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Researching pupils, schools andoneself. Teachers as integrators oftheory and practice in initial teachereducationKatriina Maaranen a & Leena Krokfors aa Department of Applied Sciences of Education , Faculty ofBehavioural Sciences , University of Helsinki , FinlandPublished online: 04 Jul 2008.

To cite this article: Katriina Maaranen & Leena Krokfors (2008) Researching pupils, schools andoneself. Teachers as integrators of theory and practice in initial teacher education, Journal ofEducation for Teaching: International research and pedagogy, 34:3, 207-222

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Researching pupils, schools and oneself. Teachers as integrators oftheory and practice in initial teacher education

Katriina Maaranen* and Leena Krokfors

Department of Applied Sciences of Education, Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, University ofHelsinki, Finland

(Received 6 September 2007; final revision received 7 May 2008)

Researching can be viewed as a way of analysing issues of schooling by linkingtheoretical knowledge with perceptions of educational reality already duringteacher education. Not only does practicing teaching provide a context foranalysing instruction, learning, school culture, diversity, or any other issue relatedto schooling, also researching these issues provides future teachers opportunity toview schooling as complex and problematic. This case study surveyed andinterviewed a group of recently graduated teachers who had worked as teachersduring their education. The interest was on their experiences of M.A. thesisresearch as well as the integration of theory and practice during the education.The respondents had experienced researching as useful as well as meaningful,although they also had development ideas concerning it.

Keywords: research-based teacher education; theory-practice integration; practi-tioner research; reflective practice; research process

Introduction

The success of Finnish pupils in the OECD’s Pisa tests in 2000, 2003 and 2006 has

focused a great deal of attention on the Finnish school system, as well as Finnish

teacher education. Finding reasons for this success is naturally a multifaceted,

complex issue and no simple answer is available. However, it is possible to argue that

higher, academic teacher education in Finland has some connection with this

success. Researching pedagogical issues as part of a teacher education programme

provides future teachers with the possibility, as well as ability, to solve problems

using methodological tools. Teacher students in Finland are introduced to research

methodology early on and they practice researching by conducting several small

pedagogical inquiries. The smaller inquiries lead the students towards their final

assignment: the master’s thesis. Researching pedagogical issues has been viewed as

an important phase of professional development in academic teacher education and

is seen as another way of analysing issues of schooling by linking theoretical

knowledge with perceptions of educational reality. Not only does practicing teaching

provide a context for analysing instruction, learning, school culture, diversity or any

other issue related to schooling, researching these issues also provides future teachers

with the opportunity to view schooling as complex and problematic.

Using a pragmatic, mixed methods, approach in this research, we investigate the

relationship between theory, practice and research in the context of an M.A. thesis

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

Journal of Education for Teaching

Vol. 34, No. 3, August 2008, 207–222

ISSN 0260-7476 print/ISSN 1360-0540 online

# 2008 Taylor & Francis

DOI: 10.1080/02607470802213825

http://www.informaworld.com

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research project, which all Finnish elementary school teacher students must conduct.

The questions this research addresses are as follows:

N how meaningful and significant has conducting the research been;

N what were the students’ aims in conducting the research;

N how well has teacher education succeeded in integrating theory and practice

and research supervision?

Theoretical framework

Research as a basis of teacher education

Inquiry-orientated or research-based teacher education has been defined for more

than two decades (see, for example, Zeichner 1983; Rudduck 1985), while no one

definition has been agreed on. Within this type of teacher education system Reis-

Jorge distinguished two orientations of research in teacher education: (1) the

academic perspective, where the aim is to develop academic skills and theoretical

discourse; (2) the professional development perspective, where the aim is to use the

reflective practitioner model to ‘encourage teachers to adopt a reflective stance to

practice’ (Reis-Jorge 2007, 402). Reis-Jorge criticized the academic model for being

unable to transfer the abilities of reflection into practice (Reis-Jorge 2005, 2007).

However, whether or not the combination of these is possible, it should provide the

benefits of both the academic as well as professional development aspects, as:

It may be difficult for practitioners to articulate questions of practical relevance withinthe criteria imposed by academic regulations. A balance in focus on both perspectiveswould seem to contribute to bridging the so-called theory/practice divide. (Reis-Jorge2005, 317)

Achieving this balance must be the aim of all teacher education, but the means to

achieve it certainly vary greatly.

In the Finnish teacher education system the attempt to achieve a balance between

theory and practice is reached via research-based teacher education, which

culminates in M.A. thesis research work. According to Kansanen (1999) the overall

purpose of achieving a balanced development of a teacher’s personality and expertise

is to compose a study programme containing three basic components. These core

elements are the pedagogical content knowledge of school subjects, theory of

education and practice. The research-based approach in teacher education stresses

that teaching is drawn from research and theory building. With regard to the

viewpoint of students it emphasises the student’s ability to conduct or critically

analyse and consume formal research (Richardson 1994; Pallas 2001).

The question of theory and practice in teacher education

Often in teacher education, the relationship between theory and practice is viewed as

the relationship between practical training and educational theory, but in the case of

research-based teacher education the emphasis is also on understanding and

conducting research from a personal point of view.

In a pragmatic way of thinking theory and practice are in a transactional process

vis-a-vis each other and, according to Dewey (1933), action must be taken as the

basis of philosophical considerations. One of the central ideas of Dewey’s

208 K. Maaranen and L. Krokfors

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pragmatism is that knowing and action are related to each other in a very

fundamental way and that there is no epistemological difference between them.

Biesta and Burbules (2003, 105) referred to Dewey’s action-theoretical framework

and argued that ‘it is not that theory can tell us how things are and that practice

merely has to follow’. They encapsulated the view of pragmatism by saying that ‘if

knowledge is indeed a factor in human action, then theory no longer comes before

practice, but emerges from and feeds back into practice’ (Maaranen and Krokfors

2007).

According to Krokfors (2007), in the teaching profession today there are two

different orientations to pedagogical practices: (1) to instruct or practice teaching in

general; (2) to inquire or conduct research about one’s own or others’ teaching and

learning. Both of these orientations can be seen as acting in pedagogical situations

and practicing needs skills as well as theoretical knowing, reasoning and

understanding. A real research orientation in teacher education means that

investigation, inquiry and research also need supervised practice, and practising

these skills in pedagogically meaningful situations can also be seen as an integration

of the theoretical knowledge base or theoretical knowing with the use of appropriate

data collecting and analysing practices (Krokfors 2007).

Practitioner research in teacher education

Practitioner research, which is also referred to as action research or teacher research,

plays a major role in a teacher’s professional development. As the purpose of

practitioner research is to view issues of teaching and schooling as problematic, to

conduct inquiries concerning them and, based on the findings, to develop work

practices, it is most often viewed as a field for qualified teachers. However, some

teacher students work as unqualified teachers at the same time as they study, and as

part of their obligatory coursework they must conduct M.A. research, with the

possibility of doing this under the supervision of university personnel.

According to Luneberg, Ponte, and Van de Vev (2007, 18) the aim of practitioner

research is ‘first and foremost to bridge the well-known gap between research and

practice in education’. Therefore ‘theory and practice are seen as two sides of the

same coin. Practice needs theory, as theory needs practice’ (Luneberg, Ponte, and

Van de Vev 2007).

In a wide-ranging and thorough report of published research on teacher

education in the USA (Cochran-Smith and Zeichner 2006) practitioner research was

acknowledged as one method of teacher education. According to Grossman (2006),

within the last 20 years teacher educators have started to use various forms of

practitioner research in the preparation of teachers, and in most of the research that

he referred to the teacher students were ‘required to study and analyze some aspect

of their classroom practice, either themselves or with others’ (p. 445). However,

Grossman discovered that different researchers defined practitioner research

differently, and how they did that determined the types of outcomes which were

studied. It is significant that using practitioner research as a pedagogy is a choice and

‘reflects the assumptions about the nature of teaching practice’ (Grossman 2006,

445).

Richardson (1994) defined practical inquiry as research that practitioners, i.e.

teachers, conduct in order to improve their practice, whereas formal research is

Journal of Education for Teaching 209

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conducted by researchers or practitioners in order to contribute to established and

general knowledge. The concept of teacher research has at least four approaches:

teaching as research; the teacher as reflective practitioner (see, for example, Dewey

1933; Schon 1983); action research; the teacher as formal educational researcher. The

first three in Richardson’s opinion belong to the practical inquiry category, which isnot associated with any formal research methodology (Richardson 1994, 7).

In the case reported here there are elements of teacher research as well as formal

research (or research on teaching), it is, however, difficult to categorize them exactly.

From one viewpoint students who enquire into teaching or schooling related to their

own work as teachers seem to be practitioner researchers. However, as they are not

qualified teachers and they are given directions and supervision in conducting the

research by professional researchers (university personnel) the research has some

characteristics of formal research.

Reflective practice

Since Dewey’s How we think (1933) and Schon’s Reflective practitioner (1983) the

discussion of the meaning and purpose of ‘reflection’ has evolved enormously.

Newman (1996) emphasised the importance of viewing Schon’s conception of

reflective practice in the light of its epistemological account and therefore to

understand it as a part of professional development which aims at a deeper

understanding. Griffiths and Tann (1992) argued that central to the spirit of

reflective practice is reflection on the personal and professional concerns of the

individual student teacher, who reflects on their own practice and uses theorieswholeheartedly and open mindedly.

Terms such as ‘reflective inquiry, practitioner research and action research’

(Lunenberg, Ponte, and Van de Vev 2007) have a close connection with certain

aspects of reflection and to some degree may be seen as synonymous with ‘reflective

practice’, although Schon (1983) also used the term ‘reflective research’, which he

defined as research undertaken outside the context of practice (p. 309). Based on

Schon’s (1987) work, Zeichner (1990) concluded that practitioners can be helped to

use their own teaching as a form of research aimed at the improvement of practice,and that research-based teacher education involves efforts to encourage and support

teachers’ inquiries into their own practices.

Becoming a reflective practitioner is a challenge for a teacher student. Today the

aim of many teacher education programmes is to create reflective practitioners, so

that their student teachers become inquiry-oriented professionals in education and

instruction, and many paths to achieve this end exist. One of these is research-based

teacher education, which is defined, on the one hand, as having an educational

science research basis, and on the other, as involving teacher students in researchfrom the beginning of their studies (Kansanen 1999; Krokfors 2007). If teaching is

viewed as a form of research and experimentation (Zeichner 1990), learning how to

research pedagogical issues provides a pathway to becoming a reflective practitioner.

Methods, data and analysis of the research

This research was a sequential mixed methods study (see, for example, Tashakkori

and Teddlie 1998; Creswell and Plano Clark 2007) in which the first part reports on a

survey, consisting of Likert scale variables as well as open-ended questions and the


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second part on interviews which aimed to deepen the knowledge gained from the

survey.

Participants and the multimode teacher education programme

The target group of this survey were teachers who had graduated from a multimode

teacher education programme (for more details see Kynaslahti et al. 2006) in which

the studies were organized so that students were able to study at the same time as

they worked as teachers. Most of these teachers had experience of a significant

teaching career before entering the teacher education programme. Multimode

teacher education cannot be categorized purely as pre-service teacher education,

neither can it be labelled as in-service teacher education. The attendees work as

unqualified teachers throughout their studies and gain their qualification when they

graduate from the programme. However, this can be characterized as initial teacher

education, since the attendees do not necessarily have any formal experience of prior

teacher education programmes, although they may have many different kinds of

education (e.g. kindergarten teacher, college level social studies, etc.) in their

backgrounds (see also Krokfors et al., 2006). In the M.A. thesis research process the

students have a research idea, decide how it could be researched and into what kind

of theoretical framework it fits and, finally, conduct and submit the study as a thesis

of approximately 25,000 words.

The data for this study consist of two parts: survey and interviews. The survey

targeted 57 individuals (the number of graduates from this multimode teacher

education programme at the time of the survey). Altogether 35 of the teachers who

graduated in 2001–2006 took part and thus the response rate was 61%. Most of the

respondents were female (80%), with the average work experience being 6.5 years.

The interviews were conducted with 23 teachers, of whom seven were men and 16

women, and took place in autumn 2007.

Research methods

The web-based survey consisted of five background questions (concerning gender, the

topic of the M.A. thesis and work experience), a 29 item Likert scale (1, disagree; 5,

agree), and two voluntary open-ended questions. Due to the small number in the total

group (n557) and the actual number of respondents (n535) the aim was to obtain

descriptive and useful information, not to reach statistically reliable or generalisable

results. Thus no substantial quantitative analysis could be conducted, but, instead the

mean and standard deviation (mean, SD) of these variables are presented when

discussing each variable. A low standard deviation indicates the like-mindedness of the

respondents. The responses to the open-ended questions were categorized.

The interviews were semi-structured, themed interviews, which lasted approxi-

mately 41 minutes. They were transcribed, after which the raw data were reduced

and organized as the first phase of the analysis. The core expressions were formed

and from these categories and subcategories were extracted. In the present article

three themes of the interviews are reported:

1. the topics of the M.A. theses and the reasons for choosing them;

2. the meaningfulness of the research;

3. the aims of the research.


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Results of the survey

Research process

The respondents were thus asked to answer 29 variables on a scale of 1 (disagree) to

5 (agree) and the means and standard deviations of each variable are presented

below.

Nearly all respondents had found their research topic from the school environment

(mean 4.6, SD 1.1), although not necessarily from their own classrooms (mean 3.6, SD

1.7). Most of the respondents had also chosen their topic in order to benefit from it

(mean 4.1, SD 1.1); in other words, they viewed their topics as being useful to them.

Nearly all had also chosen a previously familiar topic (mean 3.6, SD 1.4). However,

most of the respondents clearly had not found their topic from the practicum (mean 1.4,

SD 0.8) or because they had become interested in the literature (mean 2.2, SD 1.2). A

number also chose the same topic as they had chosen in a previous, smaller research

work, the pro-seminar (mean 3.2, SD 1.8).

The data indicate quite clearly that the respondents felt that they had learned how

to conduct research in general (mean 4.2, SD 0.8), as well as having gained new

methodological knowledge (mean 4.2, SD 1.0) and educational knowledge (mean 3.7,

SD 1.1). They also felt that conducting the research was inspiring (mean 3.7, SD 1.4)

and a useful experience (mean 3.8, SD 1.1). The results of their own research also

proved to be useful to them (mean 4.0, SD 1.0). The respondents reported receiving

enough teaching in methodology (mean 3.3, SD 1.2), as well as guidance from the

university (mean 3.9, SD 1.2). However, they did not get very much support, neither

concrete (mean 2.3, SD 1.4) nor peer support (mean 2.7, SD 1.5), from their workplace,

i.e. their colleagues or school principal. Many of the respondents did not have the aim

of creating an operational model for real use in school (mean 2.9, SD 1.6). The

respondents intended to produce knowledge which could be useful for the school

community (mean 3.9, SD 1.3). They also stated that their aim in conducting their

research was to develop their own teaching ability (mean 3.6, 1.6). For some the aim of

the research was to determine various aspects for development (mean 3.3, SD 1.6).

Most of the respondents conducted their research in order to gather information about

their pupils and/or their learning (mean 8, SD 1.5). Most of the respondents had not

directed their research at testing a new operational model, for example a teaching

method (mean 2.1, SD 1.5).

Integrating theory and practice in teacher education

In the open-ended question section of the survey the respondents were asked to evaluate

theory–practice integration (Table 1). The question was: Did teacher education succeed

in integrating theory and practice, and in which studies was it especially apparent?

Three respondents considered that theory–practice integration had not been successful

in any of the studies. Two stated that there was too much theory in relation to practice,

and one felt that his lengthy teaching experience overrode the education. Five

respondents directed criticism at their education. Two considered that special education

was poorly represented in teacher education, although it is increasingly needed when

working as a teacher. Another responded that the integration of theory and practice in

the didactics had not been realized, while one felt that the real situation in schools did

not come up enough in their training and another claimed that the teaching was a kind

of old-fashioned lecturing in which theory–practice integration was difficult to attain.


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Two respondents stated that teacher education generally succeeded in integrating

theory and practice. Seven respondents stated that the integration was successful during

the practicum periods and one also emphasized the sequential idea of first studying the

subjects taught in school and immediately practicing teaching them in the practicum

period. Most of the respondents (17) mentioned that the most successful studies in

which theory and practice were well integrated were the didactics of school subjects,

whereas only two mentioned educational studies. However, six respondents stated that

in conducting their M.A. thesis research they successfully integrated theory and

practice. Since these respondents were those who had been studying at the same time as

they had been working as teachers, four also mentioned the possibility of connecting

work with learning. They stated that they were able to reflect the theoretical matters

into their own classroom or that they were able to try new ideas or methods straight

away with their pupils.

In the teachers’ opinion, integrating theory and practice in teacher education had

taken place in many different courses or study periods. The majority saw the education

programme as having been successful as regards integration (at least in some ways),

Table 1. Examples of simplified expressions of the integration of theory and practice.

INTEGRATION OF THEORY AND PRACTICE

Did not succeed Did succeed in

At all (3) Practicum (6)

N Too much theory in relation to practice. N Was beneficial.

N Teaching experience affected more. N First studying the subjects, then practicing

teaching them.

Some way (5) Subjects taught in school (17)

N Too little didactics. N Especially when we had assignments in

our own class.N Hardly any special education.N Mathematics.N The reality of school is missing.N Arts and crafts.N More integration needed in the subjects

taught in school. N All the school subject courses.

N Too old-fashioned teaching methods

(mass lectures etc.).

Educational studies (2)

N Especially in studies about learning to

know our pupils.

M.A. thesis (6)

N I learnt new things because the topic was

unfamiliar.

Work and studies (4)

N I always reflected the theory on to my own

work as a teacher.

N I tried all the new things I learnt right

away in my class.

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.


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although a few respondents disagreed. However, it was clear that the most practical

study periods were those which the teachers viewed as most integrative, i.e. the

practicum and the studies of subjects taught in school. Still, it is interesting that no more

that six (17%) felt that in their own M.A. research this kind of integration took place.

Developing M.A. thesis work further

The second, also voluntary, open-ended question of the survey was formulated as

follows: In your opinion, how should the M.A. thesis research work and/or topics be

developed further (Table 2)? A majority (14) of the respondents emphasized the

importance of practical topics. Most stated that the topics should deal with the reality

within schools, or they should at least relate to the school world. They emphasized that

the issues to be researched should be practical dilemmas that teachers face every day

rather than theoretical problems, and the topics should feel familiar to the students.

Seven respondents also suggested that the professors should offer the possibility of

joining a research group, where they could choose from available research topics. Four

respondents also brought up the issue of research seminar groups, which to them

seemed too large. They suggested that the students in each group should research

similar topics, so that the seminar sessions could be more beneficial for all of the

students in terms of content. Seven respondents stated that the supervision should be

more personal than it was and four respondents emphasized the significance of the

supervisor. According to them it was extremely important for the supervisor to

familiarise themselves with the project before the counselling sessions, and when this

had happened it had been very rewarding for them. One of the respondents required

motivation from the supervisors; a little pushing was at times needed, especially in

situations where the students seemed to be in an impasse. One of the respondents

criticized the M.A. thesis work stating that the extensiveness of the work did not count

for as much as it should. Three respondents would have liked a general overview of

research methods to have been offered at the beginning of the seminars. Two

respondents suggested that completed M.A. theses could be put on the Internet as

examples, for easier access. Two respondents also stated that in the end conducting

M.A. thesis research was something that everyone must do alone, and the drive to

accomplish the task must be from those undertaking it.

These statements show that several aspects of the M.A. research could be

improved. Most clear was a wish for more practical direction in the research

topics. The respondents wanted to conduct research that was useful and

meaningful to them as well as to others, while they hoped to be able to join in

various research projects.

Results of the interviews

MA theses topics and the reasons for choosing them

The topics of the M.A. theses can found in Table 3. They are categorized into three

groups: studies which dealt with pupils, studies which dealt with school and studies

which dealt with teachers.

The reasons for choosing the topics are categorized into five main categories:

practical reasons, theoretical reasons, personal reasons, professional reasons and

outside effects.


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Under practical reasons the teachers mentioned practical projects in which they

were involved or projects they had planned. The reasons also included practical

matters such as work situations providing a context for experimentation or having

data ready at hand, wanting to get pupil feedback or having to write a final report

for a project.

The theoretical reasons offered consisted of a theoretical or methodological

interest or discovering a controversial, interesting or problematic phenomenon

within the work.

The personal reasons consisted of personal experience, such as being a teacher in

general, being a teacher of dysphasic children, a specific teacher–pupil relationship,

Table 2. Examples of simplified respondents’ suggestions on how to develop thesis work

further.

HOW TO DEVELOP MA THESIS WORK FURTHER?

Practical topics (14)

N Topics should relate to actual problems teachers face every day.

N Topics relating to school world.

Joining research projects/available topics (7)

N Students should be steered towards topics which have not been researched so much.

N Students should be offered topics if they cannot come up with one themselves.

N Topics with societal relevance should be offered.

N Students should be encouraged to join research groups.

Seminar groups (4)

N Groups should include people having similar topics.

N Groups should be smaller.

N More group sessions.

Motivating (1)

N Supporting, motivating, encouraging the student from the very beginning.

Supervision more personal (7)

N More concrete supervision.

N More personal supervision.

N Support the student more from the beginning.

Supervisors (4)

N Supervisors lack time and do not put enough effort into the supervision.

N A good supervisor is extremely important.

Reminiscence of methods (3)

Internet access to old theses (2)

Working by yourself (2)

N The student must have passion for the research.

Too expansive work (1)

N The extensiveness should be reconsidered, too little credit now given for the amount of

work.


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having experience of different roles in a particular project or having experience of the

project in general, as well as having, and not having, experience with immigrant

pupils. Personal interest was also mentioned as a reason for choosing the topic,

either general interest in the topic or the topic being important to the teacher, as well

as personal interest in finding out how former pupils were doing.

Outside effects referred to encouragement, inspiration or an idea received from a

particular organization, university lecturer, colleagues or studies in general. One

teacher had a societal interest in rural schools.

Professional reasons consisted of professional interests, such as how the

integration of dysphasic children had succeeded, wanting to understand the

phenomena better, interest in the teaching method and interest in testing a project

in another environment or testing how certain teaching methods worked.

Professional development was also a reason for teachers relating to a certain project

or to a certain teaching method.

The relevance of the research topic

The relevance of the research is categorized according to statements which consisted

of justifications for the relevance of the research (i.e. positive statements) to

Table 3. The topics of the M.A. theses.

Studies on pupils/children

N Students’ social roles in groups of different sizes

N The development of reading skills from first to fourth grade

N The children’s motives for choosing musically profiled schooling

N Cooperative learning

N Experiential learning in a drama project

N Immigrant children’s learning through hobbies

N Integrating handicapped children through a drama project

N Mathematics evaluation of special education pupils in the light of a hidden curriculum

N The relationship between skills in sequence of numbers and mathematical performance

N Enhancing pupils’ interaction and working skills using the Theraplay method

N Pupils designing their own school environment

N Researching the effect of a net-based literary circle on fourth graders’ literary enthusiasm

N The possibilities of using play-like activities as a teaching method in mathematics

N How immigrant children are adapted to a rural school environment

N Integrating a child with dysphasia into a regular classroom

N Pupils’ conceptions of learning and thinking

N The case of a specially gifted and disorderly boy

N Sixth graders’ conceptions of the possibilities of their influence in their own school

Studies on the school

N Rural schools’ networking and co-operation

N Flexibility in pre-school and school-starting stage

N Model of flexible school beginning

Studies on the teacher/self

N The teacher’s attitude towards a pupil on the verge of estrangement from the school

N The teacher’s pedagogical relationship with a challenging pupil


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statements which consisted of challenges, difficulties or the research being irrelevant

to their concerns (i.e. negative statements), to statements which indicated relevance

at some point of the research (i.e. where there were both positive and negative

statements).

The statements which indicated that the research was relevant and meaningful

were justified with general arguments, such as being enthusiastic about the

research or having a theoretical interest or that studying in general had been a

pleasant experience. They were also justified by the topic, i.e. the topic was

important to the teacher’s work or was familiar. The research methods were also

mentioned as being meaningful, as were the results of the research. The relevance

of the research was also justified by having an effect, such as hoping to increase

knowledge among colleagues, finding solutions to problematic situations or

finding results which could be transferred to teaching in general and learning of

the juridical side of teaching. Personal effects was also part of the justification the

teachers used when stating that the research was meaningful to them. Being

capable of scientific thinking made one teacher proud, while another’s convictions

concerning a certain topic had strengthened and one mentioned becoming a

different teacher after conducting the research. Aspects of the work being

meaningful were also evident as regards teachers’ work, in such statements as

researching one’s own work, being involved in an actual project, getting to know

one’s own pupils better, finding solutions to a problematic situation and being able

to use one’s professional reasoning. Encouragement or positive feedback from

university lecturers or interviewees was also mentioned as making the research

more meaningful to the student.

Challenges, difficulties or such matters which made the research appear

irrelevant were, for example, interpretation of the data, the actual research process

being unclear for a long time to the teacher, the methodological issues being

challenging or being unsure as to whether the research was ‘scientific’ enough. The

teachers also mentioned the research being strenuous, stressful, difficult and an

inevitable ‘must’. The research was felt to have taken longer than teachers wanted it

to and working while researching was seen as hard.

In some cases the research had been meaningful at some point for some teachers.

They described, for example, the research being absorbing at some point, but not

always. For one teacher the research had initially been meaningful, but as the results

did not show significant differences its relevance was lost. Another simply got tired

during the research, which dealt with a specific project, and he lost interest in the

end. In another project the funding was cut off and the meaningfulness of the

project, which was also the topic of the research, was thus lost.

The aims of the research

The teachers were asked whether they had other aims for their research besides

graduating. The aims are categorized into five areas, namely the actual project,

developing the ability to work as a teacher, conducting significant research, sharing

knowledge of the topic and graduating.

For many teachers the aim was also an actual project in which they were either

involved or were planning. Such projects included creating a material bank or ideas

bank, planning and realizing a schoolyard and involving pupils in it, finding tools to


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develop a project, understanding a project better, finding out how teams work,

initiating tutor–pupil work dynamics and hoping to make them permanent and

doing groundwork for school projects with different learners.

Many aimed at developing their own ability to work as teachers. They wanted to

establish groups where pupils would feel better and be encouraged to make new

friends or learn how pupils could enjoy themselves better at school, and research

how this information could be transferred to their teaching. One teacher sought to

reinforce her own personal teaching style and thereby be able to justify the teaching

methods to parents. Another mentioned an interest in researching one’s own pupils

and another needed to solve a difficult situation in the classroom. The aim of one

teacher was also to be prepared for having an immigrant pupil in the classroom,

while another was interested in finding out how her former pupils were doing and

how she had succeeded as their former teacher. She also wanted to find out how

much effort should be put into the transition phase from special education to general

education.

A few teachers mentioned the issue of the significance of the research. Either

continuation of the research was mentioned or they hoped that the research would

have more scientific significance.

Sharing knowledge on the topic was also given as an aim. The teachers

mentioned wanting to share the research results with colleagues or a desire to ‘wake

colleagues up’ to the importance of the topic. For one teacher there was also outside

pressure, from the Department of Special Education, a specific organization, as well

as the city’s education department, who were interested in the research.

Finally, a few teachers did not mention any other aim besides graduating.

Discussion and conclusion

Although this paper reports on a case study consisting of only a small scale survey

and 23 theme interviews, in our opinion it is possible to draw five conclusions from

the data. First, the survey results show that the respondents learned many things

during the research process. Second, it seems that this kind of research-based

approach succeeds in integrating theory and practice in their studies. Third, the

respondents appreciated the usefulness of their own research. Fourth, the

interviews deepened the knowledge of the benefits of conducting research,

especially concerning its meaningfulness. Finally, the societal effect, acknowl-

edging the power that kind of formally guided practitioner research may have, is

worth recognizing universally.

The survey showed that nearly all respondents had found their research topic

from the school milieu, although not necessarily from their own classrooms. Most of

the respondents had also chosen their topic in order to benefit from it, i.e. they

viewed their topics as being useful to them. Nearly all had also chosen a previously

familiar topic. Most of the respondents stated that the aim of their research was to

produce useful information either for the school or the development of their own

teaching. The open-ended answers supported this conclusion. The respondents

clearly wished that the topics of the M.A. thesis research should relate to the real

world and deal with real problems the teachers face in their everyday work. They

also expressed a wish to join in research projects, which indicates that they hoped to

produce real, meaningful and important information though their endeavours.


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In the opinions of these respondents research-based teacher education seems to be

able to integrate theory and practice, at least to some degree. Most of the respondents

thought that the best integration was achieved on courses which dealt with the didactics

of the school subjects. However, it is interesting to find that this theory–practice

integration does not seem to have taken place for most of the respondents in their M.A.

thesis research project. The reasons for this probably vary, but one possibility could be

that these respondents did not conceptualize researching as having a link to practical

teaching matters. This seems peculiar, since the respondents claimed to have benefited

from their research, as the answers in the first part of the survey show.

The benefits of formally guided practitioner research can be viewed from the

individual’s as well as the societal perspective. Without question the individuals

benefited from researching their own work or work-related issues. The teachers

stated that they experienced the research as being meaningful, mainly because it

related to their own work – for example, the topics were important to them, the

expected results were interesting and the research had a personal effect on them.

Although many also found the research to be strenuous and difficult at some point,

it also proved to be significant. The actual relevance of the M.A. thesis was seen to

be important, but the carrying out of such a large, individual project may have been

too challenging a task. The teachers had also set practical aims for their research,

either dealing with actual projects they were involved with or developing their own

work as teachers. This is obviously an effective way of increasing the motivation for

research, especially in the case of a mandatory thesis.

The societal effect that practitioner research may have is another aspect of formally

guided practitioner research worth recognizing. This can also be seen from the

viewpoint of the change which may take place in an individual teacher’s work or

the attitude to researching and scientific knowledge concerning educational matters.

The teachers indicated this kind of awareness in the interviews, which could increase

personal interest in teaching or even trigger an inquiring attitude towards teachers’

work. This is naturally important, not only from the point of view of the individual’s

stamina, but also with respect to the entire school community. The teachers also

claimed that they aimed to share their knowledge of their research topic, which may be

interpreted as a societal effect. If the teachers shared their knowledge about the most

up-to-date educational literature or their own findings with the school community,

including parents, they could bring about real change and have a real impact on

education in primary schools. These results are similar to those Schultz and Hall (2004)

reached with Canadian students.

The validity of the survey can be criticized on the basis of the small sample size.

However, as the sample is viewed to be representative of a certain group of respondents,

we may consider that the data at least illustrates the phenomena. This research must also

be seen as part of a larger research design in which the aim is to collect cumulative data.

Within the survey we used confirmatory variables in order to ensure the logicality and

reliability of the responses. The open-ended questions can also be used in supporting the

analysis of the statistics in the first part of the survey. The interviews also deepened the

knowledge gained from the survey – they revealed the reasons and justification behind

the solutions the teachers reached concerning the conduct of their M.A. research and,

since the interviewees represented the same group of teachers as the survey respondents

and were indeed in part the same people, the validity of this sequential mixed methods

research is increased (see Creswell and Plano Clark 2007, 148).


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If research is viewed as practice, it could open up new opportunities for the

development of teacher education. Often the compulsory M.A. thesis is not

appreciated as a way of learning something other than research skills. However, if

it were viewed as providing educational understandings of matters connected to

teaching and schools it might be valued as a significant turning point in a teacher’s

professional development. Further, in the case of developing realistic teacher

education in Norway, Haugaløkken and Ramberg (2007, 68) emphasized the

importance of motivating ‘students to carry out classroom research in relation to

their own teaching, and participate in research and development work in the

school together with colleagues’. However, the problem still remains, as Schultz

and Hall (2004, 260) stated, that in general inquiry is a university rather than

school priority. Thus schools focus on socialization, knowledge transfer and

personal development, but universities are seen as concerned with knowledge

creation. (Schultz and Hall 2004, 261). While in Schultz and Hall’s (2004) study the

problem was the lack of a common understanding of ‘inquiry’, although an

important issue in general, this is not the case with M.A. thesis research, since the

specific requirements are set by the university. However, the schools should be

drawn into an inquiring and developing attitude by the universities. By providing

student teachers with meaningful research topics and contexts, the interests of the

university, the student and the school can be connected.

The integration of theory and practice is an important part of teacher education.

The results of the research presented here illuminate one possibility of this

integration. The integration itself should be viewed as possible at many levels and to

varying degrees. What we propose, therefore, is that practice should no longer be

defined narrowly, as it has been for quite some time. First, perceiving practice as

two-fold, in that it consists also of research activity, opens up a new possibility for

the development of a teacher’s professionalism. Second, the integration of theory

and practice should be understood as a multi-layered phenomenon that the student

encounters along their study path.

Reflective practice is often viewed as a solitary process. Zeichner and Liston

(1996) criticized the fact that the reflective practice movement focused on the

individual teacher’s reflection, and according to them social interaction is

important and teachers should be encouraged to share their beliefs (Zeichner

and Liston 1996, 76). Similar ideas were presented by Shultz and Hall (2004, 267),

based on Van Manen’s three levels of reflective practice, when they hypothesised

that the third, critical, level of reflection is best fostered by a partnership or

community of inquiry where differences of opinion and questioning are regarded

as opportunities for learning. Maaranen and Krokfors (2007, 361) defined

reflection as ‘a shared mental structuring process that takes place in both

individual and collective settings of learning and has a positive social impact on

the learning possibilities in the future’. Providing teacher students with possibilities

for collective reflection, inquiry, research and reflective practice is our future

challenge, which must be emphasized.

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