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Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Adolescence and Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Emerging Adulthood: A

Cultural ApproachCultural ApproachChapter 3 Chapter 3

Cognitive FoundationsCognitive Foundations


Change in thinkingChange in thinking Problem solvingProblem solving Memory and attentionMemory and attention Cognitive developmentCognitive development Theories of cognitionTheories of cognition Role of cultureRole of culture

Chapter OverviewChapter Overview


Piaget’s TheoryPiaget’s Theory Children of different Children of different agesages think differently think differently Changes in cognitive development proceed in Changes in cognitive development proceed in

distinct stages distinct stages (e.g. discontinuous)(e.g. discontinuous) Each person’s cognitive abilities are organized into Each person’s cognitive abilities are organized into

one coherent one coherent mental structuremental structure His approach is known as the His approach is known as the cognitive-cognitive-

developmental approachdevelopmental approach The driving forces behind development from one The driving forces behind development from one

stage to the next isstage to the next is maturation maturation


MaturationMaturation Piaget portrayed maturation as an Piaget portrayed maturation as an

activeactive process process Children seek out information and Children seek out information and

stimulation in the environment that stimulation in the environment that matches the maturity of their matches the maturity of their thinkingthinking

This is in contrast with other theories such as behaviorism who viewed the environment as acting

on the child through rewards and punishments


Piagetian SchemesPiagetian Schemes

Schemes

Assimilation

Occurs when new information is

altered to fit an existing scheme

Accommodation

Entails changing the scheme to

adapt to the new information


Piagetian StagesPiagetian StagesStagesStages AgeAge Brief DescriptionBrief Description

SensorimotorSensorimotor 0-20-2 Cognitive development involves learning how Cognitive development involves learning how to coordinate activities of the sense with to coordinate activities of the sense with motor activitiesmotor activities

PreoperationalPreoperational 2-72-7 Capable of representing the world Capable of representing the world symbolically (e.g. language)symbolically (e.g. language)

Concrete Concrete OperationsOperations

7-117-11 Become more adept at using mental Become more adept at using mental operations which leads to a more advanced operations which leads to a more advanced understanding of the worldunderstanding of the world

Formal Formal OperationsOperations

11-15+11-15+ Allows adolescents to reason about more Allows adolescents to reason about more complex tasks and problems involving complex tasks and problems involving multiple variablesmultiple variables


Complex ThinkingComplex Thinking Think about an example of Think about an example of

a metaphor?a metaphor?• How old do you think you How old do you think you

were before you understood were before you understood the symbolism?the symbolism?

Think about an example of Think about an example of sarcasm?sarcasm?• At what age do you think At what age do you think

sarcasm is understood?sarcasm is understood?


Adolescents are aware of their thinking processes.

The capacity for “thinking about thinking” enables adolescents to learn and solve

problems more efficiently

This is called ……

… Metacognition!


Limitations of Piaget’s TheoryLimitations of Piaget’s Theory The stage of formal operations has been The stage of formal operations has been

the most critiquedthe most critiqued

The limitations of Piaget’s theory of The limitations of Piaget’s theory of formal operations fall into two formal operations fall into two categories:categories:• Individual differences in the attainment of formal operationsIndividual differences in the attainment of formal operations• Cultural basis of adolescent cognitive developmentCultural basis of adolescent cognitive development


Limitations - Limitations - Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences A great range of individual differences exist in the A great range of individual differences exist in the

extent to which people use formal operationsextent to which people use formal operations Even in emerging adulthood and beyond, a large Even in emerging adulthood and beyond, a large

proportion of people use formal operations either proportion of people use formal operations either inconsistently or not at allinconsistently or not at all

Adolescents who have had courses in math and Adolescents who have had courses in math and science tend to exhibit formal operational thoughtscience tend to exhibit formal operational thought

Concrete operations are sufficient for most daily Concrete operations are sufficient for most daily tasks and problemstasks and problems


Limitations – Limitations – Cultural BasisCultural Basis

While formal operations may be a universal While formal operations may be a universal potential the form it takes in each culture is potential the form it takes in each culture is derived from the kinds of cognition requirements derived from the kinds of cognition requirements people facepeople face

There is likely to be considerable variation in the There is likely to be considerable variation in the extent to which adolescents and adults display extent to which adolescents and adults display formal operational thoughtformal operational thought


Post-formal thinkingPost-formal thinking

Piaget’s research has inspired theories of cognitive development beyond formal operations known as:

PragmatismPragmatism Reflective Reflective JudgmentJudgment

… … Beyond PiagetBeyond Piaget


PragmatismPragmatism

Involves adapting logical thinking to the Involves adapting logical thinking to the practical constraints of practical constraints of real-life situationsreal-life situations

Cognitive development in the early Cognitive development in the early twenties is distinguished from adolescent twenties is distinguished from adolescent development by a greater recognition and development by a greater recognition and incorporation of incorporation of practical limitationspractical limitations to to logical thinkinglogical thinking


ReflectiveReflectiveJudgmentJudgment

The capacity to evaluate the accuracy and The capacity to evaluate the accuracy and logical coherence of logical coherence of evidence evidence and and argumentsarguments

Perry (1970; 1999) investigated reflection in Perry (1970; 1999) investigated reflection in adolescence and emerging adulthood which adolescence and emerging adulthood which included:included:• Dualistic thinkingDualistic thinking• Multiple thinkingMultiple thinking• RelativismRelativism • CommitmentCommitment NOTE: Formal operations is a

necessary but not sufficient condition for reflective thinking


Information-Processing ApproachInformation-Processing Approach Views cognitive change as Views cognitive change as continuouscontinuous – –

gradual and steadygradual and steady Focus is on the Focus is on the thinking processesthinking processes that that

exist at all agesexist at all ages The original model for this approach was The original model for this approach was

the the computercomputer The computer analogy was to try to break The computer analogy was to try to break

down human thinking into separate down human thinking into separate capacities of capacities of attentionattention, , processingprocessing, and , and memorymemory


Information ProcessingInformation Processing

Recent models have moved away from a

simple computer

analogy and recognized the brain is more complex than any computer

In human thinking the different components

operate simultaneously


Information ProcessingInformation Processing

Information processing begins with Stimulus Information that enters the senses

Much of what you see, hear and touch is processed no further


Information ProcessingInformation ProcessingLong Term Memory – memory for

Information that is committedto longer-term storage

The capacity of long term memoryis unlimited and information

is retained indefinitely

Short Term Memory – memory for information that is currently the focus of your attention

Two types of short term memory: 1) input and storage and

2) working memory


Processing InformationProcessing Information SpeedSpeed

• Adolescents are Adolescents are faster than children faster than children at processing at processing informationinformation

• There is an increase There is an increase in speed of in speed of processing from age processing from age 10 through the late 10 through the late teensteens

AutomaticityAutomaticity• This is how much This is how much

cognitive effort the person cognitive effort the person needs to devote to needs to devote to processing the processing the informationinformation

• Adolescents show greater Adolescents show greater automaticity of processing automaticity of processing than pre-adolescentsthan pre-adolescents

• Automaticity depends Automaticity depends more on experience than more on experience than on age aloneon age alone


Limitation of Information ProcessingLimitation of Information Processing

ReductionismReductionism• Breaking up a phenomenon into separate parts to such an Breaking up a phenomenon into separate parts to such an

extent that the meaning and coherence of the phenomenon as extent that the meaning and coherence of the phenomenon as a whole becomes losta whole becomes lost

Holistic PerspectiveHolistic Perspective• Information processing scholars have those the holistic Information processing scholars have those the holistic

perspective that characterized Piaget’s workperspective that characterized Piaget’s work

Computer AnalogyComputer Analogy• Computers have no capacity for self-reflection, no awareness Computers have no capacity for self-reflection, no awareness

of how their cognitive processes are integrated, organized and of how their cognitive processes are integrated, organized and monitored – which leaves the analogy insufficient and monitored – which leaves the analogy insufficient and inadequateinadequate


The potential for critical thinkingThe potential for critical thinking …Daniel Keating’s perspective…Daniel Keating’s perspective

According to Keating adolescence provides the potential for According to Keating adolescence provides the potential for critical thinking in several wayscritical thinking in several ways

1.1. A A wider rangewider range of knowledge is available in long-term memory, of knowledge is available in long-term memory, across a variety of domainsacross a variety of domains

2.2. The ability to consider The ability to consider different kindsdifferent kinds of knowledge of knowledge simultaneously is increasedsimultaneously is increased

3.3. MoreMore cognitive strategiescognitive strategies are available for applying or gaining are available for applying or gaining knowledgeknowledge

CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS DO NOT DEVELOP AUTOMATICALLY!

Critical thinking requires a basis of skills and knowledge obtained in Critical thinking requires a basis of skills and knowledge obtained in childhood along with an educational environment in adolescence childhood along with an educational environment in adolescence that promotes and values critical thinkingthat promotes and values critical thinking

The American educational system does a poor job of promoting critical thinking


Social CognitionSocial Cognition

Social cognition is the term used to describe the way

we think about other people, social relationships

and social institutions


Three aspects of social cognitionThree aspects of social cognition

1.1. Perspective takingPerspective taking- - Selman’s researchSelman’s research

2.2. Implicit personal theoriesImplicit personal theories- - Barenboim’s researchBarenboim’s research

3.3. Adolescent egocentrismAdolescent egocentrism- Elkind’s research- Elkind’s research


Perspective TakingPerspective Taking Is the ability to understand the thoughts Is the ability to understand the thoughts

and and feelings of othersfeelings of others

Selman’s theory of perspective taking is Selman’s theory of perspective taking is based on a based on a stage approachstage approach that children that children and adolescents go throughand adolescents go through

The The egocentrismegocentrism of childhood gradually of childhood gradually develops into the mature perspective-develops into the mature perspective-taking ability of adolescencetaking ability of adolescence


Perspective Taking in AdolescencePerspective Taking in Adolescence

In In early early adolescence (ages 10-12) adolescence (ages 10-12) children become capable for the first time children become capable for the first time of of mutual perspective takingmutual perspective taking

Just as you understand that another person has a

perspective that is different from you own, you also realize that other persons understand that you have a perspective that is

different from theirs


Perspective Taking in AdolescencePerspective Taking in Adolescence

In In late late adolescence children become adolescence children become capable of capable of social and conventional social and conventional perspective takingperspective taking

Adolescents come to realize that their social perspectives and

those of others are influenced not just by their interaction with each other but also by their roles

in the larger society


Implicit Personality TheoriesImplicit Personality Theories Making judgments about what other Making judgments about what other

persons are like and why they persons are like and why they behave the way they dobehave the way they do

How would this 7 year-old describe her best friend?How would this 7 year-old describe her best friend?

She is a kind girl but is naughty and silly

most of the time

She is very nice because she gives

me toffee


Adolescent EgocentrismAdolescent Egocentrism Imaginary AudienceImaginary Audience

• Results from Results from adolescents’ limited adolescents’ limited capacity to capacity to distinguish between distinguish between their thinking about their thinking about themselves and their themselves and their thinking about the thinking about the thoughts of othersthoughts of others

Personal FablePersonal Fable• The belief in an The belief in an

imaginary audience imaginary audience that is highly that is highly conscious of how you conscious of how you look and act leads to look and act leads to the belief that there the belief that there must be something must be something special, something special, something unique about youunique about you

These diminish with age but never disappear entirely for most of us


Optimistic BiasOptimistic Bias A concept related to the personal fableA concept related to the personal fable Comes from health psychology researchComes from health psychology research The tendency to assume that accidents, diseases The tendency to assume that accidents, diseases

and other misfortunes are more likely to happen and other misfortunes are more likely to happen to others than ourselvesto others than ourselves

Both adolescents and adults have an optimistic Both adolescents and adults have an optimistic bias with regard to health risk behaviour bias with regard to health risk behaviour

Adolescents tend to have a stronger optimistic Adolescents tend to have a stronger optimistic bias than adultsbias than adults


Studying Optimistic Bias: SmokingStudying Optimistic Bias: SmokingStrong majorities of both adolescents and adults,

both smokers and non-smokers, believed that smoking is addictive and deadly “for most people”


Studying Optimistic Bias: SmokingStudying Optimistic Bias: Smoking… But look at what happens when the risk is applied to themselvesSmokers were more likely than non-smokers to believe that they

would not die from smoking for 30-40 years.


Brief Facts about Intelligence Testing Brief Facts about Intelligence Testing

Attempting to understand human cognition by evaluating Attempting to understand human cognition by evaluating cognitive ability with intelligence tests is known as the cognitive ability with intelligence tests is known as the psychometric approachpsychometric approach

The first intelligence test was developed in 1905 by a The first intelligence test was developed in 1905 by a French psychologist named French psychologist named Alfred BinetAlfred Binet• It was just 30 items and assessed performance in areas such It was just 30 items and assessed performance in areas such

as memory and abstract thinkingas memory and abstract thinking

Louis Terman of Stanford University made some of the most Louis Terman of Stanford University made some of the most important revisions to the original test and the test is now important revisions to the original test and the test is now known as the known as the Stanford-BinetStanford-Binet• This test results in an overall score called the This test results in an overall score called the IQIQ (intelligence (intelligence

quotient)quotient)

Other widely used tests include: 1) Wechsler Intelligence Other widely used tests include: 1) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (Scale for Children (WISC-IIIWISC-III); and 2) Wechsler Adult ); and 2) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IIIWAIS-III))


““Intelligent” DistinctionsIntelligent” Distinctions Fluid IntelligenceFluid Intelligence Refers to mental abilities Refers to mental abilities

that involve speed of that involve speed of analyzing, processing, and analyzing, processing, and reacting to informationreacting to information

These are the kinds of These are the kinds of abilities tapped by the abilities tapped by the Performance subtests on Performance subtests on IQ testsIQ tests

This kind of intelligence This kind of intelligence peaks in emerging peaks in emerging adulthoodadulthood

Crystallized IntelligenceCrystallized Intelligence Refers to accumulated Refers to accumulated

knowledge and enhance knowledge and enhance judgment based on experiencejudgment based on experience

Subtests like Information, Subtests like Information, Comprehension and Comprehension and Vocabulary assess this kind of Vocabulary assess this kind of intelligenceintelligence

This kind of intelligence tends This kind of intelligence tends to improve through the to improve through the twenties and thirtiestwenties and thirties


Absolute vs. Relative PerformanceAbsolute vs. Relative Performance

Relative performanceRelative performance on IQ tests is very on IQ tests is very stablestable• For example, people who score higher than For example, people who score higher than

average in childhood tend to score higher than average in childhood tend to score higher than average as adolescents and adultsaverage as adolescents and adults

Absolute performanceAbsolute performance on IQ tests is not as on IQ tests is not as stablestable• For example, absolute scores on Verbal sub-For example, absolute scores on Verbal sub-

tests generally improve from age 16 to 38tests generally improve from age 16 to 38Check out the graph that illustrates this ‘absolute’ point


An illustration of “absolute” changesAn illustration of “absolute” changesNotice how absolute scores on Verbal subtests

generally improve from age 16 to 38

Notice how absolute scores on Performance

subtests peaked in the midtwenties

and then declined


Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) Most American college students have taken the Most American college students have taken the

SAT as a requirement for applying to colleges and SAT as a requirement for applying to colleges and universitiesuniversities

The SAT started out as an IQ test in the 1920sThe SAT started out as an IQ test in the 1920s• The original goal was to test innate intelligence rather The original goal was to test innate intelligence rather

than what had been learned in schoolthan what had been learned in school• It was hoped that this would make it possible to identify It was hoped that this would make it possible to identify

bright young people from humble backgrounds bright young people from humble backgrounds • It was thought that this would help colleges identify It was thought that this would help colleges identify

people with the greatest natural intelligence rather than people with the greatest natural intelligence rather than those from the most privileged familiesthose from the most privileged families

Do you think the SAT is true to its original purpose?


The truth about the SATThe truth about the SAT Its ability to predict success in college has always Its ability to predict success in college has always

been modestbeen modest It has been accused of discriminating against It has been accused of discriminating against

minorities and against femalesminorities and against females It has been accused of favoring the elite It has been accused of favoring the elite Because performance can be enhanced by Because performance can be enhanced by

learning test taking strategies, wealthier students learning test taking strategies, wealthier students are more likely to affect test preparation coursesare more likely to affect test preparation courses

In response to these criticisms the SAT has recentlybeen dramatically revised to be an achievement test

rather than an intelligence test.The new SAT will be used in 2005!


Other Conceptions of IntelligenceOther Conceptions of Intelligence

Alternative theories of intelligence have Alternative theories of intelligence have been proposed to present a conception of been proposed to present a conception of intelligence that is much broader than the intelligence that is much broader than the traditional onetraditional one

Two of the most important alternative Two of the most important alternative theories have been presented by:theories have been presented by:

1.1. Robert Sternberg – Robert Sternberg – Triarchic TheoryTriarchic Theory2.2. Howard Gardner – Howard Gardner – Theory of Multiple IntelligencesTheory of Multiple Intelligences


Triarchic TheoryTriarchic Theory Includes three distinct but related forms of intelligenceIncludes three distinct but related forms of intelligence

1.1. Componential intelligence Componential intelligence –– the kind of intelligence that the kind of intelligence that IQ tests measures which involves acquiring, storing, IQ tests measures which involves acquiring, storing, analyzing, and retrieving informationanalyzing, and retrieving information

2.2. Experiential intelligenceExperiential intelligence – – involves the ability to combine involves the ability to combine information in creative ways to produce new insights, ideas, information in creative ways to produce new insights, ideas, and problem-solving strategiesand problem-solving strategies

3.3. Contextual intelligenceContextual intelligence – – is practical intelligence, the is practical intelligence, the ability to apply information to the kinds of problems faced in ability to apply information to the kinds of problems faced in everyday life, including the capacity to evaluate social everyday life, including the capacity to evaluate social situationssituations


Theory of Multiple IntelligencesTheory of Multiple Intelligences Includes eight types of intelligenceIncludes eight types of intelligence

1.1. LinguisticLinguistic2.2. Logical-mathematicalLogical-mathematical3.3. Spatial Spatial 4.4. MusicalMusical5.5. Bodily-kinestheticBodily-kinesthetic6.6. NaturalistNaturalist7.7. InterpersonalInterpersonal8.8. IntrapersonalIntrapersonal

Gardner argues that school show give more attention to the development ofall eight kinds of intelligence and develop programs that would be tailored

to each child’s individual profile of intelligence


Discussion DetourDiscussion Detour Do you agree that all the Do you agree that all the

mental abilities described mental abilities described by Gardner are different by Gardner are different types of intelligence?types of intelligence?

If not, which would you If not, which would you remove?remove?

Are there other types you Are there other types you would add?would add?


Vygotsky’s Sociocultural TheoryVygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory According to this theory, cognitive According to this theory, cognitive

development is inherently both a development is inherently both a social social and and culturalcultural process process

• It is It is social social because children learn through because children learn through interactions with others and require assistance interactions with others and require assistance from others in order to learn what they need to from others in order to learn what they need to knowknow

• It is It is culturalcultural because what children need to because what children need to know is determined by the culture they live inknow is determined by the culture they live in


Vygotsky’s Most Influential IdeasVygotsky’s Most Influential Ideas

ScaffoldingScaffolding• Refers to the degree of assistance provided to the Refers to the degree of assistance provided to the

adolescent in the zone of proximal developmentadolescent in the zone of proximal development

• Scaffolding should gradually decrease as children Scaffolding should gradually decrease as children become more competent at a taskbecome more competent at a task

Zone of Proximal DevelopmentZone of Proximal Development• Is the gap between what adolescents can accomplish Is the gap between what adolescents can accomplish

along and what they are capable of doing if guided by an along and what they are capable of doing if guided by an adult or a more competent peeradult or a more competent peer

Social Process of Learning


Building on Vygotsky’s LegacyBuilding on Vygotsky’s Legacy Barbara Rogoff has extending Vygotsky’s Barbara Rogoff has extending Vygotsky’s

theory with the idea of theory with the idea of Guided ParticipationGuided Participation• Refers to the teaching interaction between two Refers to the teaching interaction between two

people as they participate in a culturally value people as they participate in a culturally value activityactivity

• This guidance is “the direction offered by cultural This guidance is “the direction offered by cultural and social values, as well as social partnersand social values, as well as social partners

Research shows! Despite the rise of a cultural approach to studying psychology far more research is conducted using the cognitive-developmental, information processing and psychometric approaches