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TEACHER NAME: SIR BILAL KHAN

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CONENTS

Practical

No.

Experiment Name

Page

No.

01

MOHS SCALE OF

HARDNESS

03

02

STUDY OF MODELS OF FOLDS

AND FAULTS

08

03

International Geological

Symbols For Rock And

Minerals

15

04

Identification of rock

forming Minerals

19

3

EXPERIMENT# 01

MOHS SCALE OF HARDNESS

Objective: To find Hardness of different Minerals

MOH'S SCALE OF HARDNESS

The Mohs' hardness scale was developed in 1822 by Frederich Mohs. This scale is a chart of relative hardness of the various minerals (1 - softest to 10 - hardest). Since hardness depends upon the crystallographic direction (ultimately on the strength of the bonds between atoms in a crystal), there can be variations in hardness depending upon the direction in which one measures this property. One of the most striking examples of this is kyanite, which has a hardness of 5.5 parallel to the 1 direction ( c-axis), while it has a hardness of 7.0 parallel to the 100 direction ( a-axis). Talc (1), the softest mineral on the Mohs scale has a hardness greater than gypsum (2) in the direction that is perpendicular to the cleavage. Diamonds (10) also show a variation in hardness (the octahedral faces are harder than the cube faces). For further information see articles from the American Mineralogist on microhardness, the Knoop tester, and diamonds.

Mohs' hardness is a measure of the relative hardness and resistance to scratching between minerals. Other hardness scales rely on the ability to create an indentation into the tested mineral (such as the Rockwell, Vickers, and Brinell hardness - these are used mainly to determine hardness in metals and metal alloys). The scratch hardness is related to the breaking of the chemical bonds in the material, creation of microfractures on the surface, or displacing atoms (in metals) of the mineral. Generally, minerals with covalent bonds are the hardest while minerals with ionic, metallic, or van der Waals bonding are much softer.

When doing the tests of the minerals it is necessary to determine which mineral was scratched. The powder can be rubbed or blown off and surface scratches can usually be felt by running the fingernail over the surface. One can also get a relative feel for the hardness difference between two minerals. For instance quartz will be able to scratch calcite with much greater ease than you can scratch calcite with fluorite. One must also use enough force to create the scratch (if you don't use enough force even diamond will not be able to scratch quartz - this is an area where practice is important). You also have to be careful to test the material that you think you are testing and not some small inclusion in the sample. This is where using a small hand lens can be very useful to determine if the test area is homogenous.

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Mineral Hardness

Diamond 10

Zaire 1 cm. 14 carats

Corundum 9

variety ruby, India 6 cm.

5

Topaz 8

Mursinsk, Russia, 5cm across Seaman Museum specimen

Quartz 7

variety amethyst, Guerro, Mexico 16 cm.

Orthoclase 6

Orthoclase (white) on quartz, Baveno, Italy Orthoclase crystal is 3 cm tall. Seaman museum specimen.

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Apatite 5

Durango, Mexico. Crystal is 7.5 cm. tall. Seaman museum specimen.

Fluorite 4

Elmwood mine, Tennessee 2.5 cm. (note phantom)

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Calcite 3

Elmwood Mine, Tennessee 8 cm. (twinned)

Gypsum 2

Wyoming 12 cm. Note "fishtail" twin on left

Talc 1

Rope's Gold Mine, Michigan (green) 4 cm. across talc mass

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EXPERIMENT# 02

STUDY OF MODELS OF FOLDS AND FAULTS

FOLDS

“ FOld may be define as A curved or zig-zag structure shown by rock beds” OR

“The wavy undulation in the beds are called fold.

Types of Folds

(1) Symmetrical Fold:

A “symmetrical fold” is one where the two limbs dip at the same angle but in opposite

directions. In this case the axial plane is vertical and it passes through the crest or trough.

(Figure 1)

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(Figure 2)

(2) Asymmetrical Fold:

An “asymmetrical fold” is one where the two limbs dip at unequal angles in opposite

directions. On this case the axial plane is inclined and it not necessarily passes through the

crest line.

(Figure 1)

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(Figure 2)

(3) Overturned Fold:

It is an asymmetrical fold whose one limb is turned past the vertical. In this case the axial

plane is inclined and both the limbs dip in the same direction. In the overturned fold the

lower limb is turned upside down.

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(Figure 1)

(Figure 2)

(4) Recumbent Fold:

In “recumbent folds” , the folding is so intense that both the limbs become almost

horizontal. In this the axial plane also becomes nearly horizontal and the lower gets

overturned.

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(Figure 1)

(Figure 2)

FAULTS

In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which

there has been significant displacement along the fractures as a result of earth movement.

Large faults within the Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, with the

largest forming the boundaries between the plates, such as subduction zones or transform

faults. Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of

most earthquakes.

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A fault line is the surface trace of a fault, the line of intersection between the fault plane and

the Earth's surface

Since faults do not usually consist of a single, clean fracture, geologists use the term fault

zone when referring to the zone of complex deformation associated with the fault plane.

The two sides of a non-vertical fault are known as the hanging wall and footwall.

Classification of Fault

Normal fault:

A normal fault is one in which the hanging wall appears to have moved downward

relative to the foot wall. In this case the fault plane dips toward the down-throw side.

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1) Reverse fault:

A reverse fault is one in which the hanging wall appears to have moved upward

relative to the foot wall. In this case the plane dips toward the upthrow side. Normally

reverse faults have dips of the order of 45 degree or more.

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Experiment #03

International Geological Symbols For Rock

And Minerals

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17

18

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Experiment # 04

Identification of rock forming Minerals

Objective: To identify different rock forming minerals.

(1) Talc

Color: Light to dark green , brown , white , grey.

Streak: white to pearl black.

Specific Gravity: Its specific gravity is 2.58-2.83

Moh's Scale Of Hardness: 1

Use: Talc is used in many industries such as paper marking , plastic, paint, and coatings

rubber, food, electric cable, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, ceramics etc.

(2)Mica

The mica group of sheet silicate (phyllosilicate) minerals includes several closely related

materials appears as sheety, shiny plated crystals.

Color: Shades of brown, Yellow, White, Black, Gray

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Streak: Gray

Specific Gravity: Its specific gravity is 2.76 – 3.2

Hardness: 2 – 2.5 Use: The principal use of ground mica is in gypsum wallboard joint compound, where it acts as a filter and extender, provides a smoothly consistency, improves work ability and prevents cracking.

(3)Calcite

Color: Colorless or white, also grey, green.

Hardness (Mohs): 3

Specific Gravity: 3

Steak: White.

Transparency: Transparent, Translucent.

Solubility: Soluble in dilute acids.

Use: Higher grade optical calcite was used in world War II for gun sights, specifically in bomb sights and anti- aircrafts weaponry.

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(4) Malachite

Color: Bright green, yellow green, blackish green, commonly banded in masses ; green to yellowish green in transmitted light.

Hardness (Mohs): 3.5 - 4

Steak: Light green

Specific Gravity: 3.6 – 4

Diaphaneity (Transparency): Transparent, Translucent

Use: Malachite is used in jewelry, ammunition, electrical circuits, electronic equipment,

appliances, automobiles, coins, etc. The ore is also used to build copper pipes. Primitive

people used malachite for making paint.

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(5) Gypsum

Gypsum is soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dehydrate.

Color: Colorless to white, often tinged other hues due to impurities; colorless in transmitted light.

Streak: White.

Hardness (Mohs): 2

Specific Gravity: 2.31-2.33

Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent

Use: Gypsum uses include: manufacture of wallboard, cement, plaster of Paris, soil conditioning, a hardening retarder in Portland cement. Varieties of gypsum known as "satin spar" and "alabaster" are used for a variety of ornamental purposes, however their low hardness limits their durability.

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(6) Hematite

Hematite, also spelled as hematite, is the mineral form of iron III oxide (Fe2O3), one of several iron oxides.

Color: Steel-grey to black in crystals and massively crystalline ores, dull to bright "rust-red" in in earthy, compact, fine-grained material.

Streak: Bright red to dark red

Hardness (Mohs): 5.5 – 6.5

Diaphaneity (Transparency): Opaque Specific Gravity: 5.26

Uses: It is used in rouge makeup and polish because of its red pigment. it is also used for ore of iron for steel tools, vehicles, nails and bolts and bridges.

(7) Magnetite:

Color: Black

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Streak: Black

Hardness: 5.5 – 6.5 (harder than glass)

Transparency: Opaque

Specific Gravity : 4.9 - 5.2

Uses: Magnetite is used for many different things. Some of the things it is used for is to make Magnets, Steel, Paints, Ink, Cosmetics and also to make Paper. Also used to make some pieces of jewelry.

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(8) Bauxite: Color: White, grey, yellow or brown. Streak: White Hardness: 1 - 3 Transparency: Opaque Specific Gravity: 2.0 - 2.6 Uses: It is used as ore of Aluminium, refractory material, abrasive material.

(9) Fluorite Fluorite is found as a common gangue mineral in hydrothermal veins, especially those containing lead and zinc minerals. It is also found in some greisens, granites Color: White, Blue, Green,Red, Yellow, Purple Streak: White

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Hardness: 4 Transparency: Transparent Uses: It is used as a making and for the preparation of hydrofluoric acid.

(10) Dolomite: Color: White, Pink, Gray, Greenish, Brown, Red Hardness: 3.5-4 Streak: White Transparency: Transparent to translucent on thin splinters Specific Gravity: 2.8 - 3.0 Uses: It is used as a building and ornamental stone and in manufacture of refractory bricks.

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(11) Aragonite:

Color: Color can be white or colorless or with usually subdued shades of red, yellow, orange, brown, green and even blue.

Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.

Specific Gravity is 2.95

Steak is white. Hardness is 3.5-4

Uses: minor constituent of limestone which is used in cement and in steel production, ornamental carvings and as mineral specimens.