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Page 1: Kingdom of Kongo

Kingdom of KongoFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Congo (disambiguation).

Kingdom of KongoWene wa Kongo or Kongo dya Ntotila

Sovereign Kingdom (1390 - 1857)Vassal Kingdom of the

Kingdom of Portugal (1857 - 1914)

← 1390[1]–1914

 → 

 → 

 →

Flag Coat of arms

The "Kingdom of Congo" (now usually rendered as "Kingdom of

Kongo" to maintain distinction from the present-day Kongo nations)

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Capital São Salvador, Angola;[2]

Languages KiKongoPortuguese

Religion Christianity with some traditional practices

Government Monarchy

King

 -  c. 1390s Lukeni lua Nimi (first)

 - 1911–1914 Manuel III (last)

Legislature King's Council of 12

History

 - Conquest of Kabunga 1390[1]

 - Kongo Civil War begins

29 October 1665

 - Kongo Reunification February, 1709

 - Kongo becomes vassal of Portugal

1857

 - Dissolution by Portuguese authority

1914

Area

 -  c. 1650[3] 129,400 km²(49,962 sq mi)

Population

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 -  c. 1650[3] est. 509,250 

     Density 3.9 /km²  (10.2 /sq mi)

Currency Nzimbu shells andRaffia cloth

The Kingdom of Kongo (Kongo: Kongo dya Ntotila[4] or Wene wa Kongo[5] or Portuguese: Reino do Congo)

was an African kingdom located in west central Africa in what is now northern Angola, Cabinda, the Republic of

the Congo, and the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[6] as well as the southernmost

part of Gabon.[7] At its greatest extent, it reached from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to theKwango River in the

east, and from the Congo River in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. The kingdom consisted of

several core provinces ruled by the Manikongo, the Portuguese version of the Kongo title 'Mwene Kongo',

meaning lord or ruler of the Kongo kingdom, but its sphere of influence extended to neighbouring kingdoms,

such as Ngoyo, Kakongo, Ndongo and Matamba.[8]

Contents

  [hide] 

1 History

o 1.1 Foundation of the Kingdom

1.1.1 The Portuguese and Christianity

1.1.2 Slavery and royal rivalries

o 1.2 Kongo under the House of Kwilu

1.2.1 Factionalism

o 1.3 Kongo under the House of Nsundi

1.3.1 Kongo-Portuguese War of 1622

o 1.4 Factionalism and return of the House of Kwilu

o 1.5 Kongo under the House of Kinlaza

1.5.1 Dutch invasion of Luanda and the Second Portuguese War

1.5.2 Kongo's War with Soyo

1.5.3 The Third Portuguese War

1.5.4 The Battle of Mbwila

o 1.6 Kongo Civil War

o 1.7 Turmoil and rebirth

o 1.8 18th and 19th centuries

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2 Military structure

3 Political structure

4 Economic structure

5 Art of the Kongo Kingdom

6 Social structure

o 6.1 Matrilineal succession

7 See also

8 Bibliography

9 Primary Sources

o 9.1 Documentary collections

o 9.2 Books and Documents

10 Secondary Literature

11 References

12 External links

History [edit]

Verbal traditions about the early history of the country were set in writing for the first time in the late 16th

century, and the most comprehensive ones were recorded in the mid-seventeenth century, including those

written by the Italian Capuchin missionary Giovanni Cavazzi da Montecuccolo. More detailed research in

modern oral traditions, initially conducted in the early 20th century by Redemptoristmissionaries like Jean

Cuvelier and Joseph de Munck do not appear to relate to the very early period.

According to Kongo tradition, the kingdom's origin lies in the very large and not very rich country of Mpemba

Kasi located just south of modern-day Matadi in the Democratic Republic of Congo.[5] A dynasty of rulers from

this small polity built up their rule along the Kwilu valley and were buried in Nsi Kwilu, its capital. Traditions from

the 17th century allude to this sacred burial ground. According to the missionary Girolamo da Montesarchio, an

Italian Capuchin who visited the area from 1650 to 1652, the site was so holy that looking upon it was deadly.

Seventeenth century subjects of Mpemba Kasi called their ruler "Mother of the King of Kongo" in respect of the

territory's antiquity. At some point around 1375, Nimi a Nzima, ruler of Mpemba Kasi, made an alliance

with Nsaku Lau, the ruler of the neighbouring Mbata Kingdom. This alliance guaranteed that each of the two

allies would help ensure the succession of their ally's lineage in the other's territory.

Foundation of the Kingdom [edit]

The first king of the Kingdom of Kongo Dya Ntotila was Lukeni lua Nimi (circa 1380-1420).The name Nimi a

Lukeni appeared in later oral traditions and some modern historians, notably Jean Cuvelier, popularized

it. Lukeni lua Nimi or Nimi a Lukeni, became the founder of Kongo when he conquered the kingdom of the

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Mwene Kabunga (or Mwene Mpangala), which lay upon a mountain to his south. He transferred his rule to this

mountain, the Mongo dia Kongo or "mountain of Kongo", and made Mbanza Kongo, the town there, his capital.

Two centuries later the Mwene Kabunga's descendants still symbolically challenged the conquest in an annual

celebration. The rulers that followed Lukeni all claimed some form of relation to his kanda or lineage and were

known as the Kilukeni. The Kilukeni kanda or "house" as recorded in Portuguese documents would rule Kongo

unopposed until 1567.

After the death of Nimi a Lukeni, his brother, Mbokani Mavinga, took over the throne and ruled until

approximately 1367. He had two wives and nine children. His rule saw an expansion of the Kingdom of Kongo

to include the neighbouring state of Loango and other areas now encompassed by the current Republic of

Congo.

The Mwene Kongos often gave the governorships to members of their family or its clients. As this centralization

increased, the allied provinces gradually lost influence until their powers were only symbolic, manifested in

Mbata, once a co-kingdom, but by 1620 simply known by the title "Grandfather of the King of Kongo"

(Nkaka'ndi a Mwene Kongo).[9][10]

The high concentration of population around Mbanza Kongo and its outskirts played a critical role in the

centralization of Kongo. The capital was a densely settled area in an otherwise sparsely populated region

where rural population densities probably did not exceed 5 persons per square kilometer. Early Portuguese

travelers described Mbanza Kongo as a large city, the size of the Portuguese town of Évora as it was in 1491.

By the end of the sixteenth century, Kongo's population was probably close to half a million people in a core

region of some 130,000 square kilometers. By the early seventeenth century the city and its hinterland had a

population of around 100,000, or one out of every five inhabitants in the Kingdom (according to baptismal

statistics compiled by Jesuit priests). This concentration allowed resources, soldiers and surplus foodstuffs to

be readily available at the request of the king. This made the king overwhelmingly powerful and caused the

kingdom to become highly centralized.

By the time of the first recorded contact with the Europeans, the Kingdom of Kongo was a highly developed

state at the center of an extensive trading network. Apart from natural resources andivory, the country

manufactured and traded copperware, ferrous metal goods, raffia cloth, and pottery. The Kongo people spoke

in the Kikongo language. The eastern regions, especially that part known as the Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia

Nlaza (or in Kikongo Mumbwadi or "the Seven"), were particularly famous for the production of cloth.

The Portuguese and Christianity [edit]

Main article: Roman Catholic Church in Kongo

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João I Nzinga a Nkuwu

In 1483, the Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão sailed up the uncharted Congo River, finding Kongo villages and

becoming the first European to encounter the Kongo kingdom.[11] During his visit, Cão left his men in Kongo

while taking Kongo nobles and bringing them to Portugal. He returned with the Kongo nobles in 1485. At that

point the ruling king, Nzinga a Nkuwu, converted to Christianity.[12] Cão returned to the kingdom with Roman

Catholic priests and soldiers in 1491, baptizing Nzinga a Nkuwu as well as his principal nobles, starting with the

ruler of Soyo, the coastal province. At the same time a literate Kongo citizen returning from Portugal opened

the first school. Nzinga a Nkuwu took the name of João I in honor of Portugal's king at the time,João II.[13]

João I ruled until his death around 1506 and was succeeded by his son Afonso Mvemba a Nzinga. He faced a

serious challenge from a half brother,Mpanzu a Kitima. The king overcame his brother in a battle waged

at Mbanza Kongo. According to Afonso's own account, sent to Portugal in 1506, he was able to win the battle

thanks to the intervention of a heavenly vision of Saint James and the Virgin Mary. Inspired by these events, he

subsequently designed a coat of arms for Kongo that was used by all following kings on official documents,

royal paraphernalia and the like until 1860.[14] While King João I later reverted to his traditional beliefs, Afonso I

established Christianity as the state religion of his kingdom.[13]

King Afonso I worked to create a viable version of the Roman Catholic Church in Kongo, providing for its

income from royal assets and taxation that provided salaries for its workers. Along with advisers from Portugal

such as Rui d'Aguiar, the Portuguese royal chaplain sent to assist Kongo's religious development, Afonso

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created a syncretic version of Christianity that would remain a part of its culture for the rest of the kingdom's

independent existence. King Afonso himself studied hard at this task. Rui d'Aguir once said Afonso I knew

more of the church's tenets than he did.

The Kongo church was always short of ordained clergy, and made up for it by the employment of a strong laity.

Kongolese school teachers or Mestreswere the anchor of this system. Recruited from the nobility and trained in

the kingdom's schools, they provided religious instruction and services to others building upon Kongo's growing

Christian population. At the same time, they permitted the growth of syncretic forms of Christianity which

incorporated older religious ideas with Christian ones. Examples of this are the introduction of KiKongo words

to translate Christian concepts. The KiKongo words ukisi (an abstract word meaning charm, but used to mean

"holy") and nkanda (meaning book) were merged so that the Christian Bible became known as the nkanda

ukisi. The church became known as the nzo a ukisi. While some European clergy often denounced these

mixed traditions, they were never able to root them out.

An image depicting Portuguese encounter with Kongo Royal family

Part of the establishment of this church was the creation of a strong priesthood and to this end Afonso's son

Henrique was sent to Europe to be educated. Henrique became an ordained priest and in 1518 was named as

bishop of Utica (a North African diocese in the hands of Muslims). He returned to Kongo in the early 1520s to

run Kongo's new church. He died in 1531 as he was about to go to Europe for theCouncil of Trent.

Slavery and royal rivalries [edit]

In the following decades, the Kingdom of Kongo became a major source of slaves for Portuguese traders and

other European powers. TheCantino Atlas of 1502 mentions Kongo as a source of slaves for the island of São

Tomé. Slavery had existed in Kongo long before the arrival of the Portuguese, and Afonso's early letters show

the evidence of slave markets. They also show the purchase and sale of slaves within the country and his

accounts on capturing slaves in war which were given and sold to Portuguese merchants. It is likely that most

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of the slaves exported to the Portuguese were war captives from Kongo's campaigns of expansion. In addition,

the slaving wars helped Afonso consolidate his power in southern and eastern border regions. [15]

Despite its long establishment within his kingdom, Afonso believed that the slave trade should be subject to

Kongo law. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote to

King João III of Portugal in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice. Ultimately, Afonso decided to

establish a special committee to determine the legality of the enslavement of those who were being sold.

A common characteristic of political life in the kingdom of Kongo was a fierce competition over succession to

the throne. Afonso's own contest for the throne was intense, though little is known about it. However, a great

deal is known about how such struggles took place from the contest that followed Afonso's death in late 1542

or early 1543. This is in large part due to detailed inquest conducted by royal officials in 1550, which survives in

the Portuguese archives. In this inquest one can see that factions formed behind prominent men, such as

Afonso I's son, Pedro Nkanga a Mvemba and Diogo Nkumbi a Mpudi, his grandson who ultimately overthrew

Pedro in 1545. Although the factions placed themselves in the idiom of kinship (using the Portuguese

term geração or lineage, probably kanda in Kikongo) they were not formed strictly along heredity lines since

close kin were often in separate factions. The players included nobles holding appointive titles to provincial

governorships, members of the royal council and also officials in the now well developed Church hierarchy.

King Diogo I skillfully replaced or outmaneuvered his entrenched competitors after he was crowned in 1545. He

faced a major conspiracy led by Pedro I, who had taken refuge in a church, and whom Diogo in respect of the

Church's rule of asylum allowed to continue in the church. However, Diogo did conduct an inquiry into the plot,

the text of which was sent to Portugal in 1552 and gives us an excellent idea of the way in which plotters hoped

to overthrow the king by enticing his supporters to abandon him.

Problems also arose between Diogo and the Portuguese settlers at Sao Tome known as Tomistas. According

to a treaty between Kongo and Portugal, the former were only to trade within the latter's realm for slaves. That

meant the Portuguese were restricted to the slaves offered by King Diogo or those he authorized to sell slaves.

Every year the Tomistas would come with 12 to 15 ships to carry back between 400 and 700 slaves (5000-

10000 slaves a year). This was not enough to take advantage of Kongo's ever-growing supply of slaves thanks

to wars on its eastern frontier. The captains would try to overload their cargos, resulting in revolts. However, the

factor that actually broke the deal was the Tomista habit of sailing upriver to the Malebo Pool to purchase

slaves from BaTeke traders who were increasingly taken with European goods over the nzimbu shells the

manikongo offered them. Enraged by this breach of contract, King Diogo broke off relations in 1555 and

expelled 70 or so Portuguese living in his realm (many of whom had lived there for a long time with African

wives and mixed-race children).

The king's attempt at pacifying the restless kingdom of Ndongo in 1556 backfired resulting in the latter's

independence. Despite this setback, he would enjoy a long reign that ended with his death in 1561.

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King Diogo's successor, whose name is lost to history, was killed by the Portuguese and replaced with

a bastard son who was more pliant to Tomista interests Afonso II. The common people of Kongo were enraged

at his enthronement and responded with riots throughout the kingdom. Many Portuguese were killed, and the

royal port of Mpinda was closed to the Portuguese effectively ending the slave trade between Kongo and

Portugal. Less than a year into this chaos, King Afonso II was murdered while attending mass by his brother,

the next manikongo, Bernardo I. King Bernardo allowed the boycott of Portuguese trade to continue while

quietly reestablishing relations with Lisbon. King Bernardo I was killed warring against the Yaka in 1567. The

next manikongo,Henrique I was drawn into a war in the eastern part of the country where he was killed, leaving

the government in the hands of his stepson Álvaro Nimi a Lukeni lua Mvemba. He was crowned as Álvaro I, "by

common consent" according to some witnesses.

Kongo under the House of Kwilu [edit]

Part of a series on the

History of theRepublic of the Congo

Early history

Kingdom of Kongo (1390–1914)

Kingdom of Loango  (1550–1883)

Kongo Civil War  (1665–1709)

Colonization  (1876–1885)

Atlantic slave trade

French Congo  (1882–1910)

French Equatorial Africa  (1910–1958)

Fulbert Youlou

Trois Glorieuses  (1963)

People's Republic of the Congo  (1970–1992)

1990s

Civil War  (1997–1999)

2002 constitutional referendum

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 Republic of the Congo portal

V

 

T

 

E

Álvaro I came to the throne during another contest over the throne in 1568. Being from the Kwilu river valley

and not a blood relative of any of the previous kings, his reign marked the beginning of the House of Kwilu.

There were certainly factions that opposed him, though it is not known specifically who they were. Álvaro

immediately had to fight invaders from the east (who some authorities believe were actually rebels within the

country, either peasants or discontented nobles from rival factions) called the Jagas. To do this, he decided to

enlist the aid of the Portuguese based at São Tomé, who sent an expedition under Francisco de Gouveia

Sottomaior to assist. As a part of the same process, Álvaro agreed to allow the Portuguese to establish a

colony in his province of Luanda south of his kingdom. In addition to allowing the Portuguese to establish

themselves in Luanda, Kongo provided the Portuguese with support in their war against the Kingdom

of Ndongo in 1579. The kingdom of Ndongo was located inland east of Luanda and although claimed in

Kongo's royal titles as early as 1535 was probably never under a firm Kongo administration.

Álvaro also worked hard to westernize Kongo, gradually introducing European style titles for his nobles, so that

the Mwene Nsundi became the Duke of Nsundi; the Mwene Mbamba became the Duke of Mbamba or

the Mwene Mpemba. The Mwene Mpemba became Marquis of Mpemba, and the Mwene Soyo

became Count of Soyo. He and his son Álvaro II Nimi a Nkanga (crowned in 1587]) bestowed orders of chivalry

called the Order of Christ. The capital was also renamed São Salvador or "Holy Savior" in Portuguese during

this period. In 1596, Álvaro's emissaries to Rome persuaded the Pope to recognize São Salvador as the

cathedral of a new diocese which would include Kongo and the Portuguese territory in Angola. However, the

king of Portugal won the right to nominate the bishops to this see, which would be the source of tension

between the two countries.

The Portuguese bishops throughout the kingdom were often favourable to European interests in a time when

relations between Kongo and Angola were tense. They refused to appoint priests, forcing Kongo to rely more

and more heavily on the laity. Documents of the time show that lay teachers (calledmestres in Portuguese-

language documents) were paid salaries and appointed by the crown, and at times Kongo kings withheld

income and services to the bishops and their supporters (a tactic called "country excommunication").

Controlling revenue was vital for Kongo's kings since even Jesuit missionaries were paid salaries from the royal

exchequer.

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At the same time as this ecclesiastical problem developed, the governors of Angola began to extend their

campaigns into areas that Kongo regarded as being firmly under their sovereignty. This included the region

around Nambu a Ngongo, which Governor João Furtado attacked in the mid- 1590s. Other campaigns in the

vicinity would lead to denunciations by the rulers of Kongo against this violation of their sovereignty.

Factionalism [edit]

Álvaro I and his successor, Álvaro II, also faced problems with factional rivals from families that had been

displaced from succession. In order to raise support against some enemies, they had to make concessions to

others. One of the most important of these concessions was allowing Manuel, the Count of Soyo, to hold office

for many years beginning sometime before 1591. During this same period, Álvaro II made a similar concession

to António da Silva, the Duke of Mbamba. António da Silva was strong enough that he decided the succession

of the kingdom, selectingBernardo II in 1614, but putting him aside in favor of Álvaro III in 1615. It was only with

difficulty that Álvaro III was able to put his own choice in as Duke of Mbamba when António da Silva died in

1620 instead of having the province fall into the hands of the duke's son. At the same time, however, Álvaro III

created another powerful and semi-independent nobleman in Manuel Jordão who held Nsundi for him.

Kongo under the House of Nsundi [edit]

Tensions between Portugal and Kongo increased further as the governors of Portuguese Angola became more

aggressive. Luis Mendes de Vasconcelos, who arrived as governor in 1617, used mercenary African groups

called Imbangala to make a devastating war on Ndongo, and then to raid and pillage some southern Kongo

provinces. He was particularly interested in the province of Kasanze, a marshy region that lay just north of

Luanda. Many slaves being deported through Luanda fled into this region and were often granted sanctuary,

and for this reason, Mendes de Vasconcelos decided that a determined action was needed to stop it. The next

governor of Angola, João Correia de Sousa, used the Imbangala to launch a full scale invasion of southern

Kongo in 1622, following the death of Álvaro III. João Correia de Sousa claimed he had the right to choose the

king of Kongo. He was also upset that the Kongolese electors chose Pedro II, a former Duke of Mbamba.

Pedro II was originally from the duchy of Nsundi, hence the name of the royal house he created, the House of

Nsundi. João Correia de Sousa also contended that Pedro II had sheltered runaway slaves from Angola during

the latter's governorship of Mbamba.

Kongo-Portuguese War of 1622 [edit]

The Kongo-Portuguese War of 1622 began initially because of a Portuguese campaign against the Kasanze

Kingdom, which was conducted ruthlessly. From there, the army moved to Nambu a Ngongo, whose ruler,

Pedro Afonso, was held to be sheltering runaway slaves as well. Although Pedro Afonso, facing an

overwhelming army of over 20,000 agreed to return some runaways, the army attacked his country and killed

him.

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Following its success in Nambu a Ngongo, the Portuguese army advanced into Mbamba - the region inhabited

by the Ombamba - in November. The Portuguese forces scored a victory at theBattle of Mbumbi. There they

faced a quickly gathered local force led by the new Duke of Mbamba, and reinforced by forces from Mpemba

led by its Marquis. Both the Duke of Mbamba and the Marquis of Mpemba were killed in the battle. According to

Esikongo accounts, they were eaten by the Imbangala allies of the Portuguese. However, Pedro II, the newly

crowned king of Kongo brought the main army, including troops from Soyo down into Mbamba and decisively

defeated the Portuguese driving them from the country at a battle waged somewhere near Mbanda Kasi.

Portuguese residents of Kongo, frightened by the consequences for their business of the invasion, wrote a

hostile letter to João Correia de Sousa, denouncing his invasion.

Following the defeat of the Portuguese at Mbandi Kasi, Pedro II declared Angola an official enemy. The king

then wrote letters denouncing João Correia de Sousa to the King of Spain and the Pope. Meanwhile, anti-

Portuguese riots broke out all over the kingdom and threatened its long established merchant community.

Portuguese throughout the country were humiliatingly disarmed and even forced to give up their clothes. Pedro,

anxious not to alienate the Portuguese merchant community, and aware that they had generally remained loyal

during the war, did as much as he could to preserve their lives and property, leading some of his detractors to

call him "king of Portuguese".

As a result of Kongo's victory, the Portuguese merchant community of Luanda revolted against the governor

hoping to preserve their ties with the king. Backed by the Jesuits, who had also just recommenced their mission

there, they forced João Correia de Sousa to resign and flee the country. The interim government that followed

the departure was led by the bishop of Angola. They were very conciliatory to Kongo and agreed to return

some of the slaves captured by Correia de Sousa, especially the lesser nobles captured at the Battle of

Mbumbi.

Regardless of the new government in Angola's overtures, Pedro II had not forgotten the invasion and planned

to remove the Portuguese from the realm altogether. The king sent a letter to theDutch Estates

General proposing a joint military attack on Angola with a Kongo army and a Dutch fleet. He would pay the

Dutch with gold, silver and ivory for their efforts.[16] As planned, a Dutch fleet under the command of the

celebrated admiral Piet Heyn arrive in Luanda to carry out its attack in 1624. The plan failed to come to fruition

as, at that point, Pedro had died and his son GarciaMvemba a Nkanga was elected king. King Garcia I was

more forgiving of the Portuguese and had been successfully persuaded by their various gestures of

conciliation. He was unwilling to press the attack on Angola at that time, contending that as a Catholic, he could

not ally with non-Catholics to attack the city.

Factionalism and return of the House of Kwilu [edit]

The end of the first quarter of the 17th century saw a new flare-up in Kongo's political struggle. At the heart of

the conflict were two noble houses fighting over the kingship. On one side of the conflict was the House of

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Kwilu, which counting most of the kings named Álvaro. They were ousted by the opposing House of Nsundi,

when Pedro II was placed on the throne by powerful local forces in São Salvador, probably as a compromise

when Álvaro III died without an heir old enough to rule.

As the reigning power, the House of Nsundi worked earnestly to place partisans in king-making positions

throughout the empire. Either Pedro II or Garcia I managed to secure Soyo in the hands of Count Paulo, who

held it and supported the House of Nsundi from about 1625 until 1641. Meanwhile, Manuel Jordão, a partisan

of the House of Kwilu managed to force Garcia I to flee and placed Ambrósio I of the House of Kwilu on the

throne.

King Ambrósio either could not or did not remove Paulo from Soyo, though he did eventually remove Jordão.

After a rule marked by rumors of war mobilizations and other disruptive behavior, a great riot at the capital

resulted in the death of the king by a mob. Ambrosio is replaced with Alvaro IV by the Duke of Mbamba, Daniel

da Silva. King Alvaro IV is only eleven at the time and easily manipulated. In 1632, Daniel da Silva marched on

the capital in order to "rescue his nephew from his enemies". At the time, he was under the protection of the

Count of Soyo, Paulo, Alvaro Nimi a Lukeni a Nzenze a Ntumba and his brother Garcia II Nkanga a Lukeni.

After a dramatic battle in Soyo, the young king was successfully restored only to be later poisoned by Alvaro V,

a Kimpanzu.

Kongo under the House of Kinlaza [edit]

After a second war against his cousins Nimi a Lukeni and Nkanga a Lukeni, Alvaro V was killed and replaced

by Alvaro VI in 1636 initiating the House of Kinlaza's rule over Kongo. Following his death in 1641, his brother

took over and was crowned Garcia II. The former House of Nsundi was consolidated into their House of Kwilu

rivals as the Kimpanzu lineage of the dead Alvaro V.

Garcia II took the throne on the eve of several crisis. One of his rivals, Daniel da Silva (who probably received

the patronage of the Daniel da Silva who was killed by Garcia II while defending Alvaro IV), managed to secure

the County of Soyo and used it as a base against Garcia II for the whole of his reign. As a result, Garcia II was

prevented from completely consolidating his authority. Another problem facing King Garcia II was a rebellion in

the Dembos region, which also threatened his authority. Lastly, there was the agreement made by Pedro II in

1622 promising Kongo's support to the Dutch in an offensive to oust Portugal from Luanda.

Dutch invasion of Luanda and the Second Portuguese War [edit]

In 1641, the Dutch invaded Angola and captured Luanda after an almost bloodless struggle. They immediately

sought to renew their alliance with Kongo, which had had a false start in 1624 when Garcia I refused to assist

their attack on Luanda. While relations between Sao Salvador and Luanda were not warm, the two polities had

enjoyed an easy peace due to the former's internal distractions and the latter's war against the Kingdom of

Matamba. The same year of the Portuguese ouster from Luanda, Kongo entered into a formal agreement with

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the new government and agreed to provide military assistance as needed. Garcia II ejected nearly all

Portuguese and Luso-African merchants from his kingdom. The colony of Angola was declared an enemy once

again, and the Duke of Mbamba was sent with an army to assist the Dutch. The Dutch also provided Kongo

with military assistance, in exchange for payment in slaves.

In 1642, the Dutch sent troops to help Garcia II put down an uprising by peoples of the southern district in the

Dembos region. The government quickly put down the Nsala rebellion, reaffirming the Kongo-Dutch alliance.

King Garcia II paid the Dutch for their services in slaves taken from ranks of Dembos rebels. These slaves

were sent to Pernambuco, Brazil where the Dutch had taken over a portion of the Portuguese sugar producing

region. A Dutch-Kongo force attacked Portuguese bases on the Bengo River in 1643 in retaliation for

Portuguese harassment. The Dutch captured Portuguese positions and forced their rivals to withdraw to Dutch

forts on the Kwanza River at Muxima and Masangano. Following this victory, the Dutch again lost interest in

conquering the colony of Angola.

As in their conquest of Pernambuco, the Dutch West India Company was content to allow the Portuguese to

remain inland. The Dutch sought to spare themselves the expense of war, and instead relied on control of

shipping to profit from the colony. Thus, to Garcia's chagrin the Portuguese and Dutch signed a peace treaty in

1643 ending the brief albeit successful war. Despite his disappointment, however, with the Portuguese out of

the way and an end to Dutch pursuits of troops, Garcia II could turn his attention to the growing threat posed by

the Count of Soyo.

Kongo's War with Soyo [edit]

While Garcia was disappointed that the Dutch alliance could not drive out the Portuguese, it did free him to turn

his attention to the growing threat posed by the Count of Soyo. The Counts of Soyo were initially strong

partisans of the House of Nsundi and its successor the House of Kinlaza. Count Paulo had assisted in the rise

of the Kinlaza to power. However, Paulo died at about the same time as Garcia became king in 1641. A rival

count, Daniel da Silva from the House of Kwilu, took control of the county as a partisan of the newly formed

Kimpanzu faction. He would claim that Soyo had the right to choose its own ruler, though Garcia never

accepted this claim and spent much of the first part of his reign fighting against it. Garcia did not support this

move as one of the most important offices in Kongo.

In 1645 Garcia II sent a force against Daniel da Silva under the command of his son Afonso. The campaign

was a failure due to Kongo's inability to take Soyo's fortified position at Mfinda Ngula. Worse still, Afonso was

captured in the battle forcing Garcia to engage in humiliating negotiations with da Silva to win back his

freedom. Italian Capuchin missionaries who had just arrived in Soyo in the aftermath of the battle assisted in

the negotiations. In 1646 Garcia sent a second military force against Soyo, but his forces were defeated again.

Because Garcia was so intent on subduing Soyo, he was unable to make a full military effort to assist the Dutch

in the war against Portugal.

Page 15: Kingdom of Kongo

The Third Portuguese War [edit]

The Kingdom of Kongo in 1648

The Dutch were convinced they could avoid committing their forces to any further wars. Queen Njinga had

been active against the Portuguese, and the Dutch felt secure. When Portuguese reinforcements managed to

defeat her at Kavanga in 1646, the Dutch felt obliged to be more aggressive. The Dutch convinced Kongo to

join them and Queen Njinga in another venture against the Portuguese. In 1647, Kongo troops participated in

the Battle of Kombi, where they soundly defeated the Portuguese field army and forced them to fight

defensively.

A year later, Portuguese reinforcements from Brazil forced the Dutch to surrender Luanda and withdraw from

Angola in 1648. The new Portuguese governor, Salvador de Sá, sought terms with Kongo, demanding the

Island of Luanda, the source of Kongo's money supply of nzimbu shells. Although neither Kongo nor Angola

ever ratified a treaty, sent to the king in 1649, the Portuguese gained de facto control of the island. The war

resulted in the Dutch losing their claims in Central Africa, Nzinga being forced back into Matamba, the

Portuguese restored to their coastal position and Kongo lost or gained nothing other than the indemnity Garcia

paid which ended hostilities between the two rival powers. King Garcia II, after allowing the Portuguese to gain

control over Luanda Island, switched the kingdom's currency to raffia cloth, negating the Portuguese gains.

The Battle of Mbwila [edit]

Portugal began pressing claims over southern vassals of Kongo, especially the country of Mbwila, following

their restoration at Luanda. Mbwila, a nominal vassal of Kongo, had also signed a treaty of vassalage with

Portugal in 1619. It divided its loyalty between the Colony of Angola and Kongo in the intervening period.

Though the Portuguese often attacked Mbwila they never brought it under their authority.

Kongo began working towards a Spanish alliance, especially following António I's succession as king in 1661.

Although it is not clear what diplomatic activities he engaged in Spain itself, the Portuguese clearly believed

that he hoped to repeat the Dutch invasion this time with the assistance of Spain. António sent emissaries to

the Dembos region and to Matamba and Mbwila attempting to form a new anti-Portuguese alliance. The

Page 16: Kingdom of Kongo

Portuguese had been troubled, moreover by Kongo support of runaway slaves, who flocked to southern Kongo

throughout the 1650s. At the same time, the Portuguese were advancing their own agenda for Mbwila, which

they claimed as a vassal. In 1665 both sides invaded Mbwila and their rival armies met each other at Ulanga, in

the valley below Mbanza Mbwila, capital of the district.

At the Battle of Mbwila in 1665, the Portuguese forces from Angola had their first victory against the kingdom of

Kongo since 1622. They defeated the forces under António I killing him and many of his courtiers as well as

the Luso-African Capuchin priest Manuel Roboredo (also known by his cloister name of Francisco de São

Salvador), who had attempted to prevent this final war.

Kongo Civil War [edit]

Main article: Kongo Civil War

In the aftermath of the battle, there was no clear succession. The country was divided between rival claimants

to the throne. The two factions of Kimpanzu and Kinlaza hardened, and partitioned the country between them.

Pretenders would ascend to the throne then be ousted. The period was marked by an increase

of BaKongo slaves being sold across the Atlantic, the weakening of the Kongo monarchy and the strengthening

of Soyo.

During this chaos, Kongo was being increasingly manipulated by Soyo. In an act of desperation, the central

authority in Kongo called on Luanda to attack Soyo in return for various concessions. The Portuguese invaded

the county of Soyo in 1670. They met with no more success than Garcia II, being roundly defeated by Soyo's

forces at the Battle of Kitombo on 18 October 1670. The kingdom of Kongo was to remain completely

independent, though still embroiled in civil war, thanks to the very force it had fought so long to destroy. This

Portuguese defeat was resounding enough to end all Portuguese ambitions in Kongo's sphere of influence until

the end of the nineteenth century.

The battles between the Kimpanzu and Kinlaza continued plunging the kingdom into a chaos not known in

centuries. The fighting between the two lineages led to the sack of São Salvador in 1678. Ironically, the capital

built by the pact of Mpemba and Mbata was burned to the ground not by the Portuguese or rival African nations

but by its very heirs. The city and hinterland around Mbanza Kongo were depopulated. The population

dispersed into the mountain top fortresses of the rival kings. These were the Mountain of Kibangu east of the

capital and the fortress of the Águas Rosadas, a line founded in the 1680s from descendants of Kinlaza and

Kimpanzu, the region of Mbula or Lemba where a line founded by the Kinlaza pretender, Pedro III ruled; and

Lovota a district in southern Soyo that sheltered a Kimpanzu lineage whose head was D Suzanna de Nóbrega.

Finally, D Ana Afonso de Leão founded her own center on the Mbidizi River at Nkondo and guided her junior

kinsmen to reclaim the country, even as she sought to reconcile the hostile factions.

Page 17: Kingdom of Kongo

In the interim, however, tens of thousands fleeing the conflict or caught up in the battles were deported as

slaves to English, French, Dutch and Portuguese merchants every year. One stream led north to Loango,

whose merchants, known as Vili (Mubires in the period) carried them primarily to merchants from England and

the Netherlands, and others were taken to Luanda where they were sold to Portuguese merchants bound for

Brazil. By the end of the seventeenth century, several long wars and interventions by the now independent

Counts of Soyo (who restyled themselves as Grand Princes) had brought an end to Kongo's golden age.

Turmoil and rebirth [edit]

Kongo in 1701

For nearly forty years, the kingdom of Kongo wallowed in civil war. With São Salvador in ruin, the rival houses

had retreated to bases in Mbula (also known as Lemba) and Kibangu. In the midst of this crisis, a young

woman named Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita appeared claiming that she was possessed by the spirit of Saint

Anthony. She tried to win recognition for a reunification of the country. At first, in 1704 she tried with King Pedro

IV Nusamu a Mvemba who ruled from Kibangu, east of the old capital. When he rebuffed her, she went to his

rival João III Nzuzi a Ntamba at his fortified mountain of Lemba (also known as Mbula) just south of the Congo

River. After being driven away from there, she decided to call her followers to reoccupy the capital with her.

Thousands came, and the city was repopulated. As she became more of a political actor, she became involved

in the rivalry between the kings, eventually choosing to elect Pedro Constantinho da Silva as a new king.

However, she was captured shortly after this by Pedro IV's supporters, tried, condemned for witchcraft and

heresy and burned in July, 1706. The movement continued in control of São Salvador until Pedro IV's army

stormed it in 1709.

18th and 19th centuries [edit]

Page 18: Kingdom of Kongo

Kongo in 1770

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Kongo artists began making crucifixes and other religious objects

that depicted Jesus as an African. Such objects produced by many workshops over a long period (given their

variety) reflect that emerging belief that Kongo was a central part of the Christian world, and fundamental to its

history. A story of the eighteenth century was that the partially ruined cathedral of São Salvador, originally

constructed for the Jesuits in 1549 and eventually elevated to cathedral status, was actually built overnight by

angels. It was called affectionately, Nkulumbimbi. Pope John Paul II would eventually say mass at this

cathedral in 1992.

Manuel II of Kongo succeeded Pedro IV in 1718. Manuel II ruled over a restored and restive kingdom until his

death in 1743. However, Soyo's provincial status in the kingdom, nominal for years, limited Manuel's power.

Nsundi on the north had also more or less become independent, although still claiming to be part of the larger

kingdom and more or less permanently ruled by a Kimpanzu family. Even within the remaining portions of the

kingdom, there were still powerful and violent rivalries. At least one major war took place in the 1730s in the

province of Mbamba. Pedro IV's successor, Garcia IV Nkanga a Mvandu, ruled from 1743 to 1752. Pedro IV's

restoration required his successor's membership in a branch of the Kinlaza faction resident in Matadi that had

sworn loyalty to Pedro IV in 1716. Other Kinlaza branches had developed in the north, at Lemba and Matari,

and in the south along the Mbidizi River in lands that had been ruled by D. Ana Afonso de Leão. De Leão's

lands came to be called the "Lands of the Queen".

The system of alternating succession broke down in 1764, when Álvaro XI, a Kinlaza drove out the Kimpanzu

king Pedro V and took over the throne. Pedro and his successor in Luvata maintained a separate court at

Sembo, and never acknowledged the usurpation. A regent of Pedro's successor claimed the throne in the early

1780s and pressed his claims against a José I, a Kinlaza from the Mbidizi Valley branch of the royal family.

José won the showdown, fought at São Salvador in 1781, a massive battle involving 30,000 soldiers on José's

side alone. To show his contempt for his defeated rival, José refused to allow the soldiers of the other faction to

receive Christian burial. José's power was limited, as he had no sway over the lands controlled by the Kinlaza

faction of Lemba and Matari, even though they were technically of the same family, and he did not follow up his

Page 19: Kingdom of Kongo

victory to extend his authority over the Kimpanzu lands around Luvota. At the same time, the lands around

Mount Kibangu, Pedro IV's original base was controlled, as it had been for the whole eighteenth century by

members of the Água Rosada family, who claimed descent from both the Kimpanzu and Kinlaza.

José ruled until 1785, when he handed power over to his brother Afonso V (1785–87). Afonso's brief reign

ended in his sudden death, rumored to be poisoning. A confused struggle broke out following Afonso's death.

By 1794, the throne ended up in the hands of Henrique I, a man of uncertain factional origin, who arranged for

three parties to divide the succession. Garcia V abrogated the arrangement, proclaiming himself king in 1805.

He ruled until 1830. André II, who followed Garcia V, appeared to have restored the older rotational claims, as

he was from the northern branch of the Kinlaza, whose capital had moved from Matadi to Manga. Andre ruled

until 1842 when Henrique II, from the southern (Mbidizi Valley) branch of the same family, overthrew him.

Andre, however, did not accept his fate and withdrew with his followers to Mbanza Mputo, a village just beyond

the edge of São Salvador, where he and his descendants kept up their claims. King Henrique II, who came to

power after overthrowing André II, ruled Kongo from 1842 until his death in 1857. [17]

In 1839 the Portuguese government, acting on British pressure, abolished the slave trade south of the equator

which had so damaged Central Africa. Human trafficking continued until well into the 1920s, first as an illegal

slave trade, then as contract labour. A commodity trade, at first focused on ivory and wax, but gradually

growing to include peanuts and rubber, replaced the slave trade. This trade revolutionized the economies and

eventually the politics of the whole of Central Africa. In place of the slave trade, largely under the control of

state authorities, thousands, and eventually hundreds of thousands of commoners began carrying goods from

inland to coastal ports. These people managed to share in the wealth of the new trade, and as a result,

commercially connected people constructed new villages and challenged the authorities.

During this period social structure changed as well. New social organizations, makanda emerged.

These makanda, nominally clans descended from common ancestors, were as much trading associations as

family units. These clans founded strings of villages connected by fictional kinship along the trade routes, from

Boma or the coast of Soyo to São Salvador and then on into the interior. A new oral traditions about the

founder of the kingdom, often held to be Afonso I, described the kingdom as originating when the king caused

the clans to disperse in all directions. The histories of these clans, typically describing the travels of their

founder and his followers from an origin point to their final villages, replaced in many areas the history of the

kingdom itself.[18]

Despite violent rivalries and the fracturing of the kingdom, it continued to exist independently well into the 19th

century. The rise of the clans became noticeable in the 1850s at the end of the reign of Henrique II. In 1855 or

1856, two potential kings emerged to contest the succession following his death. Álvaro Ndongo claimed the

throne on behalf of the Kinlaza faction of Matari (ignoring the existence of Andre's group at Mbanza Puto),

calling himself Álvaro XIII and Pedro Lelo claimed the throne on behalf of the Mbidizi Valley faction of the

Page 20: Kingdom of Kongo

Kinlaza from a base at Bembe. Pedro won the contest, thanks to soliciting Portuguese aid, and with their help

his soldiers defeated Álvaro. Like André II, Álvaro XIII did not accept defeat and established his own base at

Nkunga, not far from São Salvador. The Portuguese support which had put Pedro V on the throne had a price,

for when he was crowned Pedro V (he was actually the second king named Pedro V, the first one was the ruler

in the late 1770s) in 1857 he also swore a treaty of vassalage to Portugal. Portugal gained nominal authority

over Kongo, and even constructed a fort in São Salvador to house a garrison.

In 1866, citing excessive costs, the Portuguese government withdrew the garrison. Pedro continued his rule,

however, though he faced increasing rivalry from clan-based trading magnates who drained his authority from

much of the country. The most dangerous of these was Garcia Mbwaka Matu of the town of Makuta. This town

had been founded by a man named Kuvo, who probably obtained his wealth through trade, since he and

Garcia made a great deal of controlling markets. Though this was a great challenge in the 1870s, after Garcia's

death in 1880, Makuta became less problematic.[19]

At the Conference of Berlin in 1884–1885, European powers divided most of Central Africa between them.

Portugal claimed the lion's share of what remained of independent Kongo, however, Portugal was not then in a

position to make "effective occupation." King Pedro V ruled ten more years using the Portuguese to strengthen

his control. King Pedro V voluntarily reaffirmed Kongo's position a Portuguese vassal in 1888. After a revolt

against the Portuguese in 1914, Portugal abolished the title of king of Kongo, ending even symbolic native rule.

The Titular Kings, however, kept using the title at least until 1964, when a dispute over the succession began,

according to the Almanach de Bruxelles.

Military structure [edit]

Congo-Bowmen, the bulk of Kongo's infantry forces, consisted of archers equipped and attired similar to these found by the

Dr. Livingston expedition.

Page 21: Kingdom of Kongo

The kingdom's army consisted of a mass levy of archers, drawn from the general male population, and a

smaller corps of heavy infantry, who fought with swords and carried shields for protection. Portuguese

documents typically referred to heavy infantry, considered nobles, as fidalgos in documents. The bearing of a

shield was also important, as Portuguese documents usually call the heavy infantry adagueiros (shield

bearers). There is weak evidence to suggest revenue assignments paid and supported them. A large number,

perhaps as many as 20,000, stayed in the capital. Smaller contingents lived in the major provinces under the

command of provincial rulers.

After 1600, civil war became far more common than inter-state warfare. The government instituted a draft for

the entire population during wartime, but only a limited number actually served. Many who did not carry arms

instead carried baggage and supplies. Thousands of women supported armies on the move. Administrators

expected soldiers to have two weeks' worth of food upon reporting for campaign duty. Logistical difficulties

probably limited both the size of armies and their capacity to operate for extended periods. Some Portuguese

sources suggested that the king of Kongo fielded armies as large as 70,000 soldiers for a 1665 Battle of

Mbwila, but it is unlikely that armies larger than 20–30,000 troops could be raised for military campaigns. [20]

Troops were mobilized and reviewed on Saint James' Day, 25 July, when taxes were also collected. Subjects

celebrated this day in honor of Saint James and Afonso I, whose miraculous victory over his brother in 1509

was the principal significance of the holiday in the Kongo.

When the Portuguese arrived in Kongo they were immediately added as a mercenary force, probably under

their own commander, and used special-purpose weapons, like crossbows and muskets, to add force to the

normal Kongo order of battle. Their initial impact was muted; Afonso complained in a letter of 1514 that they

had not been very effective in a war he waged against Munza, a Mbundu rebel, the year before. By the 1580s,

however, a musketeer corps, which was locally raised from resident Portuguese and their Kongo-mestiço

(mixed race) offspring, was a regular part of the main Kongo army in the capital. Provincial armies had some

musketeers; for example they served against the Portuguese invading army in 1622. Three hundred and sixty

musketeers served in the Kongo army against the Portuguese at the Battle of Mbwila.

Political structure [edit]

The vata village, referred to as libata in Kongo documents and by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century,

served as Kongo's basic social unit after the family. Nkuluntu, or mocolunto to the Portuguese, chiefs headed

the villages. The one to two hundred citizens per village migrated about every ten years to accommodate soil

exhaustion. Communal land-ownership and collective farms produced harvests divided by families according to

the number of people per household. The nkuluntu received special premium from the harvest before the

division.

Page 22: Kingdom of Kongo

Villages were grouped in wene, small states, led by awene (plural of mwene) or mani to the Portuguese.

Awene lived in mbanza, larger villages or small towns of somewhere between 1,000 to 5,000 citizens. Higher

nobility typically chose these leaders. The king also appointed lower-level officials to serve, typically for three-

year terms, by assisting him in patronage.

Various provinces made up Kongo's higher administrative divisions, with some of the larger and more complex

states, such as Mbamba, divided into varying numbers of sub-provinces, which the administration further

subdivided. The king appointed the Mwene Mbamba, the Duke of Mbamba after the 1590s. The king

technically had the power to dismiss the Mwene Mbamba, but the complex political situation limited the king's

exercise of his power. When the administration gave out European-style titles, large districts like Mbamba and

Nsundi typically became Duchies. The administration made smaller ones, such as Mpemba, Mpangu or a host

of territories north of the capital), Marquisates. Soyo, a complex province on the coast, became a "Country," as

did Nkusu, a smaller and less complex state east of the capital.

Hereditary families controlled a few provinces, most notably the Duchy of Mbata and Country of Nkusu, through

their positions as officers appointed by the king. In the case of Mbata, the kingdom's origin as an alliance

produced this power, exercised by the Nsaku Lau. In the seventeenth century, political maneuvering also

caused some provinces, notably Soyo, but occasionally Mbamba, to be held for very long terms by the same

person. Provincial governments still paid income to the crown and their rulers reported to the capital to give

account.

The kingdom of Kongo was made up of a large number of provinces. Various sources list from six to fifteen as

the principal ones. Duarte Lopes' description, based on his experience there in the late sixteenth century,

identified six provinces as the most important. These were Nsundi in the northeast, Mpangu in the center,

Mbata in the southeast, Soyo in the southwest and two southern provinces of Mbamba and Mpemba.

The king of Kongo also held several kingdoms in at least nominal vassalage. These included the kingdoms of

Kakongo, Ngoyo and Vungu to the north of Kongo. The royal titles, first elaborated by Afonso in 1512, styled

the ruler as "King of Kongo and Lord of the Mbundus" and later titles listed a number of other countries over

which he also ruled as "king". The Mbundu kingdoms included Ndongo (sometimes erroneously mentioned as

"Angola"), Kisama and Matamba. All of these kingdoms were south of Kongo and much farther from the king's

cultural influence than the northern kingdoms. Still later eastern kingdoms such as Kongo dia Nlaza were

named in the ruler's titles as well.

Senior officials chose the Mwene Kongo or king who served for life following their choice. Electors varied over

time, and there was probably never a completely fixed list; rather, senior officials who exercised power did so.

Mbata was often held to be an elector because of the original constitutional position that province held. The

ruler of Vunda, whose lands lay near Mbanza Kongo, was also often named as an elector and certainly played

a role in the coronation ceremonies. The ruler of Soyo also cast a vote in the election. Many kings tried to

Page 23: Kingdom of Kongo

choose their successor, not always successfully. One of the central problems of Kongo history was the

succession of power, and as a result the country was disturbed by many rebellions and revolts.

Economic structure [edit]

The universal currency in Kongo and just about all of Central Africa was shell money known locally as nzimbu.

One hundred nzimbu could purchase a hen; 300 a garden hoe and 2000 a goat. Slaves, which were always a

part of Kongo's economy but increased in trade after contact with Portugal were also bought in nzimbu. A

female slave could be purchased (or sold) for 20,000 nzimbu and male slave for 30,000. Nzimbu shells were

fished from island of Luanda and kept as a royal monopoly. The smaller shells were filtered out so that only the

large shells entered the marketplace as currency. The Kongo would not trade for gold or silver, but nzimbu

shells, often put in pots in special increments, could buy anything. Kongo's "money pots" held increments of 40,

100, 250, 400, 500. For especially large purchases, there were standardized units such as a funda (1,000 big

shells), Lufuku (10,000 big shells) and a kofo (20,000 big shells).

The Kongo administration regarded their land as renda, revenue assignments. The Kongo government exacted

a monetary head tax for each villager, which may well have been paid in kind as well, forming the basis for the

kingdom's finances. The king granted titles and income, based on this head tax. Holders reported annually to

the court of their superior for evaluation and renewal.

Provincial governors paid a portion of the tax returns from their provinces to the king. Dutch visitors to Kongo in

the 1640s reported this income as twenty million nzimbu shells. In addition, the crown collected its own special

taxes and levies, including tolls on the substantial trade that passed through the kingdom, especially the

lucrative cloth trade between the great cloth producing region of the "Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza," the

eastern regions, called "Momboares" or "The Seven" in Kikongo, and the coast, especially the Portuguese

colony of Luanda.

Crown revenues supported the church, paid by revenue assignments based on royal income. For

example, Pedro II (1622–1624)detailed the finances of his royal chapel by specifying that revenues from

various estates and provincial incomes would support it. Baptismal and burial fees also supported local

churches.

When King Garcia II of Kongo|Garcia II gave up the island of Luanda and its royal fisheries to the Portuguese

in 1651, he switched the kingdom's currency to raffia cloth. The cloth was "napkin-sized" and called mpusu. In

the 17th century, 100 mpusu could buy one slave implying a value greater than that of the nzimbu currency.

Art of the Kongo Kingdom [edit]

The Kongo peoples are divided into many subgroups including the Yombe, Vili, Beembe, Sundi, and others but

share a common language, Kikongo. These groups have many cultural similarities, including that they all

Page 24: Kingdom of Kongo

produce a huge range of sculptural art. The most notable feature of this region’s figurative style is the relative

naturalism of the representation of both humans and animals. "The musculature of face and body is carefully

rendered, and great attention is paid to items of personal adornment and scarification. Much of the region’s art

was produced for social and political leaders such as the Kongo king." [21]

Social structure [edit]

Matrilineal succession [edit]

The central Bantu groups which comprised most of the Kongo kingdom passed on status through matrilineal

succession.[22]

See also [edit]

Kongo Civil War

List of Rulers of Kongo

House of Kinlaza

House of Kimpanzu

African military systems to 1800

African military systems after 1800

Bibliography [edit]

‹ The template below (Empty section) is being considered for possible deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.›

This section is empty. You can help

by adding to it. (April 2012)

Primary Sources [edit]

Documentary collections [edit]

Brásio, António. Monumenta Missionaria Africana 15 volumes. Lisbon:

Agência Geral das Colonias and others, 1952–1988.

Cuvelier, Jean and Louis Jadin. L'ancien Congo après les archives

romaines Brussels, 1954.

Jadin, Louis. L'ancien Congo et l'Angola 1639–1655 d'après les archives

romaines, Portugaises, Néerlandaises et Espagnoles 3 vols., Brussels:

Institut historique belge de Rome, 1975.

Paiva Manso, Levy Jordão. História de Congo (Documentos) Lisbon, 1877.

Books and Documents [edit]

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Anguiano, Juan Mateo d'. Missiones Capuchinas en Africa. ed.

Buenaventura de Carrocera, 2 vols., Madrid, 1950).

Atri, Marcellino d'. mod ed. Carlo Toso, L'anarchia congolese nel sec. XVII.

La relazione inedita di Marcellino d'Atri. Genoa: Bozzi, 1984.

W.Holman Bentley, Pioneering on the Congo, London, 1900.

Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. História geral das guerras angolanas

(1680–81). ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols.

Lisbon, 1942–44 (reprinted, 1972).

Carli, Dionigio da Piacenza. Il Moro transportado nell'inclita città di

Venezia. Bassano, 1687.

Carli, Dionigio da Piacenza. Viaggio del Padre Michael Angelo de Guattini

da Reggio et del P. Dionigi de Carli da Piacensa...Regno del Congo.

(Bologna, 1674). Mod. ed.Francesco Surdich, Milan, 1997. French

translation, Michel Chandeigne, Paris, 2006.

[Cardoso, Mateus] História do reino de Congo ed. António Brásio, Lisbon,

1969. French translation François Bontinck, 1972.

Cavazzi da Montecuccolo, Giovanni Antonio. Istorica Descrizione de tre

regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola (Bologna, 1687). Portuguese translation

by Graziano Saccardo da Luggazano, 2 vols., Lisbon, 1965.

Dapper, Olfried. Naukeurige beschrijvinge der Africa

gewesten. (Amsterdam, 1668) English translation, John Ogilby, London,

1670.

Franco, António. Synopsis Annalium societatis Jesu in Lusitania ab anno

1540 usque ad annum 1725. Augsburg, 1726.

Gallo, Bernardo da. "Conto delle Villacazione Missionale..." pub in Carlo

Toso, ed. Una pagina poco nota di storia congolese Rome: Edizioni pro

Sanctitate, 1999.

Lucca, Lorenzo da. Letters, mod. trans. Jean Cuvelier, Relations sur le

Congo du Père Laurent de Lucques. Brussels, 1954.

Merolla da Sorrento, Girolamo. Breve e succinta relatione del viaggio nel

Congo. Naples, 1692, 2nd ed. 1726.

Montesarchio, Girolamo da. "Viaggio al Gongho (1669)." mod. ed.

Calogero Piazza, La prefetura apostolica del Congo alla metà del XVII

secolo. La Relazione inedita di Girolamo da Montesarchio. Milan, 1976.

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Pavia, Andrea da. "Viaggio Apostolico" pub. in Carlo Toso, ed. "Viaggio

apostolico in Africa de Andrea da Pavia (inedito del sec. XVII). Rome,

2000.

Pigafetta, Filippo. Relatione del Regno di Congo et delle circonvince

contrade tratta dalli scritti e ragionamenti di Oduarte Lopez

Portuguese. Rome, 1591. English translation, Abraham Hartwell, 1594;

Ann Hutchinson, 1888.

Roma, Giovanni Francesco da. Breve relatione del successo della

missione de' frati minori cappuccini del serafico P. S. Francesco al regno

del Congo. Rome, 1648 (2nd ed. 1649). French translation, François

Bontinck, 1964.

Zucchelli, Antonio da Gradisca. Relatione del viaggio e missione di Congo

nell'Ethipia inferiore occidentale Venice, 1712.

Secondary Literature [edit]

Bouveignes, Olivier de Les anciens rois du Congo, Namur: Grands Lacs,

1948.

David Birmingham, Trade and Conquest in Angola. Oxford and London:

Oxford University Press, 1966.

Ann Hilton, The Kingdom of Kongo Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982.

Karl Edvard Laman ,The Kongo. 4 vols. 1954–68.

Graziano Saccardo, Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei

Cappuccini 3 vols., Venice, 1982–83.

John K. Thornton , The Kingdom of Kongo: Civil War and Transition, 1641–

1718.

John K. ThorntonThe Kongolese Saint Anthony: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita

and the Antonian Movement, 1683–1706 Cambridge University Press,

1998.

John K. Thornton. *"The Origins and Early History of the Kingdom of

Kongo," International Journal of African Historical Studies34/1 (2001): 89–

120.

Jan Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna, Madison, WI, University of

Wisconsin Press, 1966.

References [edit]

Page 27: Kingdom of Kongo

This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help toimprove this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2009)

1. ̂  Tshilemalema, Mukenge (2001). Culture and Customs of the Congo.

p. 18.

2. ̂  Mbanza-Kongo was named São Salvador late 16th century; re-named

back to Mbanza-Kongo in 1975

3. ̂  Thornton, John (1977). Demography and History in the Kingdom of

Kongo, 1550–1750. The Journal of African History, Vol. 18, No. 4. p. 526.

4. ̂  Schemmel, B. (2008). "Traditional Polities". Retrieved 24 January 2008.

5. ^ a b Thornton, John; Linda M. Heywood (2007). Central Africans, Atlantic

Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660. p. 57.

6. ̂  Fryer, Peter (2000). Rhythms of Resistance: African Musical Heritage in

Brazil. p. 158.

7. ̂  Elikia M'Bokolo, Afrique Noire: Histoire et Civilisations, jusqu'au

XVIIIème sicècle, vol. I, Paris: Hatier, 1995

8. ̂  "Bundu dia Kongo". Global Security. Retrieved 26 December 2007.

9. ̂  John Thornton "The Origins and Early History of the Kingdom of Kongo,

c. 1350–1550" in International Journal of African Historical Studies (2001),

p.110

10. ̂  Mateus Cardoso, "História do Reino de Congo (1624)," (ed. António

Brásio,)Chapter 15, fol. 16

11. ̂  Gates, Louis; Anthony Appiah (1999). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the

African and African American Experience. p. 1105.

12. ̂  Aguilar, Mario Ignacio (2008). "Kongo Religion". Retrieved 24 January

2008.

13. ^ a b Encyclopedia of World Biography (2008). "Nzinga Nkuwu". Retrieved

24 January 2008.

14. ̂  Lopes, David (1 January 2002). "The Destruction of the Kingdom of

Kongo". Retrieved 24 January 2008.

15. ̂  Atmore, Anthony and Oliver (2001). Medieval Africa, 1250–1800. p. 171.

16. ̂  NA Neth, Staten Generaal 5157 Session 27 Oct 1623.

17. ̂  Thornton, John K. (2000). "Kongo's Holy City" in Africa's Urban Past.

p. 75.

Page 28: Kingdom of Kongo

18. ̂  Thornton, "Early History".

19. ̂  Thornton, John (2000). Kongo's Incorporation into Angola: A Perspective

from Kongo in A Africa e a Instalação do Sistema Colonial (c. 1885-c.

1930). pp. 354–57.

20. ̂  Atmore, Anthony and Oliver (2001). Medieval Africa, 1250–1800. p. 178.

21. ̂  Siegmann, William C.; Dumouchelle, contributions by Kevin D.

(2009). African art a century at the Brooklyn Museum. Brooklyn, NY:

Brooklyn Museum. ISBN 9780872731639.

22. ̂  Boy-Wives and Female Husbands: Studies of African Homosexualities ,

edited by Stephen Murray & Will Roscoe. Published by St. Martin's Press

in 1998. p. 146

External links [edit]

L`Observateur Kongo

Kongo people information

Kongo religion

The Story of Africa: Kongo  — BBC World Service

Categories: 

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