YHWH Will Be Your Everlasting Light - Septuaginta &c. · YHWH Will Be Your Everlasting Light: ... A Motific Analysis of Light and Darkness in Isaiah OT 561 ... Isaiah 60:1-5,

YHWH Will Be Your Everlasting Light:

יהוה יהיה־לך לאור עולם

A Motific Analysis of Light and Darkness in Isaiah

OT 561 – The Suffering Servant

December, 2011

William A. Ross

© William A. Ross - 2

Table of Contents

I. Critical Methodology………………………………………………………………………….….3-8

II. Rhetorical Methodology…………………………………………………………………….…....8-13

A. Terminology……………………………………………………………………………9

B. Identification of Imagery………………………………………………………...…….10

C. Analysis of Imagery………………………………………………………………...….11

III. Textual Analysis………………………………………………………………………………...13-31

Isaiah 2:2-5………………………………………………………………………………....13

Isaiah 8:20, 22-9:2………………………………………………………………………….16

Isaiah 29:15-19, 24………………………………………………………………………....21

Isaiah 42:1-9……………………………………………………………………………..…24

Isaiah 60:1-5, 19-21………………………………………………………………………..28

IV. Evaluation and Proposals…………………………………………………………………….....31-34

V. Appendix A: Methodological Diagram…………………………………………………35

Bibliography


The prophetic book of Isaiah is structurally complex due to the apparent multiplicity of

voices throughout the book, each seeming to presuppose a different historical stance in Israel’s

history. In addition to the structural difficulties in Isaiah is the presence of theologically charged

atonement language, which is often rhetorically tied to given historical circumstances presented

in the book. As a result, innumerable scholars have contributed to the now staggering corpus of

studies that attempt to interpret Isaiah. As complex as the book of Isaiah itself is, and as

challenging as interacting with scholarship associated with it is, undertaking even a brief study is

nonetheless a rewarding enterprise that to the cautious and humble interpreter will no doubt yield

fruitful results. It is the aim of the present author to engage in such a study, which will give

particular attention to the rhetorical use of light and darkness language, as well as the

development of the themes arising therefrom throughout Isaiah. Given the length of the book and

prevalence of the light and darkness language in it, such an undertaking will be admittedly only

preliminary. Instead of an exhaustive survey, the study will aim to consider key texts with an eye

towards proposals for further research based on the results reached herein. Still, by use of

redaction and rhetorical criticism, it will be shown that Isaiah’s light and darkness motif

develops significantly throughout the book, ranging from a characterization of the conditions of

one who keeps tôrâ, to a portrayal of the eschatological fulfillment of the Day of YHWH. This

development gives significant insight into the thematic unity and trajectory of the theology of

Isaiah, particularly in view of diachronic developments.

I. Critical Methodology: Even a cursory reading of the book shows recurring words,

images, and ideas present throughout the book of Isaiah, applied towards conveying particular

messages in particular texts. Only recently, however, have scholars begun to do studies to


analyze these literary features in view of Isaiah as a whole.1 Part of the reason for this is due to

B. Duhm’s source critical work in the late 19th

century, which has had a lasting effect in Isaianic

scholarship.2 In an effort to explain the presence of a seemingly undeniable variety of voices,

Duhm, and after him much of Isaianic scholarship, focused upon a historically reconstructionist

approach to the book.3 This approach, however, some would say by nature yields highly

speculative conclusions as to the characteristics and background of Isaiah’s proposed sources.4

Moreover, early source criticism generally presumed that the perceived historically and literarily

divergent voices within Isaiah would not share common rhetorical motifs over larger textual

expanses.5 After all, from the source critic’s vantage point, different Isaianic “authors” speaking

at different times and under different circumstances, only compiled by later editors, would

certainly not share conceptual literary frameworks. As a result, no rhetorical themes per se were

of interest beyond what light they might shed on a given text or textual unit.

Scholarly work eventually developed form criticism, which aimed to respond to source

criticism’s perceived interpretive insufficiencies.6 Pioneers of the method like Gunkel and Koch

7

1 “Intertextuality” has become a major focus in the study of Isaiah. From the perspective of the critical stance

described below, it is “a dominant feature of [Isaiah] as themes are woven and interwoven throughout it to form

networks which provide reflective puzzlement for modern readers” (Robert P. Carroll, “Blindsight and the Vision

Thing: Blindness and Insight in the Book of Isaiah,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an

Interpretive Tradition, vol. 1, edited by Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans, 79-93 [Leiden: Koninkllijke Brill,

1997], 79). 2 Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaia (HKAT, 3.1; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Rpurecht, 1892). Duhm’s source

critical approach divided Isaiah into three sections (chs. 1-39; 40-55; 56-66), which became so widely accepted that,

as Ronald Clements points out, often Isaiah is “taken apart before the question of whether it belongs together as a

unity is ever considered” (“A Light to the Nations: A Central Theme of the Book of Isaiah,” in Forming Prophetic

Literature: Essays on Isaiah and the Twelve in Honor of John D.W. Watts, edited by James W. Watts and Paul R.

House, 57-59 [Sheffield; Sheffield Academic Press, Ltd., 1996], 57.). 3 Marvin A. Sweeney, “The Book of Isaiah in Recent Research,” CR:BS 1 (1993) 141-162, 141.

4 H.G.M. Williamson, Isaiah 1-27, vol. 1, The International Critical Commentary (Cornwall: T&T Clark

International, 2006), 7. Williamson points out that, in general, many historically reconstructive commentaries begin

with the posited earliest material in the book and work “forwards,” leading to questionable conclusions. 5 John S. Kloppenborg, “Source Criticism,” in Dictionary of Biblical Criticism and Interpretation, edited by Stanley

E. Porter, 340-344 (New York, NY: Routledge, 2007), 343. 6 Kenton L. Sparks, “Form Criticism,” in Dictionary of Biblical Criticism and Interpretation, edited by Stanley E.

Porter, 111-114 (New York, NY: Routledge, 2007), 111.


sought out a more “authentic” message of prophetic books by identifying the “stereotyped

speech patterns or genres that determined the forms of [prophetic] oral expression,” and then

“stripping away the ‘inferior’ work of later redactors” who corrupted the original speech-forms

of the prophets.8 Such a critical approach, however, can be even more speculative than source

criticism, as it attempts to go “behind” any literary structure to oral pre-history of the texts, to

establish a potential sitz im leben.

More recently, certain form critics have developed a different approach in their textual

analysis, taking elements from both source and form critical approaches. These scholars do not

presume that the “original” message of prophetic works lies in unadulterated oracular forms,

which need somehow to be freed.9 Nor do they erect literary and historical walls between sources

perceived within a text. Critics like Sweeney, Clements, and Williamson instead incorporate

elements of redaction criticism into their interpretive approach.10

They recognize that, although

the structure of Isaiah suggests various sources and compiled oracular units, the Hebrew Bible

itself makes no delineation between the “original” and the later redacted elements of its books.

Thus, these scholars maintain that “it is in the [final] form of the prophetic book that the

prophetic message lays a claim to religious authority and interpretation… [and] must therefore

7 See Herman Gunkel, “The Prophets as Writers and Poets,” in Prophecy in Israel: Search for an Identity, edited by

David L. Petersen (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1987); and Klaus Koch, The Growth of the Biblical Tradition:

The Form-Critical Method, translated by S.M. Cupitt (New York, NY; Scribner’s Press, 1969). Cited in Marvin

Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39: with an Introduction to Prophetic Literature, The Forms of the Old Testament Literature,

Vol. XVI, edited by Rolf P. Knierim and Gene M. Tucker (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing

Company, 1996), 11. 8Ibid, emphasis added. Sweeney humorously ridicules this approach, saying early source criticism saw editors as

“’scissors and paste men,’ who may add irrelevant and dull comments to their material, frequently distorting its

message, but who had very little of theological worth to say” (Isaiah 1-4 and the Post-Exilic Understanding of the

Isaianic Tradition [Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Col., 1988], 2). 9 Sweeney points out that the early form critical approach “presuppose[d] that the primary object of research is the

word of the prophet him- or herself, and that the later editorial additions and literary supplements to the “original”

prophetic collections stand as obstacles to the recovery of the prophetic word” (Isaiah 1-39, 11). 10

For a useful summary of the scholarly developments that led to this approach, see Sweeney, “Isaiah in Recent

Research.”


stand as the basis for form-critical exegesis.”11

Isaiah, in fact, is viewed as a “redactional unity,”

which instead of following Duhm’s structure generally divides Isaiah into two sections: chs. 1-39

and 40-66.12

The former of these units literarily anticipates and necessitates the latter.13

Although such an approach allows for less speculation, the diachronic elements are not

left aside entirely. Interpreting Isaiah’s final, two-part form does not “negate the need to

determine the history of the book’s composition.” Indeed, the history of a book is what produces

its final form, and also entails that it was preserved, supplemented, and transmitted by later

editors in light of their respective contexts.14

“In short,” says Sweeney, “[prophetic books’]

redactors are not simply mechanistic editors; they are authors” whose work ultimately gives

unity to the book’s final form.15

The recognition of the authorial role of redactors lends credence to a more literary

examination of Isaiah, rather than an exclusively oral or historical focus.16

Sweeney contends

that “each text is a unique composition that employs its own vocabulary and concepts,” using

genre as a tool of sorts within a larger text to convey a certain point.17

This development has

11

Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 11. Williamson, making a case against a historically reconstructive approach, likewise

points out that “…what Isaiah presents is a finished form that was worked on by various redactors, thus making it

“difficult to be sure of the ‘original’ setting and context even of ‘authentic’ material” (Isaiah 1-27, vol. 1, 7). 12

In the analysis of this structure, scholars generally recognize the transitional nature of chapters 36-39, which

“form a bridge…between the two major parts of the book of Isaiah, the “Assyrian” section in chapters 1-35 which

anticipates a judgment by Assyria followed by a restoration, and the “Babylonian” section in chapters 40-66 which

presupposes a judgment by Babylon and announces that the restoration is about to take place” (Sweeney, Isaiah 1-4,

32; So also Ackroyd, Clements, and Delitzsch [see his fn. 32].). 13

Sweeney, Isaiah 1-4, 5. He goes on to state that “because the structure of Isa. 1-39 anticipates Isa. 40-66, the

concerns of the second part of the book are the dominant factor in determining the structure of the first part… In

short, Isa. 1-39 is a structural sub-unit of Isa. 1-66” (6, emphasis added). 14

Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 11. 15

Ibid, 13. In particular, Deutero-Isaiah’s are developed from those of Isa. 1-39. Yet [his] understanding of those

themes is not determined exclusively by their context in Isa. 1-39, but in relation to the historical events and

theological impulses of his contemporary situation” (Isaiah 1-4, 6). Likewise, B. Childs maintains that the process

of Fortschreibung, or editorial expansion, took place as expansions to the text “emerged as a response to the

coercion of earlier texts within the context of interpreting new communal experiences” (Isaiah [Louisville, KY:

Westminster John Knox Press, 2001], 216). 16

This rhetorical literary approach was pioneered by James Muilenberg in his essay “Form Criticism and Beyond,”

Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 88, No. 1 (Mar. 1969): 1-18. See especially p. 7. 17

Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 14.


allowed interpreters to evaluate a literarily and rhetorically unified book that consequently has

(an) identifiable message(s) that spans its entirety. Ronald Clements, among others, has done

much work emphasizing Isaiah’s unity, and has identified themes throughout the book.

Moreover, these themes are of theological concern and therefore aid in discerning the purpose of

the book.18

For Clements, the unity of Isaiah is, in important ways, a literary and theological

unity, which can be appertained by analyzing thematic development that resulted from careful

and intentional redactional activity. Along this line of interpretation, the rhetorical themes, by

virtue of their being deliberately read, shaped, reapplied, and developed by redactors of the

original manuscripts in light of their contemporary events, provide a theological window into the

book of Isaiah as a literary unit.19

Following in that vein, this paper aims to survey and analyze the motif of light and

darkness in Isaiah primarily synchronically as a final, canonical book, but also diachronically as

a book that engages in inner-biblical exegesis upon itself by virtue of later redactorial activity.

Rhetorically, the themes and motifs in Isaiah will carry at least the same cognitive weight no

matter what the historical setting; but the theological weight will have varied over the historical

course of redactorial activity. 20

Moreover, the theological import will not necessarily develop

diachronically side by side with the literary structure of Isaiah. Literary themes in Isaiah will

highlight theological concerns, which will in turn shed light on the overall aim of Isaiah (the

18

Clements, “Light to the Nations,” 57. Also see “The Unity of the Book of Isaiah,” Int 36 (1982): 117-129;

“Beyond Tradition History: Deutero-Isaianic Development of First Isaiah’s Themes,” JSOT 31 (1985): 95-113. 19

H.G.M. Williamson, Isaiah 1-29, vol. 1, 7. 20

By “cognitive weight” I mean that the rhetorical usage of linguistic imagery will necessarily trigger particular

cognitive responses in a hearer/reader of a text no matter how developed the theological import of that imagery.

Even if light and darkness imagery were employed early in the diachronic setting of Isaiah, before much or any

theological connotations were associated with it, there is a “least common denominator” of cognitive understanding

that will be conveyed by the very use of such imagery. It is the growth of how the theological aspect of light and

darkness imagery that this paper pursues. This idea is developed further below.


primary interest of this study).21

But the diachronic development of the theological import may

not be directly deduced from the thematic literary development. Instead, the diachronic aspect of

theological development may only be uncovered by evaluating apparent inner-book exegesis.22

Original diachronic evaluation is complex and beyond the acumen of the present author.23

In order to engage the text, then, the author proceeds using M. Sweeney’s diachronic redactional

history. In brief, this view acknowledges an oral tradition originating with Isaiah ben Amoz, later

inscripturated by him or (a) later disciple(s), and added to by at least one redactor, whose work

augmented and interpreted the initial text in light of significant historical events.24

II. Rhetorical Methodology: Before beginning a rhetorical analysis of light and darkness

language in Isaiah, some clarification of terminology will prove helpful in guiding the

21

Clements, “Light to the Nations,” 57. 22

The diachronic aspect of a synchronic motific analysis is complex, and would require further work in order to

properly diagnose. Conceivably, although deliberate development of the light/dark motif would be most likely with

only one main redactor (so Williamson) or close group of redactors, it is possible that even several more spread-out

redactors (so Sweeney) engaged in deliberate motific development. An argument might be made for this along the

lines of attempting to prove the conventionality of imagery, described below. 23

Sweeney himself acknowledges limits to reconstructing composition history, saying it is only a “possible

hypothesis” for the interpreter (Isaiah 1-39, 14). Going further, B. Childs proposes a greater complicating factor in

reconstructing redaction history, namely that “editors who shaped the literary collection had little interest in

preserving a historical record of the sequence of prophetic proclamations, but felt free to retroject later oracles into

earlier passages in order to bring [theological] clarity and deeper understanding to the context of the original

oracles” (Isaiah, 216). Elsewhere Sweeney says redactional interpretations “will not necessarily correspond to the

intent of the original author” (Isaiah 1-4, 6). These issues make diachronic analysis very difficult. While there are

scholars attempting a solely literary survey of prophetic literature (B.A. Bozak, who undertakes “literary-

theological” analysis, and D.G. Hagstrom, who does a simple “literary analysis”), it seems unavoidable to take the

diachronic into consideration. 24

In his analysis, Sweeney states well that “Because prophetic books are literary… form criticism requires redaction

criticism to identify [what]… constitutes the object of its research. But redaction criticism also requires form

criticism to identify earlier material… [and] to provide the basis for understanding the later literary formulation…

Only after the form, genre, setting, and intention of the final form of the text have been defined can the exegete look

to the earlier forms that may or may not be present within that final form” (Isaiah 1-39, 13). Sweeney proposes a

two-part form of Isaiah in chs. 1-39, 40-66 (Ibid, 39-40), and identifies the overall genre as “Prophetic Book” due to

the singular superscription pertaining to Isaiah ben Amoz (Ibid, 48-49). He places the final setting in the 5th

century

B.C. as a part of Ezra-Nehemiah’s reforms (Ibid, 51), and appertains various intentions based on the four main

editions of Isaiah he sets forth, which culminate in the need for the people to adhere faithfully to the covenant with

YHWH (Ibid, 61-62).


conversation. In order to detect usage of the motif, or theme, of light and darkness imagery25

it is

necessary to do more than a mere lexical search of the text of Isaiah.26

While doing so would

reveal in part the import of this type of language to Isaiah,27

thematic imagery is not bound

strictly to lexical stock. Words only contribute to rhetorical themes insofar as their meaning is

determined to do so by virtue their relationship with other words; their context.28

To get at

imagery, non-literal usage of words is of primary interest, rather than literal or conventional

usage. Accordingly, a simple word search will not suffice towards this end, as it cannot

distinguish between the “light” of the moon (Isa. 13:10) and the “light” of Israel (Isa. 10:17).

A. Terminology: Within the category of non-literal language, or “imagery,” there are two

main rhetorical possibilities: metaphor and symbol.29

Broadly, metaphors convey meaning by

coordinating two realities, the more abstract clarified by the more concrete.30

Symbols, on the

other hand, rearrange conceptual relations in one reality or semantic field.31

Similar to metaphor,

25

Henceforward “light/dark motif”. I use “motif” and “theme” interchangeably to refer to a recurring concept in a

given work of literature, in this case the book of Isaiah. See “leitmotif” and “motif” in J.A. Cuddon, A Dictionary of

Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd

ed. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Inc., 1993), 485, 558 respectively. 26

In doing so, however, אור comes up 35x, while צלמות appears only once, and 21 חׁשךx (including feminine and

nominative forms). The lemma ערב appears 4x, but is arguably translated “grow dark” (Qal) only once (24:11).

Naturally, not all of these occurrences will be examined. The lemma ערב appears 4x, but is arguably translated

“grow dark” (Qal) only once (24:11). 27

Henceforward, “Isaiah” refers to the final-form book, not the prophet or a particular redactor, unless otherwise

noted. 28

Moisés Silva, Biblical Words and their Meaning: An Introduction to Lexical Semantics, revised edition (Grand

Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1983), especially ch. 6 “Determining Meaning,” pp. 137-169. 29

Much of the following distinction comes from work done by Øystein Lund, Way Metaphors and Way Topics in

Isaiah 40-55 (Göttingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007), 30-44. Lund points out further possibilities, such as hyperbole,

irony, and metonymy, which he says are mostly varations of metaphors or symbols. 30

For aspects of a cognitive metaphor, see George Lakoff and Mark Turner, More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide

to Poetic Metaphor (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1989), 63-65. Also see Charles Forceville,

“Metaphor,” in The Encyclopedia of Semiotics, ed. Paul Bouissac (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 411-

415. An example of cognitive metaphor would be life is a journey, conveyed by the phrase “after getting a college

degree, he was really on his way to getting a great job.” Here, the man’s life (the more abstract concept, commonly

referred to as the “target domain” in cognitive linguistics) is portrayed as a journey (the more concrete concept,

called the “source domain”) on which his college degree will aid him to progress. Lakoff and Turner note that “for

[a] metaphor to work, we must find – or impose – some correspondence between the ways that a particular [source]

agent acts and our knowledge of the kinds of events [or attributes] typical of the target domain” (39). In other words,

metaphors must operate using consistent, shared knowledge in order to communicate meaning. 31

Lund, 41.


symbols serve to coordinate realities; when a text employs a symbol, the symbol “activates” its

sphere of reality and all that relates to it in the mind of a reader. In this way symbols omit the

clarifying, more concrete aspect of a metaphor because that aspect is cultural convention, thus

unnecessary. 32

Since both metaphors and symbols can coordinate meaning within one imagery

theme, both will be considered in this survey of the light/dark motif.33

B. Identification of Imagery: The question then arises as to exactly how the imagery at

work in the passages to be considered has been identified. In pursuit of heuristic devices by

which to do so, Lund identifies two features of language which point to non-literality. The first is

incongruence, or the feature of language which leads the reader to judge that a symbolic reading

is to be preferred. This preference is based upon “the patent falsity or incoherence of [a] literal

reading,” or the “banality of that reading’s truth.”34

Others have called this tension between an

expression and its context so that their irreconcilability demonstrates its non-literal nature.35

Secondly is Conventionality, or use of language that commonly depicts symbolic ideas accepted

in a culture. Conventionality is an often implicit linguistic feature, and automatically connects

the source and target domains of a cognitive metaphor in the mind of the reader.36

Merely

detecting incongruence is not sufficient to identify imagery, then; conventional symbolic

32

Ibid, 41-42. Thus, the symbol and its syntagmatic field of reality can be related to the metaphor’s source and

target domains, respectively. As mentioned, culturally conventional syntagmatic fields go unmentioned in symbols.

Lund offers The Cross as an example, as it symbolically represents a field of reality known well enough within a

particular culture to automatically convey meaning (42). 33

As a result, the “light” of the moon in Isa. 13:10 could in fact by symbolic and therefore contribute to the

light/dark motif. In order to say so, however, one would have to prove sufficiently that such an interpretation of that

particular verse would be the best reading. 34

Max Black, “More About Metaphor,” in Metaphor and Thought, edited by Andrew Ortony, 19-43 (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1993), 34-35. Black notes that “every criterion for a metaphor’s presence, however

plausible, is defeasible [sic] in special circumstances.” Cited in Lund, 45. 35

Lund, 45. 36

Ibid, 47-48. Vital to connecting source and target domains is that the reader is able “to establish a connection

between the imagery and the immediate context… [otherwise] it will seem as if the text and the context speak of two

different things” (48). Also see Lakoff and Turner, 131.


language must simultaneously be at work in the text to determine if a non-literal reading is

preferred.37

The passages examined below have been determined to employ light/dark language that,

by means of the heuristic devices just described, will be interpreted symbolically.38 As such, no

formal defense will be made as to this stance beyond the methodology described above.

C. Analysis of Imagery: In analyzing imagery once it is identified, then, the following

procedure will be employed. As mentioned, the aim of this study is not primarily philological.

Drawing an analogy from philological studies may prove useful, however. Just as the semantic

range of a given word is determined by observing various usages in different contexts in the

Hebrew Bible, the cognitive and symbolic range of a motif may be observed in the same fashion.

By surveying the text of Isaiah as a final form with presumed redactional modifications, the

various senses of the light/dark motif will become evident and, following Clements, may be used

as a means by which Isaiah is understood theologically.39

This analytical method recognizes that

linguistic meaning is formed by consistency, structure, and the rhetorical features of contrast,

37

Ibid. Admittedly, part of the endeavor of this paper is to see whether indeed there is conventionality to the

light/dark motif in Isaiah. In other words, as the analysis of the motif progresses, a greater degree of surety as to the

motif’s conventionality will be established. In this way there is some circularity unless the light/dark motif is

presumed to be conventional in Isaiah in at least some instances. Because of historical and cultural distance between

author and critic, an attempt to make an argument for conventionality of a given image will not be undertaken here.

Instead, analysis will show the manner in which the motif may have become conventional through diachronic use. 38

See ‘Appendix A’ for a diagram of the interpretive rhetorical features just described. 39

To clarify further, the “Held method” of philology contrasts with James Barr’s comparative philology as proposed

in his Comparative Philology and the Text of the Old Testament (Missoula, MT: Society of Biblical Literature,

1977), which promotes taking etymological background study of a given word into account in translation. The “Held

method,” in contrast, takes no etymology into consideration, but distinguishes semantic value inductively by

observing its use in multiple contexts (For all four principles of the “Held method,” see Chaim Cohen, “The Held

Method for Comparative Semitic Philology,” JANES 19 [1989], 9-23). For a helpful comparison of the Barr and

“Held” methods, see Chaim Cohen, “The Meaning of צלמות ‘Darkness’: A Study in Philological Method,” in

Texts, Temples, and Traditions: A Tribute to Menahem Haran, edited by Michael V. Fox, Victor Avigdor Hurowitz,

et al., 287-309 (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1996). Worth considering is whether Barr’s etymologizing

philological method on the word level is also analogous to cultural background studies when it comes to elucidating

meaning on the symbolic level. In other words, does linguistic correspondence of symbolic language between Isaiah

and some contemporaneous piece of literature allow for enhanced understanding?


range, and distribution, which allow reality to be interpreted.40

The first two, consistency and

structure, are wrapped up in the heuristic procedure laid out above, but the three rhetorical

features of contrast, range, and distribution are what will be engaged in analysis of the light/dark

motif.

Moreover, it is in the analysis that the diachronic features of Isaiah will come into play.

Since the critical stance adopted towards the book is one in which chronologically situated

redactions have occurred, the contrast, range, and distribution of the light/dark motif will

(should) develop in distinct ways as earlier Isaianic textual motifs are reinterpreted and reapplied

by later redactors. In clearer diachronic cases this element of development will be discussed.

Still, as helpful and fascinating as the imagery analysis may be, we do well to avoid

hanging our diachronically historical conclusions upon a synchronically literary hook.41

If

anything, diachronic development will shine through the synchronic imagery analysis, but the

latter is not a means by which to determine the former.42

Any motific development mentioned in

this study, then, does not necessarily invoke a strictly diachronic idea. Though the diachronic

growth of Isaiah speaks to the more developed theological content to imagery language

employed in later texts, there is also mutual formation going on between the text in any given

stage of redaction and the robustness of the light/dark motif’s theology. Attempting to pin down

40

Young, et al., Rhetoric: Discovery and Change (Ft. Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970), 25-31, 53-58.

Consistency is the “unit-izing” of reality, and is the mechanism by which language and communication operate.

Structure is the manner in which the consistent units are organized hierarchically. The rhetorical features interpret

relevancy of information by analyzing a unit’s 1) contrast to other units; 2) range of variation in itself; and 3)

distribution in various contexts. 41

This is especially true as the author is, for the sake of brevity, taking Sweeney’s redactional conclusions for

granted. 42

I would contend that doing so would be historical equivalent to the linguistic category mistake pointed out by

James Barr in his Biblical Words for Time, 2nd

ed. (Edinburgh: R. & R. Clark Ltd., 1969). Barr shows that

theological deductions based solely on lexical observations wrongly assume that the results will show how the

Scriptures “think”, or even how the author himself would have thought about a given subject. Just as variations in

linguistic usage do not necessarily reflect variations of authorial cognition, then, variations (even development) in

imagery motifs do not necessarily reflect an author’s historical setting.


exact details as to the manner of such a nuanced process is at least inadvisable, if not impossible,

given the chicken-and-egg nature of such an inquiry.

III. Textual Analysis: The texts examined in this section employ the imagery of the

light/dark motif for which criteria were set forth above. As such, defense of the identification of

language as metaphorical or symbolic will only be undertaken where there is clearly room for

disagreement. A brief overview of the diachronic aspect of the text will be given prior to each

motific analysis. In order to make this preliminary study more manageable, only five texts will

be analyzed, although references to other texts which employ the light/dark motif will appear

where helpful without motific analysis. Texts were chosen on the basis of the author’s perception

of the significance of their contribution to the light/dark motif, as well as their relatively even

distribution throughout Isaiah. For convenience, passages will be given from the ESV, with

relevant language boldfaced.

Isa. 2:2-5 – 2 It shall come to pass in the latter days

that the mountain of the house of the LORD

shall be established as the highest of the mountains,

and shall be lifted up above the hills; and all the nations shall flow to it, 3 and many peoples shall come, and say:

"Come, let us go up to the mountain of the LORD,

to the house of the God of Jacob,

that he may teach us his ways

and that we may walk in his paths."

For out of Zion shall go the law [tôrâ],

and the word of the LORD from Jerusalem. 4 He shall judge between the nations,

and shall decide disputes for many peoples;

and they shall beat their swords into plowshares,

and their spears into pruning hooks;

nation shall not lift up sword against nation,

neither shall they learn war anymore. 5 O house of Jacob, come, let us walk in the light of the LORD.

Sweeney identifies this passage as part of a larger block of chs. 2-4, in which the text

“presents an ideal portrayal of Zion’s role as the center for YHWH’s rule of all nations,” and also


explains how Zion should fulfill this role.43

Coming early in the text of Isaiah, this passage is

central to the broader message of the Isaiah as it introduces the “latter days” language germane to

the book.44

Here, the text casts a vision for a day when the nations will come to YHWH and

peace will endure. Due to a number of “tensions” within chapters 2-4, such as the superscription

in 2:1 to Judah and Jerusalem contrasting with the mostly Zion-centric character of what follows,

this text may be ascribed to late-exilic or early Persian periods.45

The postexilic editor may have

seen that the ideal Jerusalem of 2:1-4 was still not realized in his time, and thus projected hope

for salvation into the eschatological future.46

By virtue of its idealization of Zion, as well as

various genre considerations, the text, like many from chapter 2-35, may be composite.47

Verse 5 is key in the transition between the passage and what follows, as it “explains the

punishment of Israel as the means to purify Zion for its role as the center for YHWH’s world

rule.”48

Although Sweeney places v.5 in structural contrast with the preceding four verses

because they show no “awareness” of the House of Jacob,49

the first person plurals of vv. 3 and 5

seem to coordinate the two sections.50

Grammar at least points towards v.5 relating vv.1-4 with

what follows.51

This passage, then, has two exhortations which come in response to a prophetic

reality, namely bayyôm hahû’, or the Day of YHWH. First, at that time the nations will come to

43

Isaiah 1-39, 89. 44

Isaiah 1-39, 96. 45

Isaiah 1-39, 88-93. For Sweeney, 2:5 is the key to determining the setting, as it links the parts to the whole,

presupposing both the peaceful reign of Cyrus, but also the Day of YHWH’s upheaval and continued suffering (95).

Williamson agrees, positing Deutero-Isaiah as the redactor (Isaiah 1-29, 187). 46

Childs, Isaiah, 29. 47

Ibid, 89, 91. Sweeney notes, “Unfortunately, chapters 2-35 do not lend themselves to easy analysis in determining

the whole since these chapters contain much diverse material… there is no consensus on the delimitation of all

blocks of material” (Isaiah 1-4, 35). 48

Isaiah 1-39, 94. 49

Isaiah 1-39, 92. 50

Sweeney states that 2:2-4 is “distinguished” from 2:5-4:6 by its use of 3rd

person language as opposed to the

latter’s 2nd

person language (Isaiah 1-39, 89). Yet both segments use 1st person language that seems to join them.

Although in a quotation, this language speaks either to or about the audience (cf. 2:3, 5), or about the nations (cf.

4:1). Brevard Childs maintains that v.5 “is addressed to the house of Jacob and points both forward and backward”

(Isaiah, 31.). 51



Him. They are exhorted to “go up to the mountain of YHWH” where tôrâ is located (v.3b), so

that they might learn His ways and walk in His paths.52

Verse 3b explains that tôrâ and judgment

will go out from Zion, and the section culminates in the exhortation of v.5 to “walk in the light of

YHWH” as a response, although 2:6-22 shows Jacob-Israel’s pride and resulting inability to

accept the invitation.53

As shown in bold, it seems that the two exhortational sections in this passage parallel one

another, with the imploring ְלכּו, “come.”54

Both exhortations are responses to the Day of YHWH

vision introduced in this text. One response is by the nations on that day, one by the house of

Jacob in the meantime. Verse 3 presents nations at Zion listening to YHWH’s tôrâ and learning

to walk in his ways. All this language is brought together by means of linguistic connections

amongst the clauses; יצא ,עלה ,הלך, and ארח and דרך (translated “path” and “way”). Verse 5,

however, employs the light/dark motif with no linguistic links to YHWH’s light,55

pointing to

rhetorical Incongruence and imagery at work. Thus, in v.5 a metaphor appears in which YHWH

is a lamp to a path on which one walks.56

Considering the coordination of verse 3 and 5

noted above, the passage in some ways describes just how YHWH is a lamp; namely through

teaching his ways in tȏrâ.57

In other words, the combination of the parallel imagery language in

this passage allows two perspectives. On the one hand, YHWH is a lamp to a path in v.5. On

52

Lund’s work is concerned with the “Way” metaphors in Isa. 40-55, which he says serves to change the perspective

of the addressee of these chapters to recognize YHWH’s ability and right to establish their fate as a result of their

not following His “ways” (303). 53

Sweeney, Isaiah 1-4, 36. He observes that this sets the stage for the announcement that the Day of YHWH will set

this situation aright as the people are cleansed (Isa. 3:1-4:6). 54

H.G.M. Williamson, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 1-27 in Three Volumes, vol. 1,

“Commentary on Isaiah 1-5,” (New York, NY: T&T Clark, 2006), 187. 55

Ibid. 56

Lohfink and Zenger make the provocative suggestion that this would have triggered the metaphor of the Sun-god,

who is a god of righteousness (The God of Israel and the Nations: Studies in Isaiah and the Psalms [Collegeville,

MN: 2000], 39.). In my view, although this view may have some credence, it goes behind the text. 57

Williamson observes that “the phrase light of the Lord… seems to be the editor’s way of understanding or

characterizing the ‘ways’, ‘paths’, ‘instruction’ and ‘word’ of v.3” (Ibid).


the other hand, tôrâ is YHWH’s map in v.3. These two metaphors combine to form the

concept that one walks in YHWH’s ways by means of following his tôrâ map. Doing so is

considered walking in his light.58

Clear navigational language appears, then, primarily around the

association of tôrâ and the light motif.

That v.3 is part of the Day of YHWH vision for the nations, however, also implies that

v.5’s exhortation is a means by which the house of Jacob is to be a witness to the nations in the

meantime. It is the knowledge given by the tôrâ of Isaiah, which in 2:2-5 allows the house of

Jacob to carry out that task. Early in Isaiah, then, metaphorical imagery is employed to create, or

at least recognize the symbolic, although not exclusive, association of light with tôrâ in a priestly

role.59

It is notable that this passage unveils, or at least rhetorically establishes, the symbol of

light. A strict metaphorical image complete with clarifying source domain is therefore not strictly

necessary to trigger the concept of tôrâ when the light motif is employed.60

Isa. 8:20, 22-9:2 – 8:20

To the teaching [tȏrâ] and to the testimony! If they will not speak according

to this word, it is because they have no dawn… 22

And they will look to the earth, but

behold, distress and darkness, the gloom of anguish. And they will be thrust into thick

darkness. 9:1

But there will be no gloom for her who was in anguish. In the former time

he brought into contempt the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, but in the latter

time he has made glorious the way of the sea, the land beyond the Jordan, Galilee of the

nations.

2 The people who walked in darkness

have seen a great light;

those who dwelt in a land of deep darkness,

on them has light shined.

58

Interestingly, Lohfink and Zenger point out that the Targum of Jonathan uses the repetition in verses 3 and 5 of

as “the impetus to interpret the image of the light of YHWH in 2:5 through… ‘instruction of the law of ְלכּו

YHWH,’” which also contrasts with “learning” war in 2:4 (God of Israel, 40, fn. 16). For similar instances in other

biblical literature, see Geza Vermes, “The Torah Is Light,” VT 8 (1958) 436-38. 59

I am using tȏrâ deliberately in place of “law” or “instruction,” etc. since much scholarly discussion has gone into

determining the nature of tȏrâ in Isaiah. For just a few possibilities, see Childs, Isaiah, 30. 60

Again, “when a symbol is used linguistically, that which is symbolized (corresponding to the target domain [in

this case tȏrâ]) will be known to a reader who knows the culture and the conventions, even if this object is not

explicitly mentioned in the text” (Lund, 41). Thus, in texts like Isa. 5:20 the light motif is employed symbolically so

that tȏrâ may be assumed even without clear metaphorical clarification. In this verse, we see development of the

light motif in that the darkness motif is introduced. Here, by virtue of its rhetorical (and cognitive) contrast with

light, darkness symbolically acquires the notion of non-tȏrâ, or darkness is absence of YHWH’s tȏrâ.


On the basis of considerations of 8:1-15, Sweeney regards this passage as composite, and

locates it just after Ahaz’s decision to request Assyrian assistance in the Syro-Ephraimite War.61

No disaster is presupposed in the text, thus it likely lies before the actual Assyrian invasion. The

thanksgiving psalm thus envisions the enthronement of a new Davidic king, namely Hezekiah.62

In the context of a looming invasion, the intention of this text is to propose an opportunity for the

Davidic line in that invasion might remove Pekah and Rezin, and thus encourage loyalty and

reliance on YHWH.63

Clements regards this text as one of the latest additions to Isa. 1-12, yet

suggests it was in place early enough that the author of Isa.42-43 knew and was influenced by

it.64

Important to note is that this passage is part of a large textual unit, beginning with the call

of Isaiah in 6:1-3 and proceeding through the names given to his children in 7:1-8:4 who are

signs of the coming Assyrian invasion depicted in 8:5-15.65

The psalm-like section in 9:2-6

forms the culmination to this textual block.66

In 8:16-18, Isaiah has proclaimed he and his

disciples will wait for YHWH as “signs and portents” given Ahaz’s actions, boldly challenging

the contention that reliance should be upon sorcerers instead of YHWH (v.19).67

The text

contrasts two groups; those who do not rely on YHWH’s tôrâ (8:20b-22), and those who do

(9:1[8:23]-9:6).

61

Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 181-82. 62



R.E. Clements, “Beyond Tradition-History: Deutero-Isaianic Development of First Isaiah’s Themes,” in The

Prophets, edited by Philip R. Davies, 128-146 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press Ltd., 1996), 137-38. 65

For a discussion of this text’s placement in Isaiah’s Denkschrift, see Sweeney, Isaiah 1-4 pp. 37-38, where he

makes a case again for a final-form perspective. It is worth noting that in 6:1-8:15, YHWH says he will judge Judah

for Ahaz’s rejection of Him. That event corrupted the nation’s relationship with YHWH, who has made the people

blind and deaf (6:10) (Sweeney, Isaiah 1-4, 43). 66

Clements, “Light to the Nations,” 65. 67



Immediately symbolic imagery is at work in this passage. In 8:20, those who do not

speak according to tôrâ “have no dawn” (ׁשחר). Here, dawn is substituted metonymically for the

light motif. While in 2:1-5 tôrâ represented a path on which one walks (thus also walking in

YHWH’s light), in this passage it represents something by which one speaks. The light motif,

then, is developed by way of rhetorical contrast, to recall our analytical categories.68

Increased

range is seen as well in that light is symbolically one step further away by use of the indirect

category of “dawn.”

Motific distribution occurs in that this context is not one of the Day of YHWH, as was

2:1-5, but an imploring statement by the prophet Isaiah to “withdraw from public debate on the

Syro-Ephraimite War” to await YHWH’s action.69

In what follows, distribution also occurs in

that those who lack light for that very reason not only see “distress and darkness” in their land,

but will be thrust “into thick darkness” (v.22). If 2:2-5 showed the result of walking in the light

of YHWH, this passage shows the result of lacking light, namely judgment. In this sense, the

darkness motif also receives further contrast and range compared to its first appearance in 5:20.

Darkness is not only the lack of tȏrâ, but leads to and is itself judgment and distress (v.22).

Those who do abide by YHWH’s law are thus led to sing what Sweeney categorizes as a

thanksgiving psalm in vv.1-6.

The psalm develops the light/dark motif in significant ways.70

A change in genre again

contributes to the motif’s rhetorical-contextual distribution. Additionally, while the navigational

sense of the light/dark motif is established in 2:1-5, v.2b further develops rhetorical contrast by

68

See fn. 40. 69

Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 177. He identifies the genre at work as Instruction, more specifically Commands (179). 70

This passage is complex in both translation and redactional considerations. Clements says 9:2-7 “is probably

among the most contested passages of the entire corpus of prophecy” (“Light to the Nations,” 65.). Williamson, for

instance, sees much of the light/dark motif as a product of Deutero-Isaiah redaction (The Book Called Isaiah:

Deutero-Isaiah’s Role in Composition and Redaction [Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994], 73.). As such, he sees in 9:1

[8:23b] connected directly to Deutero-Isaiah’s use of the light/dark motif in chs. 40-55 (74).


depicting “dwelling in a land of deep darkness.” Note that the stationary image of dwelling is

placed in poetic parallel with the navigational walking sense of the symbol. By so doing, range

of the dark motif is also developed, as it is confined not only to darkness is the absence of

YHWH’s tôrâ in a person or group, but here seems to be a characteristic of a place. Perhaps

darkness is the abode of the condemned would be appropriate.

Accordingly, a different symbol seems to be at work in this text. A strict application of

tôrâ or non-tôrâ to light and darkness respectively is not likely the best reading of the imagery

here. After surveying several opinions, Sweeney proposes that the former/latter time language in

9:1 [8:23a] corresponds to the two positions mentioned; those who rely on YHWH’s tôrâ

(v.23aa) and those who rely on sorcerers (vv.20b-22).71

When considering the thanksgiving

psalm amidst the broader context, then,72

the “former one” will be he who endures the coming

Assyrian invasion, while the “latter one” will recognize and praise YHWH for His plan to install

a Davidic king, which is the contents and hope of the psalm.73

The light/dark motif’s contrast

and range, then, are greatly developed, as it now pertains to not only theological concerns (as in

2:2-5), but geopolitical concerns, if theologically charged at that. The joy which comes to the

people of the psalm is evidently a result of vv.3-4 portraying the destruction of military combat

symbols, and announcing the birth of a new king who will usher in peace (v.6).74

The light of v.2

which people now see and which is shining on them is a thus person. Moreover, this person is

one upon whom hopes of deliverance are fixed.

71


Sweeney locates this passage just after Ahaz’s decision to request Assyrian assistance in the Syro-Ephraimite

War. No disaster is presupposed in the text however, thus it likely lies before the actual Assyrian invasion (Isaiah 1-

39, 181-82). Clements proposes that the psalm in 9:2-7 envisions the enthronement of Hezekiah (“Light to the

Nations,” 66). 73


Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 178-79.


It is important to note that the rhetorical development that takes place in this passage does

not override what was seen in 2:2-5, but builds upon it.75

In this sense, light represents a quasi-

messianic figure and loyalty to YHWH’s tôrâ. Likewise the darkness symbolizes geopolitical

judgment and infidelity to or lack of YHWH’s tôrâ which gave way thereto. The passage

integrates the light/darkness imagery heretofore seen so that one reading does not exclude, but

implies the other. The theological import of the theme is thus developed so that, on the one hand,

notions of deliverance to come from the kingly figure are inferred, while on the other hand the

light motif also symbolically import notions of tôrâ. As a result, what appears to be in view is

more than political deliverance, but theological (even cosmic?) deliverance. Clements makes the

point that the very force of Isaiah the prophet’s mission is that of blinding Israel (6:10). The light

in view in 9:2-7 then corresponds to the spiritual darkness which afflicts the nation, and

liberation from it “will take the form of a new deliverer-king” who walks in the light of

YHWH.76

75

The theme is “built” in a theological sense synchronically construed. Given Sweeney’s late date of 2:2-5, this

passage (8:20, 22-9:2) cannot “build” upon the light/dark motif diachronically. Below, further consideration will be

given to the likelihood of a mutual-influence between early and late Isaianic texts in terms of the motif, which both

shaped and were shaped by historical concerns of the redactor(s). 76

“Light to the Nations,” 65. Thus Clements links the messianic claims of the line of David to light imagery. In

10:17 the “light of Israel” that devours the “thorns and briars” alludes to 9:2, which itself alludes to 5:6 where

agricultural imagery is introduced (66). Elsewhere Clements maintains that Isa. 29:18, which links the darkness

motif with blindness, alludes to 8:23.


Isa. 29:15-19, 24: 15

Ah, you who hide deep from the LORD your counsel,

whose deeds are in the dark, and who say,

"Who sees us? Who knows us?" 16

You turn things upside down!

Shall the potter be regarded as the clay,

that the thing made should say of its maker,

"He did not make me";

or the thing formed say of him who formed it,

"He has no understanding"?

17

Is it not yet a very little while until Lebanon shall be turned into a fruitful

field,

and the fruitful field shall be regarded as a forest?

18

In that day the deaf shall hear

the words of a book,

and out of their gloom and darkness

the eyes of the blind shall see.

19

The meek shall obtain fresh joy in the LORD,

and the poor among mankind

shall exult in the Holy One of Israel…

…24

And those who go astray in spirit

will come to understanding,

and those who murmur

will accept instruction."

The chapter includes possibly both 6th

and 5th

century editions of Isaiah, as it has a clear

concern to explain the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem and the temple as a part of YHWH’s

divine plan.77

The passage focuses on the eventual deliverance of the northern kingdom from

oppression, and thus seems to presuppose Tiglath-pileser III’s invasion, a disaster which has

presented an opportunity for the Davidic Empire to retake control.78

This passage is the

beginning of a section of prophetic instruction in which the future deliverance of Jacob-Israel by

YHWH is envisioned (29:15-24).79

Verses 15-16 form a woe oracle, followed in verses 17-23 by

an announcement of the destruction of oppressors, and a description of the end of this oppression

77

Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 380-81. “In the case of the 5th

-century edition [this plan]… would point to the

manifestation of YHWH’s rule over all the nations of the earth. In the 6th

-century edition…, ch. 29 would

presuppose that the restoration of Jerusalem and the building of the Second Temple serve as the major signs

demonstrating YHWH’s sovereignty over the entire cosmos.” 78




in vv. 22-24.80

Overall, ch. 29 presents the positive results of the mitigation of the threat to Israel

which YHWH has brought about in judgment.81

The light/dark motif is employed in this passage in ways that carry on previous concepts

and that develop it as well. First, v.15 continues the motific metaphor darkness is a place, as

seen in 9:2 where it was poetically depicted as somewhere one dwells or walks. That one’s

“deeds are in the dark” contrasts with the implied symbolism of 2:2-5 as well, where those who

do not have tôrâ cannot walk in the light of YHWH. Significantly, the deeds which are

supposedly in the dark and unseen in 29:15 are rhetorically mocked. It is this very deluded

opinion which is in fact “gloom and darkness” (29:18)!82

As seen in 8:20-9:2, those who do not

follow YHWH dwell in darkness. They attempt to position themselves expeditiously in society

(8:6), and will not wait for YHWH as Isaiah calls them to (8:17-18). Instead, they align

themselves with Israel’s political and spiritual oppressors (8:19). These people deceive

themselves (cf. 5:20), and YHWH is boldly making that known in this passage (29:16-17).83

The

so-called “wisdom” of those who honor Him with their lips only is emphatically not wisdom, and

YHWH himself shall cause it to perish (29:13-14).

By doing so, the range of the light/dark motif expands, for those who do deeds in the

dark (v.15) are identified as blind (v.18). Just as dawn was employed metonymically for light in

8:20, here blindness is employed symbolically to represent the idea that the darkness-dweller

80

Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 377-78. 81

Ibid, 383. Sweeney notes that this passage’s intention is reapplicable based upon the diachronic setting

presupposed. See his section “Intention.” Childs points out that there are hermeneutical obstacles to maintaining

merely a synchronic analysis of this passage given its various “tensions.” This is ordinarily resolved, he says, by

redaction-critical hypotheses like Sweeney’s. Childs, however, stresses the import of recognizing theological aspects

in the growth of the prophetic canon, not merely historical or sociological aspects (Isaiah, 214-216). 82


Ibid, 220.


is blind.84

Moreover, the group of blind men is described as those who honor YHWH with their

lips alone (29:13-14, the so-called “wise men”), and as “those who go astray in spirit” (v.24).

Thus in all these passages, imagery contributes to understanding that the blindness of dwelling in

darkness entails not only religious misalignment (i.e. non-tȏrâ-keepers), but also political and

cognitive misalignment.

Judgment is pronounced on this so-called wisdom of the wise, as it disregards YHWH’s

words (29:13) and has led to self-reliance. The expansion of the range of the light/darkness

motif, then, is in terms of a contrast between light-seeing-understanding and darkness-blindness-

not understanding, which correspond respectively to blessing and judgment.85

Hence, as in 2:2-5

where the nations streamed to Zion for YHWH’s tȏrâ, bayyôm hahû’ language is employed,

denoting that in the Day of YHWH all those who dwell in darkness (v.15) will be brought out

(v.18b), the blind (v.18b) and “wise” ones (v.14) will see and understand (v.24).86

84

As a result, an exhaustive survey of the light/darkness motif would have to include blindness/sight imagery as

well. Work has been done here by Robert P. Carroll (“Blindsight and the Vision Thing”). Also, Gary Stansell

evaluates the frequency, consistency, and even development of the blind/sight motif in Isa. 28-33 in “Isaiah 28-33:

Blest Be the Tie that Binds (Isaiah Together) in New Visions of Isaiah, edited by Roy F. Melugin and Marvin A.

Sweeney, JSOTSup 214, 60-104 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, Ltd., 1996), esp. 75-77. 85

K.T. Aitken, “Hearing and Seeing: Metamorphoses of a Motif in Isaiah 1-39,” in Among the Prophets: Language,

Image and Structure in the Prophetic Writings, edited by Philip R. Davies and David J.A. Clines, JSOTSup 144, 12-

41 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, Ltd., 1993), 23. Aitken’s work contributes significantly to my

understanding of lack of sight/knowledge in judgment, and attainment thereof in salvation. He shows Israel’s lack of

knowledge to be a consequence of their failure to hear (1:2-20; 30:8-17) and see (5:8-24; 22:8b-14), which comes

out in their social, religious, and political life. Judgment follows, and then is transformed so that seeing and

understanding are attained unto their deliverance (40-41). 86

Blenkinsopp points out that this theme is central to the later chapters of Isaiah, and is “an essential part of the

restorationist eschatological view that people are not meant to be deaf, blind, lame, indigent, subject to violence, and

deprived of access to judicial process” (Isaiah 1-39: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, The

Anchor Bible, vol. 19 [New York, NY: Doubleday, 2000], 409).


Isa. 42:1-9

Behold my servant, whom I uphold, my chosen,

in whom my soul delights;

I have put my Spirit upon him;

he will bring forth justice to the nations.

2 He will not cry aloud or lift up his voice,

or make it heard in the street;

3 a bruised reed he will not break,

and a faintly burning wick he will not quench;

he will faithfully bring forth justice.

4 He will not grow faint or be discouraged

till he has established justice in the earth;

and the coastlands wait for his law. 5 Thus says God, the LORD,

who created the heavens and stretched them out,

who spread out the earth and what comes from it,

who gives breath to the people on it

and spirit to those who walk in it:

The citations that could be given in discussion of the so-called “Servant Songs” are

legion. Suffice it to say that the scholarly vein in which this paper runs generally does not

bifurcate the Songs from their context.87

It also acknowledges a two-fold structure to Isaiah, chs.

1-39 and 40-66, the first of which announces coming judgment and a following restoration, and

the second of which speaks of the judgment passed and restoration as beginning. These sections

are often characterized respectively as “former” and “new” things in the text.88

The two sections

are often posited to be brought together by the transitional chs.36-39, a later addition perhaps by

Deutero-Isaiah or a circle of disciples.89

While a broad distinction is made between these halves,

multiple “secondary” units are recognized to have been inserted into the first half by later

redactors.90

It is worth noting that in doing a simple word search, it becomes clear that

87

For arguments supporting a contextual reading of the Servant Songs, see T.N.D. Mettinger, A Farewell to the

Servant Songs: A Critical Examination of an Exegetical Axiom (Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1983). 88

Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 41-48. For Sweeney’s broad structural outline to the books, see Isaiah 1-39 pp.39-40. 89

See sources cited in Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 42. 90

Rolf Rendtorff, “The Book of Isaiah: A Complex Unity. Synchronic and Diachronic Reading,” in New Visions of

Isaiah, edited by Roy F. Melugin and Marvin A. Sweeney, JSOTSup 214, 32-49 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic

Press, Ltd., 1996), 45.

6 "I am the LORD; I have called you in righteousness;

I will take you by the hand and keep you;

I will give you as a covenant for the people,

a light for the nations, 7 to open the eyes that are blind,

to bring out the prisoners from the dungeon,

from the prison

those who sit in darkness.

8 I am the LORD; that is my name;

my glory I give to no other,

nor my praise to carved idols. 9 Behold, the former things have come to pass,

and new things I now declare;

before they spring forth I tell you of them."


light/darkness language and its corresponding blindness language is much more heavily

employed after ch. 40.91

Whereas in the first half of Isaiah much attention was given to Israel’s failure as a nation

for a variety of reasons, not least of all the failure of Ahaz as king as representative (Isa. 7:10-

12), the second half shifts to focus on Israel’s role to the nations as representative. In 42:1-9, the

servant figure is presented simultaneously as a kingly figure, whose main task the text presents

as bringing for the “justice [mišpāṭ] to the nations” (vv.1, 3, 4).92

Although mišpāṭ may be

interpreted in a variety of ways, Williamson proposes that the royal identity of the figure

indicates a judicial sense.93

It stands in clear parallel in v.4 with tôrâ, which many scholars agree

echoes 2:2-5, thus does not have Mosaic tôrâ in view, but rather the “royal task of administering,

upholding and even initiating justice among the nations.94

Given the representative role taken by

91

24 out of 35 uses of 16 ,אור out of 21 uses of חׁשך, and 23 out of 29 uses of עור. If, as Rendtorff maintains, Isa.

40-55 is the core around which the book is constructed, or the section to which 1-39 and 56-66 stand in relation, a

greater presence of the light/dark motif there makes sense, and may even help explain redactional extension of these

themes into other parts of Isaiah from 40-55 (Sweeney, Isaiah, 1-4, 7). 92

H.G.M. Williamson, Variations on a Theme: King, Messiah and Servant in the Book of Isaiah (Carlisle:

Paternoster, 2006), 132-35. Williamson points out that pre-exilic texts often speak of the king’s representative role

between God and the people, whereas in post-exilic texts (Isa. 55 for instance), the nation of Israel move into the

representative role between God and the nations (122-24). Sweeney proposes a similar notion, saying that “the book

of Isaiah as a whole portrays the revelation of YWHH’s Torah to the nations and Israel in analogy to the revelation

of Torah to Israel and the nations in the Mosaic tradition… Whereas the Mosaic tradition portrays this revelation as

a means to establish Israel in its own land, the Isaiah tradition portrays the revelation as a means to demonstrate

YHWH’s worldwide sovereignty and to reestablish Israel in Zion” (“The Book of Isaiah as Prophetic Torah,” in

Form and Intertextuality in Prophetic and Apocalyptic Literature [Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005], 27.). 93

The king’s role in the ANE, after all, is in the broadest sense one of establishing order. Williamson also points out

that the Spirit-endowed nature of this servant-king echoes 11:1-5 where judicial rule was also in view (Variations,

136). I would point out that also employed in that passage is clear language involved in the light/dark motif. 11:2-3

says that the shoot who will come from Jesse shall have a spirit of knowledge of YHWH, and shall use his fear

YHWH in his judgment rather than what he sees with his eyes, failure so to do, as we have seen, is exactly what has

brought about judgment for Israel. 94

Williamson, Variations, 137-39. He also states that Deutero-Isaiah is likely responsible for placing 2:1ff where it

is in its final form, as 2:1-5 is a text used often by him (138).


Israel in this half of Isaiah, 42:1-4 thus portrays the ideal servant-king the nation should be in

relationship with the nations.95

With this understanding of the first Servant Song in mind, vv.6-7 may be analyzed in

terms of its development of the light/dark motif. First of all, the distribution is again widened as

another genre seems to be in use, namely prophetic announcement of salvation.96

In addition,

echoes of 2:2-5 emerge in v.6b, where “light for the nations” seems to imply the same desire for

Israel as 2:5 in the time between the “present” and the Day of YHWH; as a witness to the

nations. The light motif takes on a great deal of contrast here, though, as it is placed in parallel

with “a covenant for the people.” This rhetorical move develops the image beyond what has been

seen to this point. After the exile, hopes placed in Hezekiah as the Davidic deliverer-king, as

appeared in the apparent political and theological opportunity in 9:2-6, would have dissolved.97

Instead, in this text the Servant, an idealized Israel, is shown to be the light, thereby hearkening

back to the royal language of 9:2.98

Moreover the aim is not merely for messianic deliverance of

the Israelites, but justice for, even a covenant with, the nations. It is this that is portrayed as the

“new things” which are about to spring forth (v.9).

In this sense, the covenant is light would be appropriate, as can be seen from v.7

where blindness symbolism and the darkness motif are employed. One might even go further

based on what has been said and say ideal Israel is covenant-light to the nations. It is

95

Ibid, 143. This can be seen in the both/and nature of the following verses. In 42:16 the Servant will lead the desert

villages who are blind and turn their darkness to light, yet in v. 19-20 the Servant is obviously also blind, which will

become a larger theme in what follows (Childs, Isaiah, 333). 96

In terms of rhetorical distribution of the light/dark motif, I am distinguishing development thereof primarily in

terms of the formal genre distinctions employed by Sweeney and others. See Isaiah 1-39, 512-47 for an index of

these genres. 97

By contrasting the account with its parallel in 2 Kg. 18:13-20:19, Sweeney highlights the hope placed in Hezekiah

for the first half of Isaiah in his analysis of Isa. 36-39. There, Hezekiah’s actions are portrayed in contrast to Ahaz’s

in Isa. 6:1-9:6. Hezekiah is then set forth as a paradigm for Judah, and 36-39 seem to indicate that the nation’s

judgment is only delayed due to his piety (Isaiah 1-4, 12-13, 32-33). 98

Clements, “Light for the Nations,” 66-68. Although merely some form of royal deliverance may be in view here,

Clements states that in this passage “the conjunction of the imagery of light, darkness and blindness, strongly

suggests that the earlier occurrence of these metaphors in Isaiah 6-9 is being openly alluded to” (66).


important to recognize the ideal aspect of this metaphor, especially given the hymn of praise

which follows our passage. For Jacob-Israel is shown in what follows to be fundamentally

incapable of performing the task given in this passage.

In 42:10-25, the nations sing praise for the promise of the covenant (v.9), and Servant-

Israel says he will lead the blind nations through the wilderness, turning darkness to light

(v.16).99

The fact that those whom the Servant leads “do not know” their way (v.16) likely refers

not only to the exiles not imagining their own deliverance, but also from the spiritual blindness

resulting from pagan idolatry; the deliverance in view is greater than any expectation as it is both

internal and external.100

Yet immediately following this great statement of deliverance for the

nations, v.19, seeming to take on the voice of another (likely YHWH, v.21101

), rhetorically asks

who is blind but Servant-Israel? In Isa. 42 it appears that, although Jacob-Israel was put through

the fire of exile, their hearts were not purified; they have not obeyed YHWH’s tôrâ, nor have

they understood and repented.102

Blindness is used throughout Isaiah, as has been shown, and

often is associated not only with inability to know the truth (29:18, 24), but with punishment by

YHWH. In Isa. 40-55 in particular, blindness seems also to indicate directly a lack of

knowledge.103

In relation to the light/darkness motif development seen to this point, then, lifting

blindness becomes a direct means of salvation. Although some endeavor to work around the

99

The issue of who exactly is doing the singing of this hymn does not have to be restricted to just the nations, but

has the entire world in view, including the Remnant (Jan L. Koole, Isaiah III, vol. 1, Isaiah 40-48, Historical

Commentary on the Old Testament (Kampen: Kok Pharos Publishing House, 1997), 245-246). 100

Koole, 258. 101

So John Goldingay and David Payne, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 40-55 in Two Volumes,

vol. 1 (Chippenham: T&T Clark International, 2006), 255. 102

Ibid. 103

Lund, 135.


problem of Israel appearing to have the impossible task of delivering itself, Childs says “the

tensions in the text must be retained until a resolution is allowed to emerge.”104

Isa. 60: 1-5, 19-21:

Arise, shine, for your light has come,

and the glory of the LORD has risen upon you. 2 For behold, darkness shall cover the earth,

and thick darkness the peoples;

but the LORD will arise upon you,

and his glory will be seen upon you. 3 And nations shall come to your light,

and kings to the brightness of your rising. 4 Lift up your eyes all around, and see;

they all gather together, they come to you;

your sons shall come from afar,

and your daughters shall be carried on the hip. 5 Then you shall see and be radiant;

your heart shall thrill and exult,

In this text, Israel is portrayed as having returned from Exile and its oppressors as

rebuilding the temple after the wrath of YHWH has been taken out on the nation.105

The chapter

might be dated to the first half of the fifth century B.C. since it seems to summarize Isaiah’s

teaching up to this point concerning Zion, which has been “recast” here using earlier texts to help

those scattered understand the city’s ongoing significance even in the Persian period.106

The passage follows on the heels of a series of judgment passages (56:9-12; 57:3-13a;

58:1-5; 59:1-15), but drastically changes the tone of condemnation to one of joy.107

Building on

104

Childs, Isaiah, 334. I have not treated the light/dark motif in the other Servant Songs only due to space concerns.

Isa. 49:6, 9 echoes 42:6 in many ways, whereas 50:10 seems to develop the motif in unique ways, particularly with

its coordination of light with the disciples (למודים). Much more could be said here. 105


Clements, “Arise, Shine,” 449. Clements goes as far as saying the chapter in fact has “a midrashic style of

composition designed to give a new coherence and credibility to themes and mythical motifs which had a very long

history. Its character as a fresh prophecy is based on the authority of its re-reading and reinterpretation of these

motifs which are to be found in earlier biblical writings” (450, emphasis added). 107

Gregory J. Polan, O.S.B., “Zion, the Glory of the Holy One of Israel: A Literary Analysis of Isaiah 60” in

Imagery and Imagination in Biblical Literature: Essays in Honor of Aloysius Fitzgerald, F.S.C., edited by Lawrence

Boadt and Mark S. Smith, The Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series 32 (Washington: The Catholic Biblical

Association of America, 2001), 50.

because the abundance of the sea shall be turned to you,

the wealth of the nations shall come to you. 19

The sun shall be no more your light by day,

nor for brightness shall the moon give you

light;

but the LORD will be your everlasting light,

and your God will be your glory.

20

Your sun shall no more go down,

nor your moon withdraw itself;

for the LORD will be your everlasting light,

and your days of mourning shall be ended.

21

Your people shall all be righteous;

they shall possess the land forever,

the branch of my planting, the work of my hands,

that I might be glorified.


chapter 55, the theme of an everlasting covenant is heavily emphasized.108

Again, the theme of

the nations coming to YHWH saturates the entire chapter, echoing all the way back to the Day of

YHWH language in 2:2-5.109

Often, as has been shown in this paper, overlap has occurred

between tôrâ going to the nations and the light motif, and here the concept seems to occur once

more, although interestingly the word never occurs. Notably, light imagery arises here

immediately after 59:20-21 where YHWH declares emphatically that his Spirit will be upon

those in Jacob who turn from transgression and act justly.110

The covenant entails His words will

never depart from their mouths (59:21), recalling the aspect of the light motif in 29:15-19 that

corresponded to understanding. Here, YHWH gives His people gifts that allow the realities of ch.

60 to come about.111

Important to note is that with the absence of the word tȏrâ, the only means

of explaining the new behavior of Jacob-Israel is the presence of YHWH’s Spirit.112

In this chapter, then, the light/dark motif reaches a climax. In v.1 contrast is developed so

that light is not merely tôrâ, or a location in which one may dwell or walk, but is something that

can come, and the second strophe places YHWH’s glory in parallel with that coming light. Here,

an interesting echo is present in that YHWH’s light is said to have “risen” upon them like the

sun, calling to mind the lack of dawn in 8:20 for those who do not heed tôrâ. Rhetorically, verses

19 and 20 explicitly employ both figurative and non-figurative language for emphasis. The

conventional sun and moon are not only no longer necessary, but seem to have disappeared

entirely due to the symbolic light of YHWH which has come. By implication, darkness itself is

108


Childs, Isaiah, 496. Clements points out that this chapter has a wide array of allusions to earlier portions of

Isaiah, and even says it takes on “the appearance of a midrashic compilation concerning the future role of

Jerusalem.” Given its content and character” (R.E. Clements, “’Arise, Shine; For Your Light Has Come’: A Basic

Theme of the Isaianic Tradition,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition,

vol. 1, edited by Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans, 441-454 [Leiden: Koninkllijke Brill, 1997], 447). 110

Lohfink and Zenger, 54. 111

Ibid. 112

Ibid, 55.


eliminated on the Day of YHWH. Polan points out that vv.1-3 and 19-22 form bookends of sorts

to the chapter, emphasizing that the light which has come (v.1) is in fact YHWH Himself

(v.20).113

Given the contrast between the figurative language and non-figurative imagery, we

might conclude along with Clements that Isa. 60 presupposes familiarity with the light/dark

motif already employed in Isaiah to this point.114

Additionally, whereas ch. 42 seemed to imply light being given in the form of covenant

to all people, v.2 portrays “thick darkness” instead coming over all peoples, perhaps a reference

to 8:22.115

Yet this situation is not one of symbolic judgment here, but is a means by which the

light of Jacob-Israel, finally shining in full glory now that YHWH’s Spirit is upon them, may be

more clearly perceived. Verse 4 gives an injunction not to “go up” or to “walk,” as in 2:2-5, but

merely to lift one’s eyes and see what has already come. It is YHWH, who is the everlasting

Light (v.19b) and glory of the people, and he will bring their mourning to an end (v.20b). This is

a stunning reversal of the fortunes of Israel, in that her blindness has been lifted (60:5) and she

follows YHWH faithfully forevermore (59:21), shining with the light of YHWH so that the

nations come to her. “She who was once exile is now established in majestic splendor; she who

once was a servant to foreigners now receives their service and homage.”116

In this passage, the light of YHWH from 2:5 which Israel was to walk in is coterminous

with the light of Zion; in other words, the goal has been met in this passage. The nations gather

at Zion because the Light shines from there. Remarkably, the gift of YHWH’s light is

righteousness and land possession for all Israel (v.21), denoting that as much as the light is

113

Polan, 55. 114

“Light to the Nations,” 68. Whether this is simply literary familiarity, or diachronically produced conventionality

to the symbolic language employed is up for debate. 115

Ibid. 116

Ibid, 70.


YHWH’s, it is also intensely Zion’s.117

The highly eschatological nature of this passage renews

all things old; even the building materials are upgraded to gold and bronze. Zion is not only

restored here, but projected as the heavenly city itself.118

Childs remarks that “the portrayal of

the city of God in terms of light is further informed by the original mission of the servant to be

the light to the nations” in 42:6.119

The utter triumph of Zion and YHWH is demonstrated by

Polan’s literary analysis of Isa. 60, which locates a chiastic center of the chapter in vv.10-14,

where it is made explicit that peace will reign now that YHWH’s mercy has come (vv.10-11),

and any nation who will not serve Zion shall perish (v.12).120

IV. Evaluation and Proposals

Looking back over what has been seen in the development of the light/dark motif over

only these five passages, certain observations may be made concerning the theological aim of the

book in its final form. Firstly, it is obvious that the symbols of light and darkness have

implications beyond a simple one-to-one correspondence with an idea. Instead, they are complex

blends of imagery which, in particular contexts, may emphasize one syntagmatic reality

associated with it over another.121

Light, as we have seen it, has been metaphorically or

symbolically tied to YHWH himself, to tôrâ, or learning tôrâ, and to walking/living rightly (2:2-

5); also to a manner of speech or a place to dwell, and, notably, a person/king of hope and

deliverance (8:20, 22-9:2); to having sight (29:15-19, 24); to mišpāṭ, and a covenant/covenant-

mediator (ideal Israel) (42:1-7); and finally it is tied to YHWH’s glory, to the characteristic of

eschatological Zion, and the Day of YHWH (60:1-5, 19-21). Likewise, darkness is associated

117

Lohfink and Zenger, 55. 118

Childs, Isaiah, 498-99. 119

Ibid. Childs notes the development from thinking exodus from Babylon would usher in a new era to a vision of a

new heaven and earth (500). 120

Polan, 71. 121

As with the example of the Cross, given in fn. 30, above, depending on its context this symbol could trigger the

syntagmatic realities of the Christ-event, the Church, a nation-state, etc.


with a lack of (knowledge of) tôrâ (2:2-5); with geopolitical or cosmic judgment and the

condition of the location of condemned (8:20, 22-9:2); with those who are blind, who have false

wisdom, who are opposed to YHWH (29:15-19, 24); with spiritual waywardness/misalignment,

with lack of knowledge (42:1-7); and lastly with the qualities eliminated on the Day of YHWH

(60:1-5, 19-21).

Clearly there are overtones of blessing with light and overtones of curse with darkness,

which comes as no surprise. Some exceptions to this rule might be arguable; especially Isa. 45:7,

which itself is a rather contentious verse, raising questions in the minds of some regarding dualist

influences on the final form of Isaiah.122

Still, development appears from an early literary setting

to a late one in terms of light being characterized most simply as tôrâ and most profoundly as

YHWH’s eschatological glory. If, redactionally speaking, Isaiah 1-39 is a sub-structure to 40-66,

which anticipates and requires the former,123

this development may be rhetorically intentional,

shaped by the theological dispositions of Isaiah’s final editors.

Diachronically, at least 2:2-5, 42:1-7, and 60:1-30 seem to strongly indicate a post-exilic

date, and thus some of the strongest theological articulations stem from this historical situation.

On the other hand, Isa. 8:20, 22-9:2 and 29:15-19, 24 appear more composite and difficult to

locate, yet also contain strong light/dark motif usage and development. Here the difficulty of

pinning diachronic conclusions on literary observations becomes unreliable at best. It appears, as

Clements has pointed out,124

that there is mutual theological or motific informing going on

intertextually. Still, it seems safe to say that a more fully-orbed theology of the light/dark motif,

at least in Isaiah, was a product of later diachronic redactions of the book, and came as a

122

One exception may be 10:17. For one discussion of dualism, see Michael Deroche, “Isaiah XLV and the Creation

of Chaos?” Vetus Testamentum XLII, 1 (1992), 11-21. 123


See fn. 62, above.


development out of the politico-theological situations the nation of Israel faced after their return

from exile.

Questions to guide further study are numerous. How might an intratextual analysis of the

light/dark motif inform an understanding of its diachronic development, particularly by

examination of other post-exilic books? How is the light/dark motif related to the theme of

suffering (righteous)?125

In view of passages like Isa. 5:30, 8:22, and 45:7, how much overlap is

there between the light/dark motif and cosmology/cosmogony, specifically in theomachal battle

over chaos?126

Granting a final-form setting for Isaiah in the Persian period, to what extent has

dualistic thinking informed the redactors’ reinterpretation of earlier Isaianic texts, particularly

those which are apocalyptic in nature?127

If Persian dualistic thinking has influenced editorial

redaction in apocalyptic, how has this influenced later Second Temple literature in general, and

Qumran in particular?128

To what extent were New Testament writings influenced by similar

language, particularly John’s Gospel?129

125

Of particular interest here would be a motific analysis of Job and the Psalms (particularly the intriguing Ps.

88:18). 126

Williamson points out that Isa. 5:30, for one, may imply a return to primeval chaos, perhaps reflecting a setting in

the Exilic period (Book Called Isaiah, 135-36). 127

Recall Sweeney’s proposition that redactional changes do not, hermeneutically, necessarily conform to the

original author’s intention (Isaiah 1-4, 6). Due to reformulated perspectives on the nation’s eschatological horizon in

the post-exilic period, the sociological impulse for the composition of apocalyptic texts arose (not to mention the

redemptive-historical appropriateness of so doing), which given the Persian cultural setting may have been informed

by dualistic cosmological thinking (see Eric M. Meyers, “From Myth to Apocalyptic: Dualism in the Hebrew Bible”

in Light Against Darkness: Dualism in Ancient Mediterranean Religion and the Contemporary World, edited by

Armin Lange, Eric M. Meyers, et al. [Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co., 2011], 92-106. Meyers

says “The rise of apocalyptic… in the post-exilic literature of the Hebrew Bible has surely been influenced by the

experience of Exile in Persian-administered lands, but only when combined with earlier modes of Israelite thinking

does it fully take shape… the reemergence of myth in the post-exilic literature becomes a major vehicle for the

Jewish community in dealing with the many uncertainties of life under imperial occupation and with limited hope

for renewal of the Davidic kingdom” [93]). 128

As a fundamentally eschatological community, the Essenes naturally gravitated to the apocalyptic texts of the

Hebrew Bible. Drawing from analysis of the scrolls uncovered there, the community appears to have been heavily

indebted to Isaiah (see George J. Brooke, “Isaiah in the Pesharim and Other Qumran Texts,” in Writing and

Reading, vol. 2, 609-632; Armin Lange, “’Which is Written in the Words of Isaiah, Son of Amoz, the Prophet’ [CD

7.10]: Quotations of and Allusions to the Book of Isaiah in Qumran Literature,” in With Wisdom as a Robe: Qumran

and Other Jewish Studies in Honour of Ida Fröhlich, edited by Károly Daniel Dobos, Miklós Köszeghy [Sheffield:

Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2009], 275-287.). Work has already been done on the presence of dualism in Qumran

http://www.sheffieldphoenix.com/browse.asp?auth=125

http://www.sheffieldphoenix.com/browse.asp?auth=126


In conclusion, then, frequent and important use of non-literal language in the form of

motifs has been shown to be an important aspect of considering Isaiah as a redactional unity. As

the light/dark motif in particular is employed in the text, it has developed an expanded, coincided

with other motifs, such as blindness or wisdom, and provided a window through which to

understand the theological preoccupations of Isaiah as a final form. Alongside of diachronic

analyses from prominent scholars of the Prophets, the theological, political, even social concerns

of redactors of Isaiah are shown forth as the earlier texts are read, reinterpreted, and employed in

later additions towards the production of the book as we have received it. These rhetorical

findings then compliment a synchronic reading and enrich our understanding of the unified

message of Isaiah.

which could be used in pursuit of this inquiry, specifically regarding the scrolls (1QM) and (1QS); see Philip R.

Davies, “Dualism in the Qumran War Texts,” Paul Heber, “Another Look at Dualism in Qumran Writings,” Mladen

Popović, “Light and Darkness in the Treatise on the Two Spirits (1QS III 13-IV 26) and in 4Q186,” amongst others

in Dualism in Qumran, edited by Géza G. Xeravits (New York, NY: T&T Clark International, 2010). Also see

Loren T. Stuckenbruck, “The Interiorization of Dualism within the Human Being in Second Temple Judaism: the

Treatise of the Two Spirits (1AS III: 13-IV: 26) in its tradition-historical context,” in Light Against Darkness, 145-

168. 129

John amongst all the Gospel writers employs the light/dark motif most heavily, and likewise cites, alludes to, or

echoes Isaiah with frequency. In John, light and glory are frequently intertwined (1:4-5, 7-9; 2:11; 3:19-21), much

like Isa. 9:1 and ch. 60. John emphasizes that while Jesus is the Light, John the Baptist is not (1:7-8). The motif, as it

is related to glory, may also be shown to connect in John through Isaiah to the suffering and exaltation of the

Servant (James Hamilton, “The Influence of Isaiah on the Gospel of John,” 139-162, Perichoresis 5/2 [2007], 147;

see p. 161-62 for a chart of fulfillments and thematic connections between Isaiah and John according to John the

Evangelist, John the Baptist, or Jesus).


Appendix A: Methodological Diagram

(Bold or darker words denote the trajectory of this paper)

Isolated Word -------------------------- Word(s) in context

|

V

_______________________________

| |

V V

Incongruity/Tension, Conventionality Congruity, Unconventionality

| |

V V

Non-Literal/Imagery Literal

|

V _____________________

| |

V V

Repeated Not repeated

|

V Motif/Theme | V

_______________________________

| |

V V

Metaphor Symbol

The target domain is the source domain [Text / symbol] syntagmatic reality

Life is a journey


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