzweig, VictorianMutant, WLRoss, WLU, Waacstats, Wachowich,WadeSimMiser, Walton One, Wandalstouring, Ward3001, Warren, Warrior4321, Wasted Sapience, Wetman, Wikidea, Wikidenizen, Wikitiki89, Will28211, William Avery, Willking1979,Winchelsea, Wladimir, WojPob, Writtenright, Wysprgr2005, Xashaiar, Xebeche, Xyzzyva, Y2kcrazyjoker4, Zaharous, Zarek, Zephlyn, Zereshk, Zirnevis, Zmmz, Zondor, Zoso96, Zundark,ZxxZxxZ, Zymurgy, ТимофейЛееСуда, ۸۹1240 ,رضا.محمد ,خرمدین anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Xerxes I of Persia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Xerxes_I_of_Persia.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: Original: O.MustafinCropped:TRAJAN 117File:Xerxes lash sea.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Xerxes_lash_sea.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cplakidas, Flominator, Immanuel Giel, JMCC1,ZxxZxxZ, 2 anonymous editsFile:Xerxes Cuneiform Van.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Xerxes_Cuneiform_Van.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Bjørn Christian TørrissenFile:Tomb of Xerxes.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tomb_of_Xerxes.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: RoodiparseImage:wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, MichaelMaggs, NielsF,Rei-artur, Rocket000

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/