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Page 1: 151221 Edanz Shinshu

Strategies to Efficiently and Critically Read Research Articles

Shinshu University

21 December 2015

Dr Trevor Lane Dr Julian Tang

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S

Be an effective and critical reader

Your goal is not only to research and publish, but also to read and learn from your peers

Search the literature; develop reading strategies

Read efficiently; make notes and discuss

Understand whole research articles

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Searching the literature Section 1

Searching the literature

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Searching the literature Importance of reading

Read often!

Stay up-to-date, identify trends

Identify knowledge gaps, research ideas

Notice article/journal quality, writing styles

Critical thinking & peer review practice

Discuss with colleagues

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Searching the literature Importance of reading

Read often!

Learn how native English speakers write

Learn effective argument structure

Learn manuscript structures & genres

Learn new words & concepts

Discuss with colleagues

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Searching the literature What should I read?

What do you already know? Understanding

Basic Advanced

Understand a new topic

(Your Introduction)

• Find a method (Your Methods)

• Compare your results (Your Discussion)

Latest developments; answer specific questions; find target journals

What do you want to know?

Review articles Primary literature

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Searching the literature What should I read?

Research Article

Short Communication Case Study Technical Note Review Article Editorial Letter to the Editor

Brief report about a specific finding

Most common; full-length paper

Brief report about a specific situation

Brief report about a new methodology

Summary of recent advances in a field

Brief discussion about an interesting topic

Brief discussion about a published article

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Searching the literature Finding articles

Databases IEEE Xplore, ChemWeb, PubMed, Springer Link, Web of Science, Scopus, SciFinder

Journal websites Recently published,

most viewed, editorials

Review articles Primary articles discussed in

review articles

Tip: Search XXX and YYY, XXX or YYY, XXX not YYY, (XXX or AAA) and (YYY or BBB), (XXX or YYY) and AAA not BBB, “XXX”, “define:XXX”

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Searching the literature Databases

Search term

Sorting Filters

Other info

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Searching the literature

Link

Related papers

Citations

Abstract

Databases

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Searching the literature

Latest table of contents

Search for articles

Alerts/email table of contents

Journal websites

Browse by issue

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Searching the literature Current trends

Follow on social networks

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Searching the literature Using reviews

Since the discovery of the Fujishima-Honda effect in 1972, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been used as a typical photoelectrode in water photoelectrolysis to convert solar energy for the production of H2.[1-3] Currently, anodized TiO2 nanotubular arrays are one of the most promising architectures, owing to their special features of facile fabrication, tunable structural parameters and high electron collection efficiency.[4-12] A critical drawback of TiO2 nanotubular arrays is their large band gap, which means that only the ultraviolet (UV) region of the solar spectrum can be utilized. Coupling TiO2 nanotubular arrays with a low-band-gap semiconductor of CdS nanoparticles to form heterogeneous nanotubular arrays of TiO2-CdS (TCHNTAs) has been adopted as a method to extend the photoelectrochemical activity from UV to visible light.[13-26]

Modified from: Liu et al. Nanomat Nanotech. 23 November 2015; DOI: 10.5772/61970

Basic background

Current problems

Related review articles REFERENCES [1] Fujishima A, Honda K (1972) Photolysis-decomposition of water at the surface of an irradiated semiconductor. Nature 238: 37-38. [2] Nakata K, Fujishima A (2012) TiO2 photocatalysis: design and applications. J Photochem Photobiol C 13:169-189. [3] Fujishima A, Zhang X, Tryk D A (2008) TiO2 Photocatalysis. Fundamentals and Applications. Surf Sci Rep 63: 515-582.

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Searching the literature

Reference management software

EndNote Most established Styles easy to find on journal websites

Which one to use?

RefWorks Web-based Widely used

Mendeley Newer (and free!) Allows collaborations

Papers Easy-to-use interface (iTunes) Great for paper management

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Searching the literature “Papers”

Search by keywords,

authors, journals, etc. Sort articles by authors, titles, journals, or year

Read full screen, Email, or print your articles

Organize your articles in folders and “smart folders”

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies Section 2

Reading strategies

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies

Read around the topic?

For your research?

Purposes for reading

Improve current knowledge?

Learn new words/concepts?

Interpret/formulate arguments?

Search specific info to write?

Tip: General/specific, slow/fast reading; look up words, find included definitions; Highlight, make notes, paraphrase/summarize with citations

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies Consider literature type

1o literature Original research

2o Reviews &

review journals, databases

3o Accepted facts,

e.g., reference books, general textbooks

Originality/

proximity/

maturity

Academic Journals, preprint servers*, conf’ce proceedings and journal supplements*, conf’ce abstracts#, monographs, specialist books * +/- peer review; # not accepted as citations

Gray* Theses, conf’ce proceedings/abstracts#, working

papers, technical/government/NGO reports, society/company publications, patents, speeches, leaflets, posters, seminars/ webcasts/multimedia, emails/blogs/memos, data repositories

General or Lay Popular books, leaflets, general/ science magazines, newspapers, newsletters, wiki

Audience

Availability

Tip: Judge source, quality, and accuracy (inc. predatory journals)!

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies

Identifying research trends

1. Read the primary literature

2. Identify trends: (systematic) reviews, meta-analyses, editorials, theme issues, Calls for papers, “most read”…organize journal clubs

3. Identify an important question, gap in knowledge/evidence, incomplete answer • Does your research group have the expertise/resources? • Is the question focused? • What is new? How is the study useful? • What is the best/most practical study design?

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies How to read an article

From start to finish?

Section by

section?

Not efficient!

What do you want to know?

Where can you find it?

Tip: Be familiar with types of text structure and styles/conventions for different article types

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies Manuscript flow

Introduction

Discussion

Results

Methods

Why was the study needed?

How does the study advance the field?

What was done and found?

Tip: Check journal for section names; extra sections after Introduction; combined sections; Methods at end, in legends, or brief + online…

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies

What are you looking for?

Where is it found?

What are signal words?

Finding specific material

Gaps, aims, methods, key findings, implications, opinions

Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion

Key findings: showed, found,

identified, stronger, higher

Conclusions: In conclusion, In

summary, Taken together, Overall, Therefore, suggest, have implications

Problem: however, but, nevertheless, despite, still unclear, lacking, unknown

Objectives: examined, aimed, investigated, studied, evaluated

Check journal links to Supplementary Information / Protocols / Repositories

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies

The study design is not perfect, but you deserve the

funding. The grant will be awarded in two stages.

Stress position

Topic position

The stress position can introduce the topic of the next sentence

Information flow

Tip: Sentences often have old/given/familiar information before new information

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies

One method of producing carbon fibre precursors, with the potential of commercial applicability, is electrospinning. It has previously been demonstrated that electrospinning can successfully produce precursor fibres that can be converted into high quality carbon fibres with controlled fibre diameters and morphologies. The majority of electrospun carbon fibre precursors reported in the literature are PAN-based. The high cost of PAN, depleting petroleum resources and the toxicity of its solvent, dimethylformamide, has motivated research to look into alternative electrospinnable materials to produce cheaper and more environmentally friendly carbon fibres. Because petroleum-based carbon resources exhibit negative environmental impacts and are of limited availability further motivates research towards green carbon fibres.

Recently, a wide range of renewable resource-based materials have been investigated for the fabrication of carbon materials. Among them, lignin has been looked at as a very promising candidate…

Schreiber et al. J Mater Sci. 2014; 49: 7949–7958.

Topic sentence

Stress sentence Topic sentence

Supporting sentences

Paragraph structure

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies Types of reading

Skimming

Scanning

Learning

General reading

Memorizing

Sample/understand segments

Search for specific info/words

Recognize logic/genre, link content to your knowledge,

reread, make inferences

General comprehension

Reread, understand, integrate information, reformulate, critique,

summarize, rehearse Grabe and Stoller, 2002; Teaching and researching reading. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies Scanning

To look for specific information or to see if a passage is relevant

• Know the structure o Find signal words for Problem, Aim, Results, Conclusion,

Limitations, Implications, Future

• Use finger to scan and look for a statistic, name, fact... o Find specific words in contents, index, references

• Scan large areas, several sentences at a time, no reading except if text is relevant; keep a specific term in mind to match importance/relevance o Anticipate surrounding words/graphics o Use after general skimming if needed

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies Skimming

To preread for gist, to review, and to speed read • Important words

o Table of contents; headings and subheadings of paper (find relationships)

o Figure/table titles and captions; sentences with callouts o Sentences with bold/italic words, proper nouns, lists,

bullets • (Graphical) abstracts, highlights, summaries, keywords; find

out who/when/what/why/where/how • Display items (“non-linear text”) • Read Aims, Conclusion • Read the whole first and last paragraph; read first and last

sentences of first and last paragraphs in each section

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies

Questioning and understanding texts

Be an active, critical reader • Question before and during reading: what are you looking

for and why; what do you already know about the topic?

• What is the author trying to do? Is the argument effective/general/weak; any flaws/contradictions?

• What do you agree/disagree with? Why? Is it relevant to your work? Do you need to change your thinking of the topic?

• What are the implications, limitations, alternative explanations?

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies

Understanding difficult texts

Simplify the text (esp. “inconsiderate” texts) • Split sentences that were joined with conjunctions

• Ask WH questions

• Underline unfamiliar words to look up

• Underline pronouns and find referents

• Underline head nouns; ignore pre- and post-modifiers

• Match subjects with verbs

• Find logical connectors (Therefore, However)

• Reread; discuss with colleagues

Grabe and Stoller, 2002; Teaching and researching reading. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading strategies

Understanding difficult texts

Find logical connectors

Sequential

Causal

Adversative Although/Even though/Whereas (+clause),

Despite (+noun), However, In contrast,...

Because (of), To (+verb), Owing to, So that, Therefore, Thus, Hence, Consequently,…

Until, After, Before, While, Since, When, Then, Next, First/Second/Third,…

Conditional If, Even if, Unless, Whether or not, Provided

that, Otherwise,…

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Activity 1

Please see Activity 1 in your Workbook

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently Section 3

Reading efficiently

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently Manuscript structure

How does their study contribute to your field?

What did they find?

What did they do?

Why did they do the study?

Title/Abstract

Introduction

Methods

Results

Discussion

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently Manuscript structure

Title/Abstract

Introduction

Methods

Results

& Discussion

Title/Abstract

Introduction

Methods

& Results

Discussion

Title/Abstract

Introduction

Methods

& Results

& Discussion

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently

Read the title and abstract first

First impression of a paper

Importance of the results

Validity of the conclusions

Relevance of the aims

Judge writing style & credibility of author

Title styles: Question, Findings, Objective Abstract styles: Structured, Unstructured

Tip: Check what the title promises and what the variables/system are; check

abstract to check if promises are kept

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently

Background

Aims

Methods

Results

Conclusions

What are the 5 parts of an abstract?

Reading abstracts

Why the study was done

Objectives/hypothesis

Approach/methodology

Most important findings

Implications for the field

“Structured” abstracts have subheadings such as the ones on the left; “Unstructured” abstracts are usually one paragraph, without subheadings

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently Unstructured abstract

In the Tahe oilfield in China, heavy oil is commonly lifted using the light oil blending technology. However, due to the lack of light oil, the production of heavy oil has been seriously limited. Thus, a new compound technology of light oil blending and electric heating is discussed in this paper, which aims to reduce the usage of light oil and maintain heavy oil production. Based on the mass, momentum and energy conservation, a pressure and temperature coupling model is developed. The heat-transfer parameters are calculated by using Hasan–Kabir method and the pressure drop is calculated by using Hagedorn–Brown method. The model also considers the blend effect of light oil and heavy oil, and the heating effect of electric rod. Example calculation shows that only electric heating or light oil blending technology cannot meet the requirement. The amount of light oil used can be reduced by combining the electric heating technology.

Zhu et al. J Petrol Explor Prod Technol. 2014; DOI: 10.1007/s13202-014-0126-x.

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently Unstructured abstract

Conclusion The amount of light oil used can be reduced by combining the electric heating technology.

Methods/ results

Based on the mass, momentum and energy conservation, a pressure and temperature coupling model is developed. The heat-transfer parameters are calculated by using Hasan–Kabir method and the pressure drop is calculated by using Hagedorn–Brown method. The model also considers the blend effect of light oil and heavy oil, and the heating effect of electric rod. Example calculation shows that only electric heating or light oil blending technology cannot meet the requirement.

Aims Thus, a new compound technology of light oil blending and electric heating is discussed in this paper, which aims to reduce the usage of light oil and maintain heavy oil production.

Background In the Tahe oilfield in China, heavy oil is commonly lifted using the light oil blending technology. However, owing to the lack of light oil, the production of heavy oil has been seriously limited.

Modified from: Zhu et al. J Petrol Explor Prod Technol. 2014; DOI: 10.1007/s13202-014-0126-x.

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently Specialist abstract

Aims

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Why the study was done

Your objective/hypothesis

Techniques, models

Most important findings

Conclusion/implications

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently Specialist abstract

A model has been developed to predict growth kinetics of the intermetallic phases (IMCs) formed in a reactive diffusion couple between two metals for the case where multiple IMC phases are observed. The model explicitly accounts for the effect of grain boundary diffusion through the IMC layer, and can thus be used to explore the effect of IMC grain size on the thickening of the reaction layer. The model has been applied to the industrially important case of aluminum to magnesium alloy diffusion couples in which several different IMC phases are possible. It is demonstrated that there is a transition from grain boundary-dominated diffusion to lattice-dominated diffusion at a critical grain size, which is different for each IMC phase.

Modified from: Wang et al. Metall Mater Trans A. 2015; 46: 4106–4114.

What they did

What they found

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently Highlights & Key Points

Some journals provide brief summary points of the study along with the abstract

• The progress of graphene oxide application in hydrogen storage and photocatalytic water splitting is summarized.

• The progress of graphene oxide application in lithium batteries and supercapacitors is systematically discussed.

• We summarize the versatile application of graphene oxide in air and water purification.

Modified from: Li et al. Nano Energy. 2015;16:488–515.

Graphene oxide: A promising nanomaterial for energy and environmental applications

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently Highlights & Key Points

Some journals provide a graphical abstract along with the abstract

Carbon-layer protected cuprous oxide nanowire arrays for efficient water reduction

Zhang et al. ACS Nano. 2013;7:1709–1717.

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently

Self-assess knowledge of topic

Read Title and Abstract first

Quickly assessing a paper 1

• Have you read similar papers? Is this a relevant paper? • Are you reading for a general or specific purpose? • Can you predict contents of sections (then check your

predictions)? • Are you familiar with the terminology and concepts? • Do you understand the relevance of the hypothesis and

findings?

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently

Title/Abstract

Introduction

Methods

Results

Discussion

Title/Abstract

Methods

Results

Discussion

Introduction

Abstract /Title

write

Title/Abstract

Intro: Aim

Figures/ Results {Methods}

Discussion: Conclusion

[Intro /

Methods IMRaD]

read

Reading versus writing

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Reading efficiently

Read Display Items and then Results

Read Discussion for interpretation

Self-assess knowledge of topic

Read Title and Abstract first

Refer to Introduction and Methods if necessary

Quickly assessing a paper 2

Read last paragraph of introduction for hypothesis/objectives

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Activity 2

Please see Activity 2 in your Workbook

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Section 4

Making notes and discussing work

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Commenting and highlighting

Use Acrobat Reader • Use comment balloons or sticky notes to annotate pdf

• Read and reread slowly; be aware of text structure/logic

• Comment on key points and examples, whether material is relevant to you, strengths/weaknesses, how the argument is developing, if you agree/disagree, your own questions

• Highlight key points in pdf; use a different color for facts, opinions, methods, results

• Highlight references that you want to look up later (review or primary research), or new words you want to look up

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Commenting and highlighting

Use Acrobat Reader

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Summarizing and paraphrasing

Make notes to help with learning/memorizing • Start with a citation, with page numbers for any quotes (use

“ ”); color-code own ideas

• Use headings, bullets, numbered lists; think of WH questions

• Use abbreviations and symbols (<, >, &, e.g., i.e., NB, para)

• Keep notes brief but accurate

• Summarize key points in your own words without looking

• Paraphrase key sentences; change sentence structure, use back-translation, or tell a colleague; elevator speech

• Add highlights and comments on your notes too

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Reading critically

Be critical of everything you read • Is there enough high-quality, accurate, and up-to-date

evidence?

• Are any methods, analyses, theories, assumptions, or implications flawed or inappropriate?

• Does it make sense in a real-world context?

• Are there exceptions, or alternative explanations or interpretations?

• Is the reasoning unambiguous, valid, logical, and believable?

• Is there any explicit/implicit bias or too much emotion, in reporting or opinions?

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Drawing relationships

Logical flow • Chronology • Least to most important / Most to least important • General to specific / Specific to general • Whole system + parts / Parts to whole • Whole group + subgroups

• Synthesis + characterization + application/optimization • Population + drug efficacy + safety • Single variables + pairs of associations + model of multiple

variables • Knowledge + Attitudes + Behaviors

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Drawing relationships

Rhetorical organization • Cause and effect • Comparison and contrast • Classification • Definition • Description (giving characteristics) • Narrative sequence of events (reporting a linear sequence) • Problem and solution • Procedures • Past, present, future • Arguing for and against (evaluation)

Grabe and Stoller, 2002; Teaching and researching reading. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Drawing relationships

Informational structures

• Linear relationships, sequence of events, procedures

A B C

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Drawing relationships

Informational structures

• Cycle of events

A

B

C D

D

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Drawing relationships

Informational structures

• Categories, hierarchies

A

C D E

B

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Drawing relationships

Informational structures

• Characteristics, attributes, alternative pathways

A B

D

E

C F

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Drawing relationships

Informational structures

• Interaction effects, cause-effect

A

B

• D

• E

C

• F

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Drawing relationships

Informational structures

• Sets and subsets

D

C

B

A

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Drawing relationships

Informational structures

• Central theme and ideas

A

B

C

D

E

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Drawing relationships

Informational structures

• Situation/Problem – Solution – Evaluation/Comment; logical sequence; flow chart

A

B

C

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Discussing work

Journal clubs • Regular informal meetings, in English • Rotate “leader” (know background/concepts/definitions) • Find one relevant article per meeting • Everyone reads it critically; leader leads discussion/critique

after concisely summarizing problem, aim, approach, main results, conclusion, implications

• Find positive and negative points • Future directions/reading; relevance for your research group • Analyze argument and text structure • Appraise language • Practice peer review

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Coverage and Staffing Plan

Making notes Discussing work

Journal club questions • What are the goal of and motivation for the study? • Are the goal original, important, relevant, and timely? • Are the hypothesis and method appropriate and backed up

by timely literature? Are all variables clear and defined? • What are the assumptions and limitations (e.g., study period

and design, sample size and selection, treatments, measurements, analyses, biases)?

• Are the findings valid and reliable, and match the goal? Are all results discussed, including negative/unexpected ones?

• Are the conclusions logical? How generalizable are they? • How useful are the findings for practice or future research?

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Activity 3

Please see Activity 3 in your Workbook

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Understanding the Introduction

Section 5

Understanding the Introduction

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Understanding the Introduction

Read Display Items and then Results

Read Discussion for interpretation

Self-assess knowledge of topic

Read Title and Abstract first

Refer to Introduction/Methods if necessary

Strategies for reading

Read last paragraph of introduction for hypothesis/objectives

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Understanding the Introduction

Introduction

Current state of the field

Background information

Specific aim/approach Aim

Problem in the field

Previous studies

Current study

General

Specific Importance of area/theoretical framework for hypothesis

Worldwide relevance? Broad/specialized?

Up-to-date? International? Authors’ past work?

Preview of contents / findings? Extra sections: Concepts, Previous studies,

Literature review?

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Understanding the Introduction

Background statements

Scaffold-based tissue engineering involves the combination of cells, bioactive factors and structural scaffolding materials to promote repair and regeneration of tissues.1-3

Field of research

Reviews can be cited early

Materials for scaffolds must have appropriate mechanical properties for a specific injury sites. The scaffold should support cell attachment and growth.

Aspects that will be focused on

General background

Specific background

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Understanding the Introduction

However, the fabrication of these scaffolds was complex and very sensitive to the reaction conditions giving irreproducible results.

Pack et al. have achieved promising cell penetration results in poly(glycolic acid) scaffolds after surface modifications.6

Problem statements

Recent and relevant primary literature

Potential solution

There is still a problem

Previous work

Problems in previous work

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Understanding the Introduction

Problem statements

Signal words However, …an alternative approach… …presents a new challenge …a need for clarification… …a problem/weakness with… …has not been dealt with… …remains unstudied …requires clarification …is not sufficiently (+ adjective) …is ineffective/inaccurate/inadequate/inconclusive/incorrect/unclear Few studies have… There is an urgent need to… There is growing concern that… Little evidence is available on… It is necessary to… Little work has been done on…

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Understanding the Introduction

The initial studies on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) filled with metals were carried out in 1993 by Iijima [1], which demonstrated the successful encapsulation of Pb. In the following years, increasing effort was directed to the preparation of CNTs as template nanowires. In order for metal filled CNT synthesis, several methods have been attempted. The CNT can be filled by a physical or chemical method [2]. In the physical method, the nanotubes are filled with melted metal due to the capillarity effect [3, 4]. In the chemical method, the nanotubes are opened by boiling acid, then the inclusion of metal oxide or metal is carried out. One-step methods of metal filled CNT preparation are known as well. Mainly, an arc discharge technique was applied [3, 4], but it requires high temperatures. Carbon nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanorods were synthesized by Liu et al. [5, 6] from Co(CO)3NO. The reaction takes place in an autoclave at a temperature of 900 °C and at autogenic pressure. Blank et al. [7] described cobalt-filled nanotube synthesis obtained from CO over Co/Y-zeolite catalysts. Despite the applied high temperature (720 °C) and pressure (0.05 GPa) that was applied, TEM analysis showed the presence of some cobalt particles inside the carbon nanotubes. Long cobalt nanowires were not observed. Some authors reported on methane to carbon nanotubes or nanoparticles decomposition over cobalt contained catalysts [8, 9], but to the best of our knowledge, there is no information on nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanowires prepared from methane. The choice of cobalt as the material encapsulated inside carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is motivated by the interesting magnetic properties of composite cobalt–carbon nanomaterials, which are of great interest for various applications such as magnetic data storage, ferrofluids, or magnetic resonance imaging [10]. In this paper, we show that the Co/ZSM-5 prepared by the impregnation method can be used as catalysts of CNT filled with continuous cobalt nanowires (CoF-CNT) growth from methane decomposition even at the temperature of 400 °C. This is the one-step method that is simpler and cheaper than the others described up to now.

Evaluating objectives

Low temperature one-step synthesis of cobalt nanowires encapsulated in carbon

Mejewska and Michalkiewicz. Applied Physics A. 2013;111:1013−1016.

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Understanding the Introduction

The initial studies on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) filled with metals were carried out in 1993 by Iijima [1], which demonstrated the successful encapsulation of Pb. In the following years, increasing effort was directed to the preparation of CNTs as template nanowires. In order for metal filled CNT synthesis, several methods have been attempted. The CNT can be filled by a physical or chemical method [2]. In the physical method, the nanotubes are filled with melted metal due to the capillarity effect [3, 4]. In the chemical method, the nanotubes are opened by boiling acid, then the inclusion of metal oxide or metal is carried out. One-step methods of metal filled CNT preparation are known as well. Mainly, an arc discharge technique was applied [3, 4], but it requires high temperatures. Carbon nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanorods were synthesized by Liu et al. [5, 6] from Co(CO)3NO. The reaction takes place in an autoclave at a temperature of 900 °C and at autogenic pressure. Blank et al. [7] described cobalt-filled nanotube synthesis obtained from CO over Co/Y-zeolite catalysts. Despite the applied high temperature (720 °C) and pressure (0.05 GPa) that was applied, TEM analysis showed the presence of some cobalt particles inside the carbon nanotubes. Long cobalt nanowires were not observed. Some authors reported on methane to carbon nanotubes or nanoparticles decomposition over cobalt contained catalysts [8, 9], but to the best of our knowledge, there is no information on nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanowires prepared from methane. The choice of cobalt as the material encapsulated inside carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is motivated by the interesting magnetic properties of composite cobalt–carbon nanomaterials, which are of great interest for various applications such as magnetic data storage, ferrofluids, or magnetic resonance imaging [10]. In this paper, we show that the Co/ZSM-5 prepared by the impregnation method can be used as catalysts of CNT filled with continuous cobalt nanowires (CoF-CNT) growth from methane decomposition even at the temperature of 400 °C. This is the one-step method that is simpler and cheaper than the others described up to now.

Evaluating objectives

Background

Recent studies, knowledge gap,

importance

Aims & approach / Preview of results or contents

Low temperature one-step synthesis of cobalt nanowires encapsulated in carbon

Objectives – show, aim, evaluated, studied, investigated, assessed Mejewska and Michalkiewicz. Applied Physics A. 2013;111:1013−1016.

Page 73: 151221 Edanz Shinshu

Understanding the Introduction

The initial studies on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) filled with metals were carried out in 1993 by Iijima [1], which demonstrated the successful encapsulation of Pb. In the following years, increasing effort was directed to the preparation of CNTs as template nanowires. In order for metal filled CNT synthesis, several methods have been attempted. The CNT can be filled by a physical or chemical method [2]. In the physical method, the nanotubes are filled with melted metal due to the capillarity effect [3, 4]. In the chemical method, the nanotubes are opened by boiling acid, then the inclusion of metal oxide or metal is carried out. One-step methods of metal filled CNT preparation are known as well. Mainly, an arc discharge technique was applied [3, 4], but it requires high temperatures. Carbon nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanorods were synthesized by Liu et al. [5, 6] from Co(CO)3NO. The reaction takes place in an autoclave at a temperature of 900 °C and at autogenic pressure. Blank et al. [7] described cobalt-filled nanotube synthesis obtained from CO over Co/Y-zeolite catalysts. Despite the applied high temperature (720 °C) and pressure (0.05 GPa) that was applied, TEM analysis showed the presence of some cobalt particles inside the carbon nanotubes. Long cobalt nanowires were not observed. Some authors reported on methane to carbon nanotubes or nanoparticles decomposition over cobalt contained catalysts [8, 9], but to the best of our knowledge, there is no information on nanotubes filled with continuous cobalt nanowires prepared from methane. The choice of cobalt as the material encapsulated inside carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is motivated by the interesting magnetic properties of composite cobalt–carbon nanomaterials, which are of great interest for various applications such as magnetic data storage, ferrofluids, or magnetic resonance imaging [10]. In this paper, we show that the Co/ZSM-5 prepared by the impregnation method can be used as catalysts of CNT filled with continuous cobalt nanowires (CoF-CNT) growth from methane decomposition even at the temperature of 400 °C. This is the one-step method that is simpler and cheaper than the others described up to now.

Evaluating objectives

Background

Recent studies, knowledge gap,

importance

Aims & approach / Preview of results or contents

Low temperature one-step synthesis of cobalt nanowires encapsulated in carbon

Do the Aims directly address the identified research problem?

Mejewska and Michalkiewicz. Applied Physics A. 2013;111:1013−1016.

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Activity 4

Please see Activity 4 in your Workbook

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Understanding the Methods

Section 6

Understanding the Methods

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Understanding the Methods

Read Display Items and then Results

Read Discussion for interpretation

Self-assess knowledge of topic

Read Title and Abstract first

Refer to Introduction/Methods if necessary

Strategies for reading

Read last paragraph of introduction for hypothesis/objectives

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Understanding the Methods

Study design

How the study was done

• Processes, treatments, measurements, follow-up

• Variables (direct/proxy) • Outcome/endpoints (1o, 2o)

• Quantification • (Bi-/Multi-variable) models • Statistical tests (& P level)

Who/what was studied

• Participants, controls • Enrollment, N & “power” • Materials, databases

Data analysis

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Understanding the Methods

Study design

Established techniques

• Cites previously published studies • Look for modifications • See any flow charts/tables

• Look for purposes & justified choices • Enough detail for reproducibility • See Supplementary Information

Organization • Arranged in (titled) subsections • Parallel to the display items • Read topic sentences first

New techniques

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Understanding the Methods

Study type

Systematic

reviews of RCTs

Randomized controlled

trials (RCTs)

Other controlled trials

Observational studies (cohort, case-control,

cross-sectional surveys/audits, diagnostics)

Computer models (in silico), animal models (in vivo),

in vitro, case studies

Case studies, anecdote, opinion, technical,

simulation

Hypothesis

testing

{ Descriptive

Methodological {

{

Secondary

research

Primary

research

{ } Experimental (exposure assigned)*

}

} Non-

experimental

*

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Understanding the Methods

2.1 Continuous cobalt nanowires synthesis Cobalt concentration in the catalyst was equal to 8 wt%. The experimental setup and the catalyst preparation procedures had been reported in detail previously [11–13]... 2.2 Characterization The morphology of as-prepared cobalt nanorods was characterized by a Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-SEM) equipped with a secondary electron (SE) and backscattered electron (BSE) detectors—Hitachi SU 8200 and Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)—TEM-FEI Tecnai F20.

Primary objective: synthesis; Secondary objective: testing

Objectives/techniques

Cited methods

Mejewska and Michalkiewicz. Applied Physics A. 2013;111:1013−1016.

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Understanding the Methods

Validity and reliability

• Validity = internal (sound design, accurate), external (representative, generalizable, real-world setting)

• Reliability = results are repeatable, precise • Are the methods appropriate and fully described,

including sample size/selection? • Are all variables defined and related to the study

problem? • Are measurement procedures clear? Are tests repeated? • Are the analysis method and any statistical

treatments/tests appropriate? • Are all assumptions logical? Is the work bias-free? • Are adjustments/corrections needed?

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Understanding the Results

Section 7

Understanding the Results

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Understanding the Results

Read Display Items and then Results

Read Discussion for interpretation

Self-assess knowledge of topic

Read Title and Abstract first

Refer to Introduction/Methods if necessary

Strategies for reading

Read last paragraph of introduction for hypothesis/objectives

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Understanding the Results

Display items

• Flowcharts, figures, graphs, and tables display information efficiently

• Authors often use their display items to structure their papers

• Good way to quickly evaluate the whole study • Title usually shows independent and dependent

variables • Detailed methods and results summary may be found

in legends

Important to readers

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Understanding the Results

Use of display items

Study design Flow chart

Information on samples/participants

Table

Characteristics Figures, graphs, or tables

Models Flow chart or tables

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Understanding the Results

Figure legends

Field emission scanning electron microscope images of CoF carbon nanotubes produced at 400°C (a) and at 800°C (b), magnitude 100 000, secondary electron and backscattered electron detectors; arrows show cobalt nanowires, circles show metal particles

Display item

Methodology

Settings

Indicators

1

2

3

4 • Statistics • Abbreviations

Mejewska and Michalkiewicz. Applied Physics A. 2013;111:1013−1016.

Additional information

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Understanding the Results

Reading tables for specific values

Identify the independent and

dependent variables

Independent: synthesis conditions

Dependent: what was measured

Dependent

Independent

Additional information

• Methodology • Statistics for associations/differences • Abbreviations

Lorusso et al. Nanomat Nanotech. 11 September 2015; DOI: 10.5772/61275

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Understanding the Results

Bar graphs for comparing means, SD

Slight et al. J Clin Invest. 2013;doi:10.1172/JCI65728.

Figure 7 Adoptive transfer of B6 but not Cxcr5-/- CD4+ T cells rescues T cell localization and protection in Cxcr5-/-Mtb-infected mice... (B) The average size of B cell lymphoid follicles in FFPE lung sections on day 50 using the morphometric tool of the Zeiss Axioplan microscope… *** P = 0.0005.

Measured variable

Groups

Statistical significance

Only for normally distributed data

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Understanding the Results

Line graphs for time trends, correlations

Measured variable

Time

Cui et al. Nanomat Nanotech. 2 July 2015; DOI: 10.5772/60910

Compare gradient

slope and direction

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Understanding the Results

Box plots for comparing distributions

Box-whisker plots depict pretherapy and C1D15 plasma CCL17 or CCL22 concentrations. P values were determined using the Wilcoxon signed rank test.

Minimum

25%

Median

75%

Maximum

Fehniger et al. Blood. 2011; 118: 5119−5125.

Best for data that are not normally

distributed

Statistical significance

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Understanding the Results

Results

Order of results (display items and text) is logical, tells a story of what was found

Each subsection often corresponds to one display item/method

1. Population 2. Drug efficacy 3. Drug safety

1. Synthesize 2. Characterize 3. Optimize

1. Single factors 2. Associations 3. Final model

Results – accomplishments: we found that, identified, showed, revealed, demonstrated, produced, established; data relationships: compared with, elevated/declined, higher/lower

than, increased/decreased, was associated with, statistically significant

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Understanding the Results

Evaluating results

• Are the results transparent and complete? • Does the study look like salami publishing? • Are important characteristics given? • Are all units/scales correct? • Are changes absolute or relative? • Are the data precise; are data distributions

shown? Are the statistical analyses sound? • Do the data seem reasonable and applicable

to the real world?

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Activity 5

Please see Activity 5 in your Workbook

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Understanding the Discussion

Section 8

Understanding the Discussion

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Understanding the Discussion

Read Display Items and then Results

Read Discussion for interpretation

Self-assess knowledge of topic

Read Title and Abstract first

Refer to Introduction/Methods if necessary

Strategies for reading

Read last paragraph of introduction for hypothesis/objectives

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Understanding the Discussion

Discussion structure

Summary of findings

Relevance

Conclusion

Similarities/differences Unexpected/negative results Limitations (validity, reliability)

Implications

Previous studies

Current study

Future studies

Specific

General

Discussion – conclusions: In summary; In conclusion; We conclude; Overall; Taken together, these results/findings show; implications: suggest, indicate, recommend, advise, is likely to,

may, might, could, further/more research is needed/warranted, merits further study

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Understanding the Discussion

Combined Results–Discussion

Results Interpretation

Figure 1

Results Interpretation

Figure 2

Results Interpretation

Figure 3

Results Interpretation

Figure 4

Initial observation

Logical presentation

Characterization

Application

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Understanding the Discussion

Combined Methods– Results–Discussion

Methods & Results Interpretation

Figure 1

Methods & Results Interpretation

Figure 2

Methods & Results Interpretation

Figure 3

Methods & Results Interpretation

Figure 4

Initial observation

Logical presentation

Characterization

Application

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Understanding the Discussion

Reading the Discussion

Nitrogen pollution in household wastewater tends to lead to eutrophication in natural waters, which can diminish water quality and ecosystem services. However, the comparative cost and effectiveness of conventional and alternative wastewater treatment strategies to reduce nitrogen have not been clearly evaluated. In this study, we found that the most cost-effective alternatives for mitigating nitrogen are decentralized systems, paired with conventional septic systems as necessary. Sensitivity analysis shows that...

Re-introduction

Conclusion

Modified from: Wood et al. J Environ Manage. 2015; 150: 344–354.

Problem

Beginning usually states the major conclusion of the study

…Supporting findings

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Understanding the Discussion

Modified from: Ketola & Hiltunen. Ecol Evol. 2014; 4: 3901–3908.

Compares findings with others; assesses strength of evidence; puts findings in context

The middle of the Discussion

Comparison with previous studies

Current finding

Potential reasons

Our observations suggest that fluctuating growth conditions did not select for generalism at the tested salinity levels. This finding is in contrast to several studies where evidence for an evolved generalism was found to be the consequence of fluctuating environments (Buckling et al. 2006, Ketola et al. 2013, 2014; Condon et al. 2014). One explanation for the lack of expected adaptation in fluctuating environments in the current study could be that our salinity fluctuations were too coarse-grained…

“Rebuttal” for disagreements or

exceptions

Possible objections, limitations

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Understanding the Discussion

Reading the Conclusion

These results show that increasing temperature decreased the density, surface tension, and viscosity of all the tested alloys. By contrast, increasing the zinc content in these alloys decreased the density but increased the surface tension and viscosity. The surface tension results show good agreement with the Butler model, while the viscosity results are in agreement with the Kaptay and Kozlov–Romanov–Petrov models. These findings may be useful for designing new lead-free solder materials. Further understanding of the physiochemical properties of these alloys could also extend the possible applications of this system to additional electronic materials.

Claim

Validation

Modified from: Gancarz T. J Electonic Mater. 2014; 43: 4374–4385.

Implications

Future directions

Conclusion May be a separate section

May be a “Future work” section

Generalization, analogy, association,

extrapolation, causation, principle:

What is new?

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Understanding the Discussion

Understand the overall article structure

General background

Aims

Methodology

Results and figures

Summary of findings

Conclusion/Implications

Relevance of findings

Problem in the field

Current state of the field Introduction

Methods

Results

Discussion

Solution

Situation/Problem

Evaluation/Comment

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Understanding the Discussion

Appraising conclusions

Problem-based learning is an instructional method in which problems are the focal part of learning.

However, it is unclear which particular aspect of the problem is essential for student learning.

In conclusion, this study is among the first to shed more light on the causal interactions of specific problem characteristics at the micro level.

Background

Question

Conclusion Discussion

Modified from: Sockalingam et al. Advances in Health Sciences Education. 2011;16:481–490.

We tested a model in which we hypothesized that problem input variables would be related to problem process and outcome variables.

Objective

Is this logical? Is the Q answered? Is this supported? Is this useful and

important?

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Understanding the Discussion

Appraising conclusions

Problem-based learning is an instructional method in which problems are the focal part of learning.

However, it is unclear which particular aspect of the problem is essential for student learning.

In conclusion, this study is among the first to shed more light on the causal interactions of specific problem characteristics at the micro level.

Background

Question

Conclusion Discussion

Modified from: Sockalingam et al. Advances in Health Sciences Education. 2011;16:481–490.

We tested a model in which we hypothesized that problem input variables would be related to problem process and outcome variables.

Objective

…Future directions? Unaddressed

points? Improve on flaws/limitations?

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Activity 6

Please see Activity 6 in your Workbook

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S

Be an effective and critical reader

Your goal is not only to research and publish, but also to read and learn from your peers

Search the literature; develop reading strategies

Read efficiently; make notes and discuss

Understand whole research articles

Page 107: 151221 Edanz Shinshu

Thank you!

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Trevor Lane: [email protected] Julian Tang: [email protected]