Lexical phonology: An Account of Simple Past and Past Perfect Tenses in Tiv and
Igbo
By
Waya D.T and Eze, Chinwe (Mrs)
Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, UNN
Wayatarhom.unn.edu.ng/ [email protected]
Abstract
This paper examines the theory of lexical phonology as it deals with the relationship among phonology, morphology and lexicon. The study considers the nature of lexical phonology as developed by Paul kiparsky and Mohanan, k.P in early 1980s as background. It basic claim is that, morphological processes and many phonological rules are carried out at the lexicon. We therefore implore a descriptive approach in evaluating the wider context use of lexical phonology. Since lexical phonology is a theory about the organization of grammar, we delves on the lexical and post-lexical rules, the former interact with morphological processes while the later is that which apply in constituent larger than word. The study explains three levels of lexical phonology: levels1, 2 and the post- lexical level to account for the simple past and past perfect tenses in Tiv and Igbo respectively. In light of the foregoing, we noticed that the morphological and phonological rules are paired at various levels, in which the lexical rules are cyclic in nature while the post lexical level is discovers not being cyclical. The Tiv simple past tense uses prefix while the Igbo shows suffix. The past perfect tense in Tiv and Igbo indicates the use of prefix and relatively two suffixes in its formation. In summary, the theory of lexical phonology is considered important in the formation of different words and larger structures in languages.
1.1 Background to the Study
The theory of lexical phonology, which forms theme of this study was developed
by Paul Kiparsky and K.P Mohanan and first introduced in monographs appearing in the
early 1980s (Kiparsky: 1982, Mohanan 1982). The good number of phonologists that
have begun to work within or in response to the theory in the short time since its
appearance is worthy of remark. One reason that lexical phonology has sparked so much
interest much surely is that it now supplies tools for analysis and new ways of
approaching recalcitrant problems. But another part of its lies in the way it comes as a
natural outgrowth of and response to so many of the major trends in phonology and
morphology in the last 15 years.
Lexical phonology is a theory about the organization of grammar. In particular, it
deals with the relationship among phonology, morphology and lexicon, its basic claim is
that all morphological processes and many phonological ones are carried out in the
lexicon. Kiparsy (1982:134) opine on this view by demonstrating that phonological
rules fall into two classes:
(1) Lexical Rules. This may interact with morphological rules.
(2) Post lexical Rules, which may not interact with morphological lexicon and all
post lexical rules in a separate phonological component that is ordered after the
rules of syntax.
By definition, any phonological rule that applies in constituents larger than words must
be post lexical, since such constitute are created by the syntax.
The purpose is to demonstrate some ideas that come together in lexical phonology
and provide an overview of the model itself. In this, we shall be considering the already
well trodden ground, for kipasky, Mohanan and others in their contributions to lexical
phonology, However we trust that, this study will find it useful to have in hand an
exposition of the different facets of the model and recent challenges and modification it
has undergone. We shall point challenges or difficulties inherent in some or all version of
the model in the course of the study.
2.1 Conceptual Studies
Crystal (1991:199) defines lexical phonology as “a theory of phonology in which
morphology and phonological rules are brought together with a single framework”.
Bright (1992:327) on the other hand sees it as a theory about the organization of grammar
which deals with relationship among phonology, morphology and lexicon. Going by the
above definitions, we can infer that lexical phonology, morphophonemic rules and pure
phonological rules come into play in order to form words (lexicon) in a language. The
lexicon plays central as well as productive roles in the theory. It consists of levels which
are the domain for certain phonological or morphological processes.
These phonological rules are categorized into two: the lexical rules (i.e rules that
may interact with morphological rules) and post-lexical rules (i.e rules which may not
interact with morphological rules) Bright (1992:327) while explaining how to place both
the lexical and post-lexical phonological rules in the lexicon, and all post lexical rules in
a separate phonological component that is ordered after the rules of syntax, from the
Bright’s view, it then implies that lexical rules apply to words which the post lexical rules
apply to grammatical units larger than words.
Then, during the word formation process, the rules that underlie the formation of
words in morphology are directly paired with phonological rules which are grouped
together at various levels. In this view, Katamba (1989:257) point out that, “the output of
each morphological rule is cycled through the phonology so that the relevant
phonological rules of that level are applied to it”. These levels are shown in the figure
1.1 below
Underlying representation
Level 1 morphology phonology
Level 2 morphology phonology
Level n morphology phonology
Lexical representation
rules which morphological
information apply here are
called “lexical rules
L
E
X
I
C
O
N
Syntax – post – lexical phonology rules which requires access
to syntactic information or
no grammatical information
at all, apply here – they are
called a ‘post –lexical rules’.
Adapted from Kisparsky as lifted in Katamba (1984:257).
Looking at the table above, we can see that both the morphological and phonological
rules applying to lexicon are cyclical in nature. One of the main claims of lexical
phonology is that both inflectional and derivational word formation processes can display
on a series of linked levels also called STRATA rules. The rules apply in the form of
cycle in these orders
(a) application to the root / based words.
(b) outward application to the affixes – nearest to the root and then
(c) outward to the layer of affixes.
Katamba (1989:258) demonstrated this theory of word formation to “an onion with the
root of the word as the core and level 1 as the inner layer, levels 2 as the outer layer and
post – lexical phonology as the skin on the outside”. The implication of the above
illustration is that there is level ordering in lexical phonology, however, Booij (1987) as
cited in Katamba (1989:329) contend that level ordering seems out to be relevant since:
(a) is at most a parameter
(b) It has been argued that restriction on affix order also follow from independently
motivated principles, such as the restoration that non-native affixes attach only to
non-native stems.
Also important to note is that the application for lexical rules is controlled by what Bright
(1992:330) calls strict cycle condition (SCC). The need for SCC is for the entire feature
changing cycle phonological rules to apply only in derived environments which may be
derived morphologically or phonologically. However, Katamba (1989:258) opines that
word formation rule in lexical phonology is like this:
Morphology phonology
Insert A / [Y-Z] x applying relevant phonological rule. This means that morpheme
‘A’ can be inserted in the environment after or before a root word in order to derive a
word. For example
Insert [past] / [fid - ]v /fid + past /v [fed]
feed + past ‘fed’
2.3. Levels of Lexical Phonology
Katamba (1989:258) states that in lexical phonology it is assumed that the lexicon
has internal structure. It is not merely a list. Furthermore, it is assumed that the structure
of the lexicon is HIERARCHICAL. Halle and Mohanan (1985) argue for a four level
morphology. However the consensus stands on the ground that, the theory should be as
simple as possible. Katamba (1989) further observe that nothing would be gained by
putting each pair of phonological and morphological rules found in a language on a level
of their own. But determining the minimal number of strata – that is sufficient to account
for all the wrinkles in the data is not easy.
At the centre of a word, there may be an UNDERIVED LEXICAL item as shown
in [fig1.1].Underived lexical items consist of a single morpheme. i.e stand, girl, boy,. No
word formation of any kind is used to produce such words. They appear in the lexicon
with phonological, grammatical and semantic properties with which they surface.
2.3.1 Level 1 of Lexical Phonology
Level I contain bound morpheme. Katamba (1989:259) illustrated it as in ‘ab’ and
‘duct’ in ‘abduct’ which cannot occur independently but can always be attached to some
other form. i.e
(a) pertain, contain, detain
(b) perceive, conceive, deceive
‘per-‘, ‘con-‘ and ‘de-‘ are prepositions, and the bases – tain and – ceive. None of these
forms can occur in isolation. However in Latin, ‘per’ was a preposition meaning ‘by’ by
mean of’ but, it is doubtful if it is relevance in contemporary English speakers. Level I
rule would be used to state the vowel changes as in [1.2]
Present past perfective
[i] [æ] [ ۸]
Sing sang [has] sung
[ai] [ּכ ] [ ּכ]
fight fought (has) fought
[ai] [au] [i]
drive drove (has) driven
The strong verbs undergo changes in the root itself. It shows the form in [1.2] different
sub regularities. The regular affixation processes which apply to a verb like walk –
walked - (has) walked. Having received their past and perfective affixes at level 1, the
verb in [1.2] cannot undergo the more regular in verbal affixation processes which apply
at level 2. According to Katamba (1989:261).The theory stipulates that “all level I rules
must precede all level 2 rules which, in turn, precede all post – lexical rules”. This shows
that its particular rule applies at level 1, it will always have precedence over those rules
which are at level 2; if a particular rule is at level 2, it will always precede any rules
which apply post-lexically. He further point out that, ordering of levels has serious
implications for the way in which rules interact. For instance [1.3]
Nouns Verbs
food /fu:d/ feed /fi:d/
blood /bl ۸ d/ bleed /bli:d/
bath /ba:θ/ bathe /beið/
In [1.3], verbs are deriving from nouns, level 2 rules are applied. One rule is liable to all
the examples that change the vowel. It is also observes that where the final consonant is
voiceless fricative, another level rule operate to bring about a-voiced fricative. It is
interesting to note that the voicing of the final fricative is a phonological rule which
applies else where in level 1 morphology. It also plays a role in the formation of plural
form of certain nouns. [1.4]
Singular plural
[f] [v]
hoof hooves
wife wives
Katamba (1986:252) also demonstrates the morphological processes which involved in
derivation of nouns from adjectives. Phonologically, the ‘th’ suffix is added, and bring
about a change in vowel quantity from //, to /e/, /ּכ:/ to /e/ and /ai/ to /i/ as in
Adjective Noun [1.5]
Long /l ŋ / length /leŋθ /
Strong /strبŋ/ strength /streŋθ/
Broad /brּכ:d / breadth /bredθ/
Wide/waid/ width /widθ/
All Affixes at level I are not restricted to affecting the segmental phonology of the form
to which they are attached. They can also affect stress. For example.Strong mode suffixes
like ‘– ity’ attract stress to the immediate preceding syllable and weak mode suffixes like
‘–al’ attract stress on immediate preceding syllable, only if it not light, when light, stress
is placed on the syllable to the left of – al. i.e.[1;6]
electric – electricity
/I ‘lektrik/ / I,lek‘trist/ Strong suffix - ity
Adjective - adjectival
/’ædziktiv/ /ædzek-1taivl
Medicine medicinal
/‘medsn/ /me’disinl/
accident accidental
/æksi’dent/ /æksi’dentl
2.3.2 Level 2 of Lexical Phonology
According to Meyer (1999) what makes lexical phonology lexical lies in the fact
that when one has the knowledge of lexical phonology it is similar to having the
knowledge of lexicon itself. With the knowledge, we see that level 1 rules are normally
more idiosyncratic than level 2. While level I affixes is unclear, the phonological effect is
unsystematic and their very applicability is erratic, with many forms which on the face of
it ought to undergo a particular level I rule, failing to do so for apparent reason. At level 2
rules which have fewer exceptions and phonological effect and semantic properties are
considered more predictable. For example the suffix-er is a traditional level 2 affix. It
turn verb into genitive nominal meaning. i.e.
read – er
preach – er
However, some genitives are not formed by suffixing –er. Katamba (1989:269) refers to
such process as “conversion or Zero suffixation’ for example Judge – Judge, cook – cook
– nevertheless, certain irregular nominalization take place at level I and block the regular
level 2 process of adding – to genitive case. For instance, defend – defendant,
Phonologically, the presence of –er ending has no repercussion. It does not affect stress
pattern as noticed in level 1. The same applies to level 2 derivational suffixes such as -ful,
- ly, ‘ness. They show no arbitrary restrictions on class or forms to which they attached.
Kiparsky (1973, 1982b) and koutsouda (1974) assert that, elsewhere condition
principle can be stated informally thus;
“if two rules compete for the same territory, the more specific rule applies first,
blocking the more general rule”.
heavy -al
light
heavy
This means that putting an inflectional or derivational process at level 1, it then means
that, it is subject to a restricted rule which can pre-empt the application of more general
level 2 rules. For instance elsewhere condition ensures that the past tense forms of strong
(irregular, verbs like those in [i.2] belongs to level 1 while the more general rules
deriving the past tense forms of weak (regular) verbs belong to level 2
(a) [sing + past] sœŋ] (level 1)
Pre-empts regular past tense formation at level 2
(b) [love + past]
(i) no access to level 1 morphology: so miss any level I word formation
rules [l ۸ v + d ] - [l ۸ vd]] (level 2 regular past)
love + ed - loved – (zero suffixation applies here)
Where a verb is derived from a noun ending in ‘-ink’ or ‘-ing’, expected irregularity is
lost. Lexical phonology therefore offers a simple explanation for these facts in which the
strong verb past takes place at level 1, while the derived verb from noun does not exist at
level I rather at level 2. (derivation of verbs from nouns occurs at level 2)
Katamba (1989) assert that elsewhere condition is useful in describing the formation of
the plural nouns. It is pertinent to note that certain words are not available for plural
formation rules of any kind because they occur as plural underived lexical items in the
lexicon. Kiparsky (1982b) cited in Katamba (1989:272) suggest that each lexical entry be
deemed to be rule has a special kind of lexical identity rule where the non-derived lexical
item is the input and that same non-derived lexical items emerges as the output. for
example, the derivation as for cattle or police.
SD SC
[[police /N + Pl/ - [[police /N + pl/
[cattle/ N + pl/ - [[ cattle / N + pl/ There is a generalization that level I affixes are
placed nearer the root than level 2 affixes
[[ level 2 aff.] [ level 1 aff.] root [ level 1 aff. ] [level 2 aff.]]
For example, suffix-ian, nominalizing suffix-an, each of them attract stress on the
syllable immediately proceeding it. This is also rooted in – ic, -ity. Katamba 1989:273).
2.3.3 The Post – Lexical Rules
Wikipedia define post-lexical rules as a phonological rule that applies in
constituents larger than words. Katamba (1989:274) opines that once sentences have been
formed, level I and level 2 rules of lexical phonology cannot apply any more. But that
does not necessarily render words secure from phonological modification. The sounds of
individual words can still be modified by rules which apply in “connected speech”
affecting phrases or longer chunks of utterances. Unlike lexical rule, post-lexical rule are
not restricted to forms derived at the same stage a derivation. They can affect forms
derived at earlier stage.
He justifies this phenomenon in floating tone in associative constructions in Mbui
described by Hyman and Tadedjeu (1976:61) when the output reaches level I and 2 no
plural formation rule can affect it since it already bears the mark of plural.
Mbui
(a) bәk“crabs” bndui “husband”
(b) bәk bә sә- the crabs of the bird.
When both “crabs” and ‘husbands” are used in isolation, they have LOW - HIGH tone.
However, when in associative construction these words comes together with a high tone
like [seŋ] as the second noun, [ba] is actualized with underlying high tone after crabs but
downstepped to H after husband. The down- stepping is post lexical rule since it only
occurs in the associative phrase and is not found in words in isolation.
The typical fast casual speech phenomena or elision and assimilation which occurs in
many languages are mostly post-lexical (a) bad boy (b) [bæb bͻi ]
3.1 Using the Lexical Phonology to Account for Simple Past and Past Perfect
Tenses in Tiv and Igbo
In English language, the [-ed] is use as past tense marker. It is
attached to root word based on some morphological and phonological rules which
operate cyclically. [-ed] may be realized as
[-t] occurs after a voiceless sound exception of ’t’
[-d] occurs after a voiced sound
[-id] occurs after‘t’ or ‘d’ speech sound
Following the rules of word formation in lexical phonology as studied by Katamba
(1989:258) thus: morphology;
Insert A/ [y-z] x apply relevant phonological rules.
In English, the plural formation of noun takes different form depending on the type of
noun whose plurals are being formed.
(a) The regular plural nouns is with plural marker /-s/ which may be realized
differently as;
[-s] occur after voiceless
[-z] occurs after voiced which are not sibilant
[-iz] occurs after sibilant sounds
Lexical rule: Insert plural /[y-]n apply rule in phonological rules
(b) formation of irregular plural norms as –ren, -a, -i,
(c) Inherent, plural nouns which occurs as underived lexical items in the lexicon.
We can now illustrate these ideas in Tiv and Igbo respectively.
3.2.1 Formation of the Simple Past in Tiv and Igbo
In this section, we shall experiment the theory of lexical phonology in the formation of
simple and past perfect tenses in Tiv and Igbo.
3.2.1.1 The Tiv Simple Tenses
In Tiv, [a-] prefix is use for the formation of simple past tense. The symbol [aC-]
means that the past tense morpheme must be a prefix with a segment ‘a’ attached to the
initial consonant base word. This means that [a-] is attached to the verbs for the formation
of past tense. Using Katamba (1989), ideal about lexical phonology.
Morphology phonology [1.7]
lexical rule: insert A/[y-]v apply relevant phonological rule(s)
(i) insert [past] / [yem] v / past + yem/r [ayem] went
yem + past ayem
(ii) insert [past] / [ya-]v /past+ya/v [aye] - ate
ya + past aye
In the formation of the simple perfect tense in Tiv, affixes are attached to root verbs. In
example (ii) the attachment of ‘a’ for past tense influences the ‘ya’ to be realized as ‘ye’
as in ‘aye’-(ate)
3.2.1.2 The Igbo Simple Past Tenses
On the other hand, in Igbo, an /-rv/ suffix is used for the formation of past tense.
The /-rv/ means that the past tense morpheme must be a suffix with ‘r’ as constantly
followed by any of the Igbo vowels. This implies that the /-rv/ suffix is attached after the
root of verbs for the formation of their past tenses.
[1.8]
(i) insert [past] / [ga-] v ga + past/v – [gara] went
ga + past gara
(ii) insert [past] / [ri-]v /ri + past / v – [riri] ate
ri + past riri
(iii) insert [past] / [de-]v /de + past / v [dere] wrote
de + past dere
Both Tiv and Igbo word processes illustrated above occurs at level 1
3.3 Formation of the Past Perfect Tenses in Tiv and Igbo
In the case of Tiv, in the formation of the past perfect tense, affixes are attached
to the root verbs. These affixes consist of prefix which must be a vowel /a/ and two
suffixes with one preceded by the root of the verb as a vowel and the second suffixes ‘ki,
kera ,kwagh,’ in variance.
Following Katamba’s (1989:258) assertion, which states that, In lexical
phonology “rules are made to apply in a cycle, first to the root then outward to the outer
layer of affixes”. In the formation of past perfect tense in Tiv as way as Igbo, the root of
the verb stands as the CORE. In Tiv, one of the affixes nearest to the root word (usually
a vowel) applies on level 1. While in Igbo, the prefix ‘a-’ or ‘e-’, and one of the suffixes
nearest to the root (usually a vowel) apply at level 1. At level 2, the Tiv suffix (-kera, -ki -
kwagh) attaches itself to the verb to form past perfect tense. While in Igbo, at level 2
shows the suffixes nearest to the outermost layer as /-la/ The formations in the two
languages follows up from Katamba’s rule about order of affixes thus [[ level, affix root
[level1 aff. [level 2 aff.]]
However at this point it is worthy to note that the selection of affixes at level, as
explained above is strictly phonological conditioned. For details analysis
The Formation of past Perfect tense in Tiv as shown below:
[1.9]
(i) [[a-] yem [-e-] [-kela] ] [ayeamkela] has gone
a + yem + e + kela ayeemkela
(ii) [[a-] ye [-e-] [-ki]] [ayeeki] has eaten
a + ye + e + ki ayeeki
(iii) [[a-] nger [-e-] [-kwagh]] [angeerkwagh] has written
a + nger + e + kwagh angeerkwagh
The Igbo Past Perfect Tense Formation as Shown below;
[2.0]
(i) [-a] ga [-a-] [-la]] [agaala] has gone
a + ga + a la agaala
(ii) [[e-yri [-e-] [-la] [eriela] has eaten
e + ri + e + la [eriela]
(iii) [[e-] de [-e-] [-la] [edeela] has written
e+de+e+la [edeela]
4.1 Summary of Findings
In the course of this study, we noticed that, phonology interrelate with lexicon and
morphology on the other hand, as way as syntax. Lexical phonology takes a stand which
recognizes lexicon not as appendix to grammar but a central component of grammar
which contains not only idiosyncratic properties of words and morphemes, but also the
formation and phonological rules. The morphological and phonological rules are paired at
various levels; level1, level2 and post-lexical level respectively.
The study observed the fact that, the lexical rules are cyclic in nature. The output
of each set of word-formation rule is submitted to the phonological rules of that level. We
further note that, lexical rules only apply to word formed through the lexicon at which
they apply.
Thirdly, the ordering of strata (levels) determines the sequencing of
morphological processes in word formation. Level one rule precedes level two rules;
lexical rules precede post-lexical rules.
Fourthly, the output of each lexical stratum of derivation is a word. The post-
lexical rules are not Cyclic in nature. Distinction is briefly made between lexical and
post lexical rules.
Since lexical phonology looks at phonology in the wider context of use, we have
justified this in the formation of the simple past and past perfect tenses in Tiv and Igbo
respectively. At the simple past tenses: The Tiv uses the prefix /aC-/ (consonant) while
Igbo formation is with /-rv/ which attaches to itself to the root verbs – (ga, ri and de). The
past perfect tenses in both Tiv and Igbo exhibits the use of prefix and two suffixes with
one proceeded by the root of the verb as a vowel and suffix (-ki, -kera, and -kwagh in
Tiv. While [-la] morpheme in Igbo). Therefore the outermost layer is demonstrated at
level2, while prefix and the suffixes nearest to the root apply on level1.
5.1 Conclusions
In conclusion, the lexical phonological theory helps so much in the formation of
different form or classes of words in different languages (as illustrated in Tiv and Igbo)
of the world. Therefore, the importance of the concept in the formation and realization of
words can not be over emphasized since it enriches the vocabulary as way as helps in the
manipulation of language in a wide context.
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