Download pdf - Networking vs. rote learning strategies in concept acquisition

Networking vs. Rote Learning Strategies in Concept Acquisition James Canelos William Taylor James Altschuld

James Canelos is research associate in the College of Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, Univer- sity Park, PA 16802. William Taylor and James Altschuld are assistant professors of education at Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210.

Following presentation of a slide-tape instructional program, the performance of subjects in two learning strategy groups- networking and rote- was compared to a control group on a concept learning task and a spatial learning task. Networking proved more effective than rote learning and the control group on both tasks; networking also allowed for improved retention over time [in this case, one week]. This article reviews some of the research on learning strategies and suggests how the network strategy can enhance learning in academic situations.

ECTJ, VOL. 30, NO. 3, PAGES 141-149 ISSN 0148-5806

This study examined the effects of two content-independent learning strategies, the Networking Strategy and the Rote Strategy, and two levels of visual complexity, simple line drawings and color illustrations, when subjects received a slide-tape instructional program about the human heart. Learning strategies differed in the amount of cognitive processing they caused during learning. The slide sets in the instructional programs differed in the complexity of visual information. The delayed retention of the instructional content was also of interest in this study.

LITERATURE AND RATIONALE

A number of experimental research efforts in instruction and learning have demonstrated an increasing interest in the practical applications of cognitive learning strategies (O'Neil, 1978; O'Neil & Spielberger, 1979; Canelos, 1982; Dansereau, 1978; Dwyer, 1978). This applied research, which has evolved from basic research in experimental psychology and cognitive psychology, has stressed cognitive learning strategies of a content-independent nature. The content- independent learning strategy, as the name implies, is relatively independent of instructional content. Instructional technol- ogy learning strategies in the past have tended to be content specific, or were em- bedded in the instructional environment. The operational purpose of the content-inde-

142 ECTJ FALL1982

pendent learning strategy is to improve the learner's general information processing (e.g., learning) by facilitating the following cognitive operations:

1. abstraction--separating relevant from ir- relevant information;

2. encoding--assimilating relevant information into the existing cognitive structure; and

3. retrieval--recalling available information in the cognitive structure for a given mental operation.

A content-independent learning strategy, as described here, operationally relates to the cognitive (e.g., mental) manipulations of to-be-learned information by the learner (Dansereau, Long, McDonald, Actkinson, Ellis, Collins, Williams, & Evans, 1975).

Content-independent learning strategy studies that use mental imagery as the basis of strategies for experimental groups have demonstrated significant increases in learning over control groups (Paivio, 1969; An- derson & Hidde, 1971; Persensky & Senter, 1970; Rasco, Tennyson, & Boutwell, 1975). Following a review of the literature on mental imagery and learning, Hilgard and Bower (1975) concluded that learning strategies instructing learners to form vivid mental imagery of information gave experimental groups a significant learning advantage over control groups, usually by mean differences of 1.5 to 3 times greater. Rigney (1978) investigated the relationship between cognitive representational systems (e.g., imagery, sequential, dual-coding), innate information processing strategies, and training learners on specific learning strategies, and concluded that a learning strategy approach to improving student learning would be effective in school learning situations. Rigney (1978) concluded:

Self-imposed cognitive strategies are always al- ternatives to instructional systems with built-in instructional strategies of which the student is never aware. Teaching students how to learn and how to retrieve what has been learned, as the primary objective, might be done best by an instructional system, and having been taught these skills, students might profit more from an instructional system with the primary objective of teaching content. (p. 170)

While learners can be taught to use specific information processing strategies that

relate operationally to the mental representational systems, a number of naturally occurring information processing strategies have been identified. Gagne (1977) consid- ers naturally occurring learning strategies to be an acquired skill. These learning or cognitive strategies regulate all aspects of information processing. Analogous to the operations of an executive program in a computer, the learner's naturally acquired information processing strategies have a di- rect effect on the abstraction, encoding, and retrieval of information. As learners develop their store of intellectual skills and verbal knowledge, they are developing methods of self-regulating internal processes related to learning (Gagne & Briggs, 1974). These self-regulating processes ("learning how to learn" behavior) repre- sent their acquisition of innate learning strategies.

Bower (1972) has identified several naturally evolving learning strategies. The most common learning strategy learners use when acquiring new information is to dis- cover if the new information is similar to something the learners already have stored in their knowledge structure. Bartlett (1932) called this mental process an "effort after meaning." In this situation, the learner will make an attempt to convert unknown information into known information by matching new information to existing knowledge. Another strategy Bower dis- cusses is the generative rule strategy. Bow- er's generative rule strategy is actually a concept rule, and operates like a conceptual categorizing system. In other words, a conceptual rule, or concept, is actually a device which the learner uses to efficiently categorize information from the environment. The generative rule strategy tends to provide two specific cognitive functions, according to Bower: (1) a decision rule to decide how to classify in memory a given item, and (2) a constraining function to determine at which point search through memory should terminate.

A third naturally occurring strategy Bower identified in learners is the mnemonic pegword system, sometimes called a peg-mnemonic or mnemonic device. When using a peg-mnemonic, the learner will first learn a set of "pre-informa-

NETWORKING VS. ROTE LEARNING "143

tion," such as a simple rhyme (e.g., a rhyme mnemonic method), prior to beginning the learning task. This prelearned set of "cognitive pegs" will then facilitate memorizing additional information. This facilitation will occur because the cognitive pegs provide the learner with a cognitive framework to relate new information to. For example, when using the loci mnemonic method, an individual will take advantage of information stored in memory of imaged locations of some well-known place, such as his home. If the individual is attempting to re- member a grocery list, he simply rehearses the list by forming an image of each grocery item into a specific location of his mentally imaged home. For example, "a loaf of bread may be imaged as tilling up the kitchen, a gallon of milk may be imaged as filling up the refrigerator, or a bottle of shampoo may be imaged as an animated shampoo bottle taking a shower." The peg-mnemonic system is a powerful retrieval system that provides the learner with a method of encoding information and a set of well-estab- lished cues for later retrieval of information. Bower (1972) concludes: "Such pegword systems can be shown to be exceedingly effective devices for boosting recall, typi- cally doubling or tripling the percentages recalled compared to uninstructed free recall controls," (p. 114).

Bower (1972) also considered an additional learning strategy, which he referred to as the hierarchical retrieval strategy. As the name implies, the hierarchical strategy requires the learner to encode information into a network of logically related data, forming a distinct hierarchy of new information. The hierarchy could be semantic (e.g., verbal, proportional) or imaged, or some combination of both. In a verbal hierarchy, semantic inclusive category labels and subordinate related facts form a network or hierarchy of interrelated information.

Collins and Quillian (1969) suggested that a set of to-be-learned information about animals may be stored in a hierarchy of inclusive category labels with their related, subordinate facts under them to form a memory cluster or network. For example, a hierarchy could include the inclusive labels of ANIMAL, BIRD, CANARY, FISH, and

SALMON. Under each of these inclusive categories are the subordinate related facts, specific to each superordinate name or lable (e.g., SALMON: pink, edible, protein). Of course, this entire network could be imaged into a combination of labels and images. The semantic category labels serve as the cues allowing retrieval of related facts, which in this instance are examples and attributes of the category label. For example, if the learner recalls the semantic label, ANIMAL, it is likely that he will also re- member the related attributes of MOVES, SKIN, EATS, BREATHES, which would then lead him to the next cue in the network, BIRD, and the subsequent retrieval of the attributes for this category, and so on until all the information is retrieved. The formation of such a mental hierarchy would allow information to be stored in a logically related cluster of data with "built-in" retrieval cues. In a study by Bower, Clark, Lesgold, and Winzenz (1969), recall of a large list of items was greatly facilitated if the experimenter organized the information to be acquired into networks of related sets of information.

It is likely that other naturally occurring, idiosyncratic learning strategies exist that vary in effectiveness contingent upon the learner's intelligence. However, it is safe to conclude that learners do develop learning strategies on their own. Such learning strategies operationally relate to the cognitive mental representation systems of imagery storage and propositional storage. Addi- tionally, learners can be instructed on the use of cognitive learning strategies aimed at improving learning. Some learners may develop highly effective information processing strategies, while others are left with low level methods, such as rote learning. Along this line Dansereau, Actkinson, and Long (1974) found that poorer students tended to memorize material in rote fash- ion. Consequently, such students tend to have great difficulty relating new material to available information in memory, since rote memorization makes conceptual inte- gration and transfer virtually impossible. Osler and Fivel (1961) reached a similar conclusion. They found that middle-ability students produced incremental curves, while high-ability students produced in-

144 ECTJ FALL1982

sight curves. Incremental learning curves indicate stimulus-response type learning and are step-like in form. Insight curves indicate problem-solving or concept learning and tend to show no step-like increase, only a sudden jump to criterion. Osier and Fivel concluded that high-ability students adopt a rule learning strategy leading to sudden correct solution, while middle- ability s tudents engage in st imulus- response learning, which these researchers define as a rote learning strategy.

Presently, our schools do not provide students with instruction on learning strategies during the early school years. If students do not develop appropriate learning strategies on their own, they may be left at a significant learning disadvantage. Wein- stein (1978) points out:

We tell our students what to learn, but we say nothing about how to go about learning. The assumption that the abilities involved in learning are either innate or naturally acquired by every child is probably fallacious. (p. 32)

LEARNING STRATEGIES AND TESTING MEASURES

Two content-independent learning strategies were refined and evaluated, the networking strategy and the rote strategy. The networking strategy was a combination of an imagery peg-mnemonic and a hierarchical retrieval system, previously discussed with regard to Bower's (1972) work on strategies. The networking strategy was a re- finement of a learning strategy developed by Canelos (in press). The networking strategy had essentially three components that facilitated learning or information processing. The first was the use of imagery, which provides the learner with the processing advantage of dual-coding (the storage of an imagery code and propositional code, described by Hilgard & Bower, 1975). The second component was the use of a peg- mnemonic memory system, and the third component was the use of a hierarchical retrieval memory system.

Subjects were trained to use the networking strategy by following a set of instructions read to them by the experimenter. The first part of the training session instructed subjects on how to form vivid mental im-

ages of information or events they had previously experienced. The purpose of this was to demonstrate to subjects that they are capable of forming and manipulating vivid mental images, if instructed to do so.

In the second aspect of strategy training, subjects were required to learn a set of information, in verbal and imagery form, that would serve as conceptual pegs for information to be acquired later. Subjects learned these conceptual pegs from a set of 16, 2 x 2 slides that showed, in illustration form, the parts making up a water filter pump system. There were 15 slides that described each part in illustration form and included a label for that part (e.g., see illustration of "output valve," see name; see illustration of "water intake," see name). There was one slide showing the overall water filter pump system with all the parts in the correct order. Subjects saw the slide set a number of times until they could list all the part names from memory. The experimenter then slowly read the part names, and each subject was instructed to form a vivid mental image of the part named. It was imperative that all the part names and images were retained in memory since these served as the conceptual pegs for the instructional material to be learned later and formed the basis of the peg-mnemonic part of the strategy.

It should be noted that the visualized instructional materials to-be-learned later consisted of a 2 x 2 slide-tape program about the parts and operations of the human heart. Therefore, there is a part-to- part and among-part relationship between the conceptual pegs learned during strategy training and the visualized instructional materials learned later. This part-to-part relationship is similar to the part-to-part relationship found with the loci mnemonic method, previously described.

The final aspect of strategy training for the network strategy was to instruct subjects on how to manipulate images into a logical hierarchy of interrelated information, similar to the hierarchy discussed by Collins and Quillian (1969). When seeing the water filter pump part slides set, subjects were instructed to relate each part to the next most logically interacting part in the pump system, until they had an overall

NETWORKING VS. ROTE LEARNING 145

network of parts imaged in memory. Sub- jects rehearsed this mental formation of images into a hierarchy, until they felt that they had acquired the procedure. The network strategy training session lasted 30 minutes.

The rote strategy subjects were trained to use a strategy that can be operationally de- fined as stimulus-response learning or incremental learning, as identified by Dan- sereau et al. (1974) and Osler and Fivel (1961). During the training session, the rote strategy group was trained using the same water filter pump slide set as the network group. They saw the same 15 pump part 2 x 2 slides and the one overall slide, in the same order as the networks. However, they were instructed to perform quite different cognitive tasks with the training slides. The rote group saw the slide set once, to become familiar with its content. They then saw the slide set a second time and were told to concentrate on each name or label and try to form a mental list of the names. The next step in the rote strategy was to learn to associate each name or label with the next name or label seen. They practiced this mental association of names a number of times with the slide set until they felt that they could reproduce the list from memory, in the correct order. Subjects were then asked to write down the list of names from memory to test their recall of the list. While this strategy was not as complex as the networking strategy, subjects in the rote group practiced their strategy for 30 minutes, to avoid confounding effects resulting from differences in time given to strategy training.

The control group also saw the water filter pump part slides in a 30-minute session, under the guise of evaluating the media quality of the slide sets. They were told to carefully view the slide set and be prepared to respond to questions and offer their opin- ions about quality, readibility of names, understandability, etc. They saw the slide set three times. This precaution was taken to avoid confounding from advance orga- nizer effects with the training slides between the three groups, since the training slides had a relationship to the visualized instructional program the groups saw later.

Learning performance from the heart instructional program was evaluated using

two dependent measures. One measure evaluated the subjects' spatial learning ability from the slide-tape instructional program about the human heart; the other evaluated concept learning ability. Both dependent measures were cued recall, as op- posed to free recall. The spatial learning dependent measure consisted of a drawing of the heart, and the subject was required to correctly label the parts. To be correct, the label or part name had to be in the correct location. To accomplish this task, the subject had to comprehend the spatial relation- ships in the parts making up the heart. There were 17 possible correct labels. To control for confounding effects between the two levels of complexity in the slide-tape instructional programs (line drawing and color illustration slide sets) there were two different forms of the spatial dependent measure. One form was a line drawing, identical to the line drawing slides in the line drawing heart instructional program. The other form was an illustration, identical to the illustration slides in the illustration heart instructional program. The second dependent measure was a concept learning task. This measure was a multiple-choice test designed to evaluate general concept learning from the instructional programs. There were 20 items on the concept learning dependent measure.

Procedures

Subjects consisted of 60 graduate and un- dergraduate students from an instructional media class at the Ohio State University. Subjects were pretested via an interview to determine prior significant knowledge levels with the content material in the slide-tape program about the human heart. No significant prior knowledge levels were indicated in this sample of 60 subjects. Stu- dents received credit toward their course grade for participating. All 60 students were then randomly assigned to one of the three strategy groups: (a) network strategy, (b) rote strategy, or (c) control.

At this time, subjects were trained on their specific strategy in small groups of three to six at a time. Each training session lasted 30 minutes, and subjects were forced to stay on-task for the entire time. Subjects learned and practiced their strategy by fol-

~46 ECTJ FALL1982

TABLE 1 Concept Learning Task ANOVA

Dependent variable MS df F p

Between Subjects Strategy (A) 117.658 2 5.014 .01 Visual Complexity (B) .300 1 .013 .91 (A) • (B) 18.025 2 .768 .47 Error 23.467 54 - - - -

Within Subjects Time (C) 36.300 1 9.246 .004 (A) • (C) 2.275 2 .579 .56 (B) x (C) 4.800 1 1.223 .27 (A) • (B) x (C) 3.675 2 .936 .40 Error 3.926 54 - - - -

lowing directions provided by the experimenter and by viewing the 16, 2 x 2 p u m p part slides.

The following day, after strategy training, subjects were randomly assigned to one of two slide-tape programs. The two slide- tape programs contained identical content materials that were audio recorded from the same script. The slide-tape programs contained 39, 2 x 2 color slides depicting the parts and operations of the human heart (adapted from Dwyer, 1967). The content of the two slide-tape programs was identical; they varied only in the complexity of the visuals. One program consisted of slides that were simple line drawings in color on a white background. The other program slide set consisted of slides that were color artist illustrations of the heart. Both slide programs had identical verbal labels depicting the relevant aspect of each slide (e.g., see mitral valve slide; read Mitral Valve label). The slide-tape programs were both sound synchronized and lasted exactly 22 minutes.

Immediately after the slide-tape instructional programs were over, two dependent measures were administered to the subjects. One measure was a concept learning task, the o ther a spatial learning task (adapted from Dwyer, 1967).

One week later, subjects were given the concept learning task and the spatial task again to measure delayed retention.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Two separate analyses of variance were

conducted on the data resulting from the two dependent measures; one for the concept learning task, and one for the spatial learning task. The statistical design implied a 3 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance with re- peated measures. Follow-up tests were conducted on significant effects, where required, using a Tukey method set at .05 alpha.

The concept learning task dependen t measure represen ted a general concept learning ability. The concept learning measure analysis yielded significance on the strategy variable, F(2, 54 dr) = 5.014, p -- .01 (see Table 1). Follow-up testing found the network strategy (Y( = 12.98) to differ significantly from the control group (5( = 9.73). The network strategy ()( = 12.98) did not differ significantly from the rote strategy (Y( = 10.4); however, the mean 's difference approached significance. The rote strategy ()( = 10.4) did not differ significantly from the control (Y( = 9.73).

The network strategy provided for a more effective information processing of material from the slide-tape program for later performance with a concept learning task. In- terestingly, the rote strategy did not differ significantly from the network strategy, indicating that even a low level information processing strategy is better than no specific strategy. However, it can be argued that the control subjects did use their idiosyncratic strategy, which may have been similar to a rote strategy since these two means are so close (e.g., rote strategy (Y( = 10.4); control strategy (Y( = 9.73).


TABLE 2 Spat ial Learning Task ANOVA

Dependent variable MS df F p

Between Subjects Strategy (A) 388.158 2 13.904 .0001 Visual Complexity (B) 45.633 1 1.635 .21 (A) x (B) 8.858 2 .317 .73 Error 27.917 54 - - - -

Within Subjects Time (C) 116.033 1 35.340 .0001 (A) x (C) 16.308 2 4.967 .01 (B) x (C) .333 1 .010 .92 (A) x (B) x (C) 7.008 2 2.135 .13 Error 3.283 54 - - - -

No significant interactions occurred in the concept task analysis. The time variable yielded significance F(1, 54 df) = 36.3, p = .004, indicating a general difference between immediate testing (Y( = 11.58) and delayed testing (Y( = 10.48).

The spatial learning dependent measure was a cued recall measure. The subject had to correctly label each part of the heart discussed in the slide-tape program as indicated on this heart drawing. Analysis yielded significance on the strategy variable F(2, 54 df) = 13.904, p = .0001 (see Table 2). Follow-up tests indicated that the network strategy (Y( = 12.98) differed significantly from the rote strategy (Y( = 8.93). The network strategy (X = 12.98) differed significantly from the control (Y( = 6.85). How- ever, the rote strategy (X = 8.93) did not differ significantly from the control (Y( = 6.85).

The network strategy provided learners with an information processing advantage by allowing them to encode information more effectively from the slide-tape program for later retrieval for performance on

TABLE 3

the spatial learning task. The rote learning strategy seemed to operate much like the idiosyncratic learning strategies in the control group.

The strategy by time interaction was significant, F(2, 54 df) = 16.31, p = .01. Follow-up testing found the source of the interaction to be with the rote strategy and the control groups. The network strategy means did not differ across the time period of I week (Y(, immediate retention = 13.3; Y(, delayed retention = 12.65). However, a significant amount of information was lost between the immediate and delayed testing period for the rote strategy (Y(, immediate = 9.95; Y(, delayed = 7.90), and the control (Y(, immediate = 8.45; Y(, delayed = 5.25). (See Table 3.)

The strategy by time interaction results are particularly interesting: the network group clearly outperformed the rote group and control group in terms of retrieval over the time period of I week (see Figure 1).

CONCLUSION

The results of this study indicate that learn-

Simple Effect Means and Main E f fec ts - -S t ra tegy (X) T ime Interact ion

Average Strategy mean variable Immediate spatial test Delayed spatial test difference

Network 13.30 12.65 12.98

Rote 9.95 7.90 8,93

Control 8.45 5.25 6.85

148 ECTJ FALL1982

ers can benefit from learning strategies designed to improve their information processing by facilitating abstraction, encoding, and retrieval. The networking strategy provided learners with a significant learning advantage over the rote strategy and over the control group. It can be concluded that this advantage occurred because of the use of imagery and a peg-mnemonic, and the added processing factor of the hierarchical storage of information into a stable cluster of interrelated data. It is likely that this hierarchical storage factor was the rea- son for the network group's superiority on the spatial learning task over the period of a I week delay in testing. In this situation, the rote group and control group performances were negatively affected by the delay of 1 week, and the networks were not. Recall that the network group's hierarchical retrieval factor provided them with built-in cues to facilitate retrieval of information.

The learning advantage the network group demonstrated clearly indicates that learners can be made aware of internal cognitive events related to information processing and can, to some degree, control these events. This implies that learning strategies that facilitate internal cognitive processing should be further refined and developed, so they may eventually become a part of school learning. While some learners have the learning advantage of effective learning or information processing strategies, many do not. Additionally, very little effort is cur- rently made in schools to instruct students on effective learning strategies; this is true of even simple mnemonic memory devices.

It should also be noted that the rote strategy group performed much like the control group on both the spatial learning task and the concept task. While caution should be taken in generalizing this particular result, it does imply that the control group, when faced with a unique learning situation, used a strategy closely related to rote learning. The control group would of course use some sort of learning strategy, but overall their performance was not that different from the rote group. The important thing to note in this regard, is that by providing learners with instruction on "how-to" in- ternally process information, their learning performance was significantly improved

FIGURE 1 Strategy (X) Time Interaction

' ~ "10

"10

14

N ~ N 12

10 R ~ C

8 R

6

~ C 4 N = Network

R = Rote 2 C = Control

I I Immediate Delayed

Test Test

over rote learning. Finally, the strategy training sessions in

this study lasted only 30 minutes. While this may be effective enough to produce exper- imentally significant results, a much longer strategy training session would be required for long term productive use with cognitive learning strategies of this type. It is doubtful that from this 30-minute strategy training session the network group could have gen- eralized its skill to other unique learning situations. For effective and long terra use across a number of learning situations, it is likely that a large amount of strategy training and practice would be required.

Further experimental work needs to be done in the area of cognitive learning strategies of a content-independent type. Learn- ing strategies should be developed, tested, and refined, so that they have practical ben- efits for students at all school levels. Cur- rently, learners are left on their own in terms of learning strategies. Since learning strategies are developed and learned and not innate, (e.g., genetic) they should be taught to learners in the early school years through programs designed to instruct them on "how-to-learn." However, before this is accomplished, much experimental work in this area is needed.


REFERENCES

Anderson, R. C., & Hidde, J. L. Imagery and sentence learning. Journal of Educational Psy- chology, 1971, 62, 526-532.

Bartlett, F. C. Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. London: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1932.

Bower, G. H. A selective review of organizational factors in memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Memory and organization. New York: Academic Press, 1972.

Bower, G. H., Clark, M. C., Lesgold, A., & Win- zenz, D. Hierarchical retrieval schemes in recall of categorized word lists. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1969, 8, 323-343.

Canelos, J. The instructional effectiveness of three content-independent learning strategies on different learning outcomes when learners received visualized instruction of varying complexity. Journal of Experimental Education, in press.

Collins, A. M., & Quillian, M. R. Retrieval time from semantic memory. Journal of Verbal Learn- ing and Verbal Behavior, 1969, 8, 240-247.

Dansereau, D. The development of a learning strategies curriculum. In H. F. O'Neil, Jr. (Ed.), Learning strategies. New York: Academic Press, 1978.

Dansereau, D., Actkinson, T. R., & Long, G. L. Learning strategies: A review and synthesis of the current literature, 1974. (ERIC Document Re- production Service No. ED 103 403).

Dansereau, D., Long, G. L., McDonald, B. A., Actkinson, T. R., Ellis, A. M., Collins, K., Wil- liams, S., & Evans, S. H. Effective learning strategy training program: Development and assessment (AFHRL-TR-75-41, Contract F41609-74-C- 0013). Lowry Colorado AFB, 1975.

Dwyer, F. M., Jr. A study of the relative effectiveness

of varied visual illustrations, (U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Edu- cation, Bureau of Research, Project 6-8840, Grant OEG 107 068840 0290, 1967.

Dwyer, F. M., Jr. Strategies for improving visual learning. State College, Pa.: Learning Services, 1978.

Gagne, R. M. The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1977.

Gagne, R. M., & Briggs, L. J. Principles of instructional design. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1974.

Hilgard, E. R., & Bower, G. H. Theories of learning. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall Co., 1975.

O'Neil, H. F., Jr. Learning strategies. New York: Academic Press, 1978.

O'Neil, H. F., Jr., & Spielberger, C. D., Cognitive and affective learning strategies. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

Osier, S. F., & Fivel, M. W. Concept attainment: I. The role of age and intelligence in concept attainment by induction. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1961, 62, 1-8.

Paivio, A. Mental imagery in associative learning and memory. Psychological Review, 1969, 76, 241-263.

Persensky, J. J., & Senter, R. J. An investigation of "bizarre" imagery as a mnemonic device. The Psychological Record, 1970, 20, 145-150.

Rasco, R. W., Tennyson, R. D., & Boutwell, R. C. Imagery instructions and drawing in learning prose. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1975, 67, 188-192.

Rigney, J. W. Learning strategies: A theoretical perspective. In H. F. O'Neil, Jr. (Ed.), Learning strategies. New York: Academic Press, 1978.

Weinstein, C. E., Elaboration skills as a learning strategy. In H. F. O'Neil, Jr. (Ed.), Learning strategies. New York: Academic Press, 1978.