Ecosystems & Biodiversity

BBAEV 10201

Structure of Biosphere

• Hierarchy– Species – reproductive group– Population – members of a single species that

live in a given area– Community – assemblage of interacting

species in a given area– Biome – a region with a characteristic plant

community (e.g. rainforest, desert)– Ecosystem – a community of animals, plants,

microbes, etc. together with the physical environment that supports it

Main Ecosystems:

• Desert• Rainforest• Ocean• Taiga

• Tundra• Chaparral• Grassland• Temperate Forest

Green: Grassland Purple: Taiga Orange: Tundra Black: Temperate Forest Yellow: Desert Brown: Chaparral White: Ocean

Geography, weather, climate and geologic factors influences interactions within an ecosystem.

Organisms of Ecosystems

• Abiotic : Nonliving physical factors of an environment. It includes water, oxygen, temperature, amount of sunlight and water pressure etc.

• Biotoic: Living physical factors of an environment. Examples: Parasitism, disease and predation.

YOU TRY!!!

• List three more examples of Abiotic & Biotic Factors:

Second Law of Thermodynamics

• There is a tendency for numbers and quantities of biomass and energy to decrease along food chains.

• The pyramids become smaller at the top because around 90% of the energy is “lost” between each level and only 10% is available in the body of the organism for transfer to the next level.

Ecosystem: Trophic levels

Pyramid of biomass

Bio=life Mass=weightBio + Mass = Weight of living things within an ecosystem.

The Trophic Pyramid:A Model of Consumption

Water cycle: More of physical process than chemical

Carbon cycle: biogeochemical process

– Recent studies indicate that human activities have approximately doubled the worldwide supply of fixed nitrogen, due to the use of fertilizers, cultivation of legumes, and burning.

– Possible outcome• increase nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere• Contribute to atmospheric warming• Depletion of ozone• Acid rain.

• Accelerated pollution of lakes.– Human intrusion has disrupted freshwater ecosystems

by what is called cultural eutrophication.• Sewage and factory wastes, runoff of animal wastes from

pastures and stockyards have overloaded many freshwater streams and lakes with nitrogen.

• This can eliminate fish species because it is difficult for them to live in these new conditions.

Biological and geologic processes move nutrients between organic and inorganic compartments

• Human activity intrudes in nutrient cycles by removing nutrients from one part of the biosphere and then adding them to another.

• Agricultural effects of nutrient cycling.

Human population disrupts chemical cycles

In agricultural ecosystems, a large amount of nutrients are removed from the area in the crop biomass.• After awhile, the natural store of nutrients can

become exhausted.

• The rates at which nutrients cycle function in ecosystems are extremely variable as a result of variable rates of decomposition.– Decomposition can take up to 50 years in the tundra,

while in the tropical forest, it can occur much faster.– Contents of nutrients in the soil of different

ecosystems vary also, depending on the rate of absorption by the plants.

Decomposition rates largely determine the rates of nutrient cycling

Nutrient cycling is strongly regulated by vegetation.

Measurements (Co2 & Temp) in 1958 read 316 ppm and increased to 370 ppm today

• Life on earth is protected from the damaging affects of ultraviolet radiation (UV) by a layer of O3, or ozone.

• Studies suggest thatthe ozone layer hasbeen gradually“thinning” since 1975.

Human activities deplete atmospheric ozone

• Probable Reasons for destruction of ozone layer:– Accumulation of chlorofluorocarbons, chemicals used in

refrigeration and aerosol cans, and in certain manufacturing processes.

– Increased levels of UV radiation that reach the surface of the Earth. This radiation has been linked to skin cancer and cataracts.

• The impact of human activity on the ozone layer is one more example of how much we are able to disrupt ecosystems and the entire biosphere.

• The burning offossil fuelsreleases sulfuroxides and nitrogen thatreact with waterin the atmosphereto produce sulfuric and nitric acids.

Burning fossil fuel: Cause of acid precipitation

• Humans produce many toxic chemicals that are dumped into ecosystems.– These substances are ingested and metabolized by the

organisms in the ecosystems and can accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals.

– These toxins become more concentrated in successive trophic levels of a food web, a process called biological magnification.

Toxins concentration in successive trophic levels of food webs

DDT is a colourless, crystalline, tasteless and almost odorless organochloride known for its insecticidal properties

Balance

• Ecosystem will fail if it do not remain in balance.

• No community can carry more organisms than its food, water and shelter can accommodate.

Four Scientific Principles of Sustainability

How do they stay balanced?

• Adaptation• Migration• Extinction• Give examples on each of the above?• Provide your thought on ways to balance the

ecosystem in the current scenario?

Biodiversity

Why Is It Important?

• The biodiversity found in genes, species, ecosystems and ecosystem processes is vital to sustaining life on earth.

Natural Capital: Major Components of the Earth’s Biodiversity

Biodiversity over time - geologic

• Natural changes due to new species evolving and becoming extinct

• Extinction events – cleans the slate– Natural extinction – 90% of species ever alive

are extinct now

Genetic Makeup of a Population

• Populations evolve by becoming genetically different

• Genetic variations is the First step in biological evolution– Occurs through mutations in reproductive cells– Mutations in other cells can happen , but only

reproductive cell mutations are passed on– Sometimes a mutation can result in a new genetic

trait that gives it a better chance to survive, sometimes not.

Try this…

• Can a fish species willfully grow limbs and fingers if they are needed to crawl out of the water onto dry land?

Individuals in Populations with Beneficial Genetic Traits

• Natural selection: Second step in biological evolution– Adaptation may lead to differential reproduction– Genetic resistance in bacteria, cockroaches

• When environmental conditions change, populations– Adapt– Migrate– Become extinct

Most of the normal bacteria die

The genetically resistant bacteriastart multiplying

Eventually the resistant strainreplaces the strain affected bythe antibiotic

A group of bacteria, including genetically resistant ones, areexposed to an antibiotic

Normal bacterium

Resistant bacterium

Three Common Myths about Evolution through Natural Selection

• “Survival of the fittest” is not “survival of the strongest”

• Organisms do not develop traits out of need or want

• No grand plan of nature for perfect adaptation

There is a grandeur to this view of life (evolution)

While this planet has gone cycling on…

Endless forms most beautiful and wonderful have been and are being evolved

Charles Darwin

Can you draw similes of evolution to Corporates/ organisations?

Geologic Processes Affect Natural Selection

• Tectonic plates affect evolution and the location of life on earth– Location of continents and oceans– Species physically move, or adapt, or form new

species through natural selection• Tectonic actions: Earthquakes, Volcanic eruptions can

have profound effects on natural selection– Pollution– Change in ecosystem

225 million years ago 135 million years ago

65 million years ago Present

Climate Change and Catastrophes Affect Natural Selection

• Ice ages followed by warming temperatures

Demise of the giants (Sloth, Saber tooth tigers)

• Collisions between the earth and large asteroids – New species– Extinction

Changes in Ice Coverage in the Northern Hemisphere During the last 18,000 Years

Science Focus: Earth Is Just Right for Life to Thrive

• Certain temperature range (closeness to sun)

• Dependence on water

• Rotation on its axis (how fast or slow we spin)

• Revolution around the sun (changes in season)

• Enough gravitational mass (to hold on to the atmos)

What does Evolution mean to you?

Evidence?

The Fossil Record Tells Much of the Story of Evolution

• Fossils– Physical evidence of ancient organisms– Bones, casts, tracks…– Some reveal what their internal structures

looked like, some their actions

• Have all fossils been discovered?

Fossilized Skeleton of an Herbivore that walked the Earth

Questions

Q1) What is the connection between the environment and evolution?

Q2) Will humans evolve to a point where we can survive in space without a spacesuit or any protective device? Why or Why not?

Q3) how does pollution effect evolution?

How Do Speciation, Extinction, and Human Activities Affect Biodiversity?

• As environmental conditions change, the balance between formation of new species and extinction of existing species determines the earth’s biodiversity.

• Human activities can decrease biodiversity by causing the premature extinction of species and by destroying or degrading habitats needed for the development of new species.

Evolution

• Through geographic isolation– Groups of same species become physically

isolated– Migration, physical barriers (volcanoes)

• Through reproductive isolation– Mutation and change by natural selection occur in

isolated geographic populations long enough – New species when interbreeding produces only

sterile offspring

Geographic Isolation Can Lead to Reproductive Isolation

Science Focus: Humans Have Two Ways to Change the Genetic Traits of Populations

• Artificial selection• Genetic engineering, gene splicing• Consider

– Ethics– Morals– Privacy issues– Harmful effects

Genetically Engineered Mice

Animation: Transferring genes into plants

Species Diversity its Importance

• A major component of biodiversity– Species richness (diversity in species)– Species evenness (abundance of each species)

• Diversity varies with geographical location– Most species-rich communities

• Tropical rain forests• Coral reefs• Ocean bottom zone• Large tropical lakes

• Increases the sustainability of ecosystems.

Variations in Species Richness

Variation in species evenness

• Temperate Forest, Western Ghats, chilka lake

Species-Rich Ecosystems Tend to Be Productive and Sustainable

• Species richness seems to increase productivity and stability or sustainability of a location

• More diverse ecosystem, more productive, greater biomass

• More diverse, more complex web, more resistant to environmental disturbances

What Roles Do Species Play in Ecosystems?

• Each species plays a specific ecological role called its niche.

• Any given species may play one or more of five important roles—native, nonnative, indicator (defines traits of environment), keystone, or foundation roles—in a particular ecosystem.

Role of Keystone, Foundation Species

• Keystone species – Pollinators– Top predator( Sharks, Tigers)– Loss of keystone species lead to population

crashes of other species in ecosystem

• Foundation species– Create or enhance their habitats, which benefit

others • Elephants (trails)

Species Plays a Unique Role in Its Ecosystem

• Ecological niche– Pattern of living, includes everything that affects

survival and reproduction

• Generalist species (mice, humans, raccoons)– Broad niche

• Specialist species (Tigers, pandas)– Narrow niche

Specialist Species and Generalist Species Niches

Case Study: Cockroaches: Nature’s Ultimate Survivors

• Cockroaches– Generalists– High reproductive rates

• 10 million annually

– Eat almost anything:– Finger nail clippings,

electric cords, soap– Live and breed in all but

arctic environ– Antennae, knee joints, eyes

Good: food for higher order consumers

Threats to Biodiversity: Why Are Amphibians Vanishing?

• Habitat loss and fragmentation

• Prolonged drought

• Pollution

• Increase in UV radiation

• Parasites (worms causing increase in birth defects)

• Viral and fungal diseases

• Climate change

• Overhunting (Asia and France)

• Nonnative predators and competitors

Impact of Vanishing Amphibians

• Importance of amphibians– Sensitive biological indicators of environmental

changes– Adult amphibians

• Important ecological roles in biological communities

– Genetic storehouse of pharmaceutical products waiting to be discovered

Case Study: Why Should We Protect Sharks?

• Keystone species– Eat dead and dying fish in the ocean– Control other populations– Strong immune systems

• Wounds do not get infected• Almost never get cancer• Could help humans if we understood their immune

system

Case Study: Is the Royal Bengal Tiger worth saving?

Project tiger: Launched in 1973 by GoI and WWF with 9 tiger reserves having 268 tigers. In 2001, tiger reserves increased to 27, # of tigers ~1500!!. In 2011, we have 53 tigers reserves. Latest tiger census report released in 2011 by the National Tiger Conservation Authority, est. tiger population is 1,706. Your observation?

Reflect on these! Source: Wildlife protection society of India

TIGER DEATHS IN 2014  Mortality                   6 Poaching &              Seizures                    1___________________       Total                     7

TIGER DEATHS IN 2013  Mortality                  38 Poaching &              42 Seizures                   ___________________       Total                    80

LEOPARD DEATHS IN 2014  Mortality                 17 Poaching &             12 Seizures              ___________________       Total                   29     LEOPARD DEATHS IN 2013  Mortality               217 Poaching &           110 Seizures              ___________________       Total                 327

A tigress believed to have strayed from Jim Corbett National Park, killed its 10th person in six weeks. Source: CBC News: Feb 10’14. The tiger has been on the prowl across an area spanning some 130 kilometres. "The animal has started attacking humans because it is not getting its natural prey," said Rupek De, chief wildlife warden of Uttar Pradesh.•Jumbo concern only gets bigger - In six years, 354 persons killed by elephants in state Orissa, 5th Dec., 2013•Huge number of seized leopard claws puzzles Forest officials, 6th Dec., 2013

Why are Tigers important?• Keystone species• Presence in food web• Pathways- keep pathways open, hold back

changes in marshy areas• Maintain Ecological Balance

– Provide in-situ conservation (protect its habitat with all other species). Create national Parks & Sanctuaries

– Establish ex-situ conservation (for endangered species give protection in controlled environment viz. botanical garden for plants & zoological parks for animals)

Humans: Saviour or Threat to biodiversity

• Present day rates exceed geological rates of extinction. Scientists est. that we are likely to eliminate ~ 10Million species by 2050

• Present day extinction is across the board – affects many groups

• Modern extinction associated with spread of human populations– Over hunting/fishing– Habitat destruction – deforestation & coral bleaching

Extinction of large mammals and birds corresponds to the spread of human populations

Parks & SanctuariesAlmost 4 % of India's land is under forests. There are 80 national parks and over 441 wildlife sanctuaries in India.

•National Park:•National parks are formed by Central or State Legislation.•Status of National Park is higher.•No human habitation is permitted in the park area.•Harvesting timbers, cultivation, collection of forest products are restricted. Eg. Corbet National Park.•Sanctuary:•Sanctuaries are formed by the order of State or Central Government.•Status of sanctuary is lower.•Private ownership may be allowed.•Limited activities are allowed with permission. Eg. Chilika- Sanctuary for migrating birds.

Case Study: Beej Bachao Aandolan (Save the seed Movement) & livestocks breeding

• Seed Movement began in Himalayan tarai• Successfully conserved hundreds of local rice varieties.• Gene banks collected 34000 cereals & 22000 pulses grown

in India • 27 breeds of cattle &goats, 8 breeds of buffaloes. Many are

dying out due to misguided adoption of ‘foreign’ things viz: Jerseys & Holsteins

Questions?

Q1) Distinguish between species richness and evenness

Q2) Suppose we have 2 national parks close to each other surrounded by development. One is a large park and the other much smaller. Which park is likely to have the highest species richness? Why?

Project Questions1. Are there regions of your country with large amounts of

biodiversity?

2. What climate conditions/Geologic features have influence on natural selection in the major biomes of your country?

3. Indicate some unique indicator, keystone, foundation, invasive and specialist species that live within the borders of your country?

4. Do the people in your country get most of their food from within ? Substantiate your answer with examples.

Questions

• Q1: What are three ways that the Tigers supports one or more of the four components of biodiversity within its environment?

• Q2: What are three examples of how people, in their daily living, intentionally or unintentionally degrade each of these types of biodiversity?

• Q3: What are the main differences between Functional and Ecological Diversity? What are the main differences between species and genetic diversity?

• Q4: Why is having a lot of biodiversity on earth so beneficial to us?

Deforestation and soil nutrients

• Distinct differences in storage of biomass & nutrient cycling between temperate & tropical forests

• Temperate forests have thick, rich topsoils– Humus layer of organic detritus on top of subsoil– Nutrients stored in soils

• Tropical soils are highly weathered (lots of rain)– Lateritic clays depleted in nutrients– Thin humus layer– Nutrients stored in biomass

Tropical above groundstorage of biomass & nutrients

Deforestation and recovery

• Rainforests – loss of rainforest trees leads to loss of nutrients & changes in the water cycle

• Temperate forests recover because nutrients retained in the soils

Deforestation & water cycle & climate

• Elimination of tropical rainforests disrupts regional water cycle– Minimizes evapotranspiration (source of H2O to atm)– Decreases soil moisture and increases runoff

• Increases erosion rates– Soils form slowly– 200-1500 yrs to form 2.5 cm of topsoil from bedrock

• General circulation models to predict– Net temperature increase– Decrease in soil moisture

Biodiversity and deforestation in tropical areas

• Half of the living species are found in rainforests• Forest plants have medical value

– Treatment of diseases

• Forest plants have agricultural value– Need genetic diversity for long-term health (Darwinian

evolution)– Need variety to limit vulnerability to diseases and pests– Modern agricultural practices limit diversities– Centers of genetic diversity for crops come from areas

threatened by development, population pressures, deforestation

– Seed banks

Biodiversity and ecosystem stability

• Relationship is complex– In some settings environmental stability leads to high

diversity– In others, high diversity is thought to result from

disturbances of intermediate frequency and intensity

• How does loss of biodiversity impact ecosystem?– Remove enough species and ecosystem collapses (removal

of predators; invasive species)– May be that some species aren’t necessary – system

maintained by a few keystone species

Causes of deforestation

• Social, political, and economic drivers• Economic arguments – people and countries

need hard currency (Nepal)– Motivation not to– Who will bear the costs of not exploiting

resources?

• Earth will recover, will humans survive?