Transcript
Page 1: Shrimp Culture: Culture of Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon)

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Dr. T. K. GhoshDr. T. K. Ghosh Department of Department of AquacultureAquaculture Faculty of Fishery Faculty of Fishery SciencesSciences

CULTURE OF TIGER CULTURE OF TIGER SHRIMP SHRIMP (Penaeus monodon)(Penaeus monodon)

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Introduction:Introduction:Penaeus monodonPenaeus monodon (common names include (common names include giant tiger prawngiant tiger prawn, , black tiger prawnblack tiger prawn, , leader prawnleader prawn, , sugposugpo and and grass prawngrass prawn) is a ) is a marine crustacean that is widely reared for food. marine crustacean that is widely reared for food.

DISTRIBUTION:DISTRIBUTION:The natural distribution is Indo – West - pacific, ranging The natural distribution is Indo – West - pacific, ranging

from the eastern coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, as from the eastern coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, as far as South-east Asia, and the Sea of Japan. They can also be far as South-east Asia, and the Sea of Japan. They can also be found in eastern Australia, and a small number have found in eastern Australia, and a small number have colonised the Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal. Further colonised the Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal. Further invasive populations have become established in Hawaii invasive populations have become established in Hawaii and the Atlantic coast of the USA (Florida, Georgia and and the Atlantic coast of the USA (Florida, Georgia and South Carolina).South Carolina).

Both sexes reach approximately 36 cm long, and females Both sexes reach approximately 36 cm long, and females can weigh up to 650 g, making it the world's largest species can weigh up to 650 g, making it the world's largest species of prawn.of prawn.

P. monodonP. monodon is the most widely cultured prawn species in the world. is the most widely cultured prawn species in the world. Over 900,000 tonnes are consumed annually, two-thirds of it coming Over 900,000 tonnes are consumed annually, two-thirds of it coming from farming, chiefly in south-east Asia.from farming, chiefly in south-east Asia.

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Kingdom: AnimaliaKingdom: Animalia Phylum: ArthropodaPhylum: Arthropoda Subphylum: CrustaceaSubphylum: Crustacea Class: MalacostracaClass: Malacostraca Order: DecapodaOrder: Decapoda Suborder: DendrobranchiataSuborder: Dendrobranchiata Family: PenaeidaeFamily: Penaeidae Genus: Genus: PenaeusPenae us Species: Species: P. mo no do nP. mo no do n Common name : BLACK TIGER SHRIMPCommon name : BLACK TIGER SHRIMP

Classification:Classification:

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SHRIMP FARM:SHRIMP FARM:A A shrimp farmshrimp farm is an aquaculture business for is an aquaculture business for

the cultivation of marine shrimp or prawn for the cultivation of marine shrimp or prawn for human consumption. Commercial shrimp farming human consumption. Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the particularly to match the market demands of the U.S., Japan and Western Europe.U.S., Japan and Western Europe.

The total global production of farmed shrimp The total global production of farmed shrimp reached more than 1.6 million tonnes in 2003, reached more than 1.6 million tonnes in 2003, representing a value of nearly 9,000 million U.S. representing a value of nearly 9,000 million U.S. dollars. dollars.

About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced in About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced in Asia, in particular in China and Thailand.Asia, in particular in China and Thailand.

The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin America, where Brazil is the largest producer.America, where Brazil is the largest producer.

The largest exporting nation is Thailand.The largest exporting nation is Thailand.

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IDENTIFICATION:IDENTIFICATION:The giant tiger prawn inhabits the coasts of Australia, South The giant tiger prawn inhabits the coasts of Australia, South

East Asia, South Asia and East Africa. Similar to all penaeid shrimp, East Asia, South Asia and East Africa. Similar to all penaeid shrimp, the rostrum well developed and toothed dorsally and ventrally.the rostrum well developed and toothed dorsally and ventrally.

Carapace without longitudinal or transverse sutures. Cervical Carapace without longitudinal or transverse sutures. Cervical and orbito-antennal sulci and antennal carnage always present.and orbito-antennal sulci and antennal carnage always present.

Hepatic and antennal spines pronounced. The most distinct Hepatic and antennal spines pronounced. The most distinct features for identification of this species are: fifth pereiopods features for identification of this species are: fifth pereiopods without exopod; hepatic carina horizontally straight; and without exopod; hepatic carina horizontally straight; and gastroorbital carina occupying the posterior half of the distance gastroorbital carina occupying the posterior half of the distance between hepatic spine and postorbital margin of carapace.between hepatic spine and postorbital margin of carapace.

Depending on substratum, feed and water turbidity, body Depending on substratum, feed and water turbidity, body colours vary from green, brown, red, grey, blue and transverse band colours vary from green, brown, red, grey, blue and transverse band colours on abdomen and carapace are alternated between blue or colours on abdomen and carapace are alternated between blue or black and yellow. black and yellow.

Adults may reach 33 cm in length and females are commonly Adults may reach 33 cm in length and females are commonly larger than males.larger than males.

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AnatomyAnatomy

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VarietyVariety

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Back ground:Back ground:

Shrimp farming has been practiced for more than a Shrimp farming has been practiced for more than a century for food and the livelihood of coastal people in some century for food and the livelihood of coastal people in some Asian countries, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan Asian countries, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand and Vietnam.Province of China, Thailand and Vietnam.

Penaeus monodon was originally harvested together with Penaeus monodon was originally harvested together with other shrimp species from traditional trapping-growing other shrimp species from traditional trapping-growing ponds or as a significant by-product of extensive milkfish ponds or as a significant by-product of extensive milkfish ponds but in the year 1988, P. monodon was recognized as ponds but in the year 1988, P. monodon was recognized as the world's leading producer of farm-raised aquatic the world's leading producer of farm-raised aquatic organisms.organisms.

Later, the culture of this species spread throughout Later, the culture of this species spread throughout southeast and south Asia, as it can grow-up to a large size southeast and south Asia, as it can grow-up to a large size (40-60 g) with high value and demand in the international (40-60 g) with high value and demand in the international market. market.

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Contd…Contd…

The locally adapted culture technology has The locally adapted culture technology has allowed Thai farmers to overcome serious disease, allowed Thai farmers to overcome serious disease, environmental and trade problems and maintain its environmental and trade problems and maintain its status as a leading producer.status as a leading producer.

The introduction or importation of wild brood The introduction or importation of wild brood stock is commonly practiced among the major stock is commonly practiced among the major producing countries because local supplies are producing countries because local supplies are insufficient and domestication technology has not insufficient and domestication technology has not yet been commercially developed. However, yet been commercially developed. However, disease-free brood stock are highly desirable and disease-free brood stock are highly desirable and some countries require health certification of some countries require health certification of imported stock. imported stock.

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Main producer countriesMain producer countries : :

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Habitat and biology :Habitat and biology :Penaeus monodon mature and breed only in tropical Penaeus monodon mature and breed only in tropical

marine habitats and spend their larval, juvenile, adolescent and marine habitats and spend their larval, juvenile, adolescent and sub-adult stages in coastal estuaries, lagoons or mangrove areas. sub-adult stages in coastal estuaries, lagoons or mangrove areas.

In the wild, they show marked nocturnal activity, In the wild, they show marked nocturnal activity, burrowing into bottom substratum during the day and emerging burrowing into bottom substratum during the day and emerging at night to search for food as benthic feeders.at night to search for food as benthic feeders.

Under natural conditions, the giant tiger prawn is more of a Under natural conditions, the giant tiger prawn is more of a predator than an omnivorous scavenger or detritus feeder than predator than an omnivorous scavenger or detritus feeder than other penaeid shrimp. After moulting, the new shell is still soft other penaeid shrimp. After moulting, the new shell is still soft which causes prawns to become vulnerable and they may which causes prawns to become vulnerable and they may subsequently be eaten by their predators or companions. Adults subsequently be eaten by their predators or companions. Adults are often found over muddy sand or sandy bottoms at 20-50 m are often found over muddy sand or sandy bottoms at 20-50 m depth in offshore waters. Wild males posses spermatozoa from depth in offshore waters. Wild males posses spermatozoa from around 35 g body weight and females becomes gravid from 70 g.around 35 g body weight and females becomes gravid from 70 g.

Mating occurs at night, shortly after moulting while the Mating occurs at night, shortly after moulting while the cuticle is still soft, and sperm are subsequently kept in a cuticle is still soft, and sperm are subsequently kept in a spermatophore (sac) inserted inside the closed thelycum of the spermatophore (sac) inserted inside the closed thelycum of the female. female.

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cont…cont…There are five stages in ovarian maturation; undeveloped, developing; There are five stages in ovarian maturation; undeveloped, developing;

nearly ripe; ripe; and spent. P. monodon females are highly fecund with gravid nearly ripe; ripe; and spent. P. monodon females are highly fecund with gravid females producing as many as 500 000 to 750 000 eggs.females producing as many as 500 000 to 750 000 eggs.

Spawning occurs at night and fertilization is external with females Spawning occurs at night and fertilization is external with females suddenly extruding sperm from the thelycum as eggs are laid in offshore waters. suddenly extruding sperm from the thelycum as eggs are laid in offshore waters. Hatching occurs 12-15 hours after fertilization. The larvae, termed nauplii, are Hatching occurs 12-15 hours after fertilization. The larvae, termed nauplii, are free swimming and resemble tiny aquatic spiders. This first stage in larval free swimming and resemble tiny aquatic spiders. This first stage in larval development does not feed but lives on its yolk reserve and passes rapidly development does not feed but lives on its yolk reserve and passes rapidly through six moults. The next larval stages [protozoea, mysis and early through six moults. The next larval stages [protozoea, mysis and early postlarvae (PL) respectively] remain planktonic for some time and are carried postlarvae (PL) respectively] remain planktonic for some time and are carried towards the shore by tidal currents.towards the shore by tidal currents.

Protozoea, which have feathery appendages and elongated bodies, Protozoea, which have feathery appendages and elongated bodies, moult three times and then metamorphose into the mysis stage. Mysis, which moult three times and then metamorphose into the mysis stage. Mysis, which have segmented bodies, eyestalk and tails characteristic of adult shrimp, also have segmented bodies, eyestalk and tails characteristic of adult shrimp, also moult three times before metamorphosing into PL with similar characteristics moult three times before metamorphosing into PL with similar characteristics to adult shrimp.to adult shrimp.

The PL subsequently change their habit to feed on benthic detritus, The PL subsequently change their habit to feed on benthic detritus, polychaete worms and small crustaceans after PL 6. Juvenile and adolescent polychaete worms and small crustaceans after PL 6. Juvenile and adolescent stages can tolerate salinity conditions as low as 1-2 ‰.stages can tolerate salinity conditions as low as 1-2 ‰.

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LIFE HISTORY LIFE HISTORY :: The life history of the tiger prawn may be The life history of the tiger prawn may be

divided into six phases. The first, the embryo divided into six phases. The first, the embryo phase, is planktonic/benthic and lasts only 12-14 phase, is planktonic/benthic and lasts only 12-14 hours.hours.

The second, the larval phase, is planktonic and The second, the larval phase, is planktonic and lasts approximately 20 days. lasts approximately 20 days.

Aspects of the next four phases – juvenile, Aspects of the next four phases – juvenile, adolescent, sub-adult and adult are shown in adolescent, sub-adult and adult are shown in Table-1.Table-1.

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Table-1. The life history phases of the tiger shrimp, Table-1. The life history phases of the tiger shrimp, P. monodonP. monodon

Phase Phase DuratioDuration n

Carapace Carapace Length Length

(CL) (CL) (mm) (mm)

Total Total Length Length

(TL) (mm) (TL) (mm)

Body Body weight weight

(BW) (g) (BW) (g)

HabitatHabitat

Juvenile Juvenile DayDay21 - 3521 - 35

2.2 – 11 2.2 – 11 29 - 56 29 - 56 0.02 – 0.02 – 1.31.3

EstuarinEstuarinee

AdolesceAdolescent nt

MonthMonth1.2 - 51.2 - 5

11 – 3711 – 37 56 – 134 56 – 134 1.3 – 331.3 – 33 EstuarinEstuarinee

Sub-Sub-AdultAdult

MonthMonth5 - 6 5 - 6

37 – 4737 – 47 134 – 164134 – 164 33 – 6033 – 60 CoastalCoastal

AdultAdult(Brood (Brood stock)stock)

MonthMonth6 - 24 6 - 24

47 - 8147 - 81 164 - 266 164 - 266 60 - 26160 - 261 Inshore Inshore / /

OffshoreOffshore

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EMBRYO AND LARVAL PHASE:EMBRYO AND LARVAL PHASE:Adult Adult P. monodonP. monodon are believed to spawn predominantly in inshore are believed to spawn predominantly in inshore

and to a lesser extent in offshore waters. The eggs are spawned by the and to a lesser extent in offshore waters. The eggs are spawned by the female in the water column and soon after sink towards the bottom. The female in the water column and soon after sink towards the bottom. The eggs develop through the embryonic phase and hatch out in eggs develop through the embryonic phase and hatch out in approximately 12-14 hours.approximately 12-14 hours.

The larvae go through 6 naupliar, 3 protozoeal, 3 mysis and 3 or 4 The larvae go through 6 naupliar, 3 protozoeal, 3 mysis and 3 or 4 megalopa sub stages, with each sub stage lasting approximately 1.5, 5, 4 megalopa sub stages, with each sub stage lasting approximately 1.5, 5, 4 to 5, and 6 to 15 days respectively. The megalopa and early juvenile to 5, and 6 to 15 days respectively. The megalopa and early juvenile stages are collectively termed postlarvae, or fry for commercial purposes.stages are collectively termed postlarvae, or fry for commercial purposes.

The post larval stage begins on day 1 of the megalopa sub stage. The The post larval stage begins on day 1 of the megalopa sub stage. The larvae remain in the plankton for 2-3 weeks and are believed to migrate larvae remain in the plankton for 2-3 weeks and are believed to migrate towards estuaries and mangroves. Five-day-old postlarvae (PL5), towards estuaries and mangroves. Five-day-old postlarvae (PL5), approximately 16 days post-hatch at 29°C, end their planktonic phase approximately 16 days post-hatch at 29°C, end their planktonic phase and settle on the bottom.and settle on the bottom.

At this time postlarvae preferentially grasp and cling to filamentous At this time postlarvae preferentially grasp and cling to filamentous matter, grass, twigs and the like which makes them difficult to sample matter, grass, twigs and the like which makes them difficult to sample accurately. It is believed that they migrate into estuaries and mangroves accurately. It is believed that they migrate into estuaries and mangroves and remain in these nursery grounds until the following summer. In and remain in these nursery grounds until the following summer. In northern Queensland recruitment occurs annually as two major seasonal northern Queensland recruitment occurs annually as two major seasonal cohorts – the first from a spawning occurring in late summer/autumn cohorts – the first from a spawning occurring in late summer/autumn (mid-February to April) and the second in spring (late August to (mid-February to April) and the second in spring (late August to October/November). October/November).

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JUVENILE, ADOLESCENT AND SUB-ADULT PHASE:JUVENILE, ADOLESCENT AND SUB-ADULT PHASE:

In the Philippines In the Philippines P. monodonP. monodon has a juvenile phase has a juvenile phase of only 2 weeks before reaching adolescence, usually of only 2 weeks before reaching adolescence, usually around 1.3 g BW (11 mm CL, 56 mm TL), at which time around 1.3 g BW (11 mm CL, 56 mm TL), at which time the sexes can first be identified. Little is known of the sexes can first be identified. Little is known of these early stages in Australian waters.these early stages in Australian waters.

Although the 2 inch mesh of commercial trawl nets Although the 2 inch mesh of commercial trawl nets largely excludes capture of these small prawns, and largely excludes capture of these small prawns, and given that trawlers rarely attempt or are prohibited given that trawlers rarely attempt or are prohibited from fishing immediately along the shoreline, collectors from fishing immediately along the shoreline, collectors in north Queensland nevertheless believe that these in north Queensland nevertheless believe that these stages are not found in coastal waters.stages are not found in coastal waters.

Instead they have concluded that juveniles and Instead they have concluded that juveniles and adolescents use estuarine habitats as their nursery adolescents use estuarine habitats as their nursery grounds. Support for their hypothesis comes from bait grounds. Support for their hypothesis comes from bait collectors in the Townsville to Cairns area who collectors in the Townsville to Cairns area who regularly capture small tiger prawns, 0.25 to 1.8 g BW regularly capture small tiger prawns, 0.25 to 1.8 g BW (40 - 60 mm TL), in cast nets in mangrove lined (40 - 60 mm TL), in cast nets in mangrove lined estuaries.estuaries.

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BROOD STOCK AND THE BREEDING CYCLE:BROOD STOCK AND THE BREEDING CYCLE:Once sub-adults reach sexual maturity they Once sub-adults reach sexual maturity they

become brood stock. In the Philippines, males are become brood stock. In the Philippines, males are sexually mature at approximately 33 g BW (37 mm sexually mature at approximately 33 g BW (37 mm CL, 134 mm TL). At this time spermatophores may CL, 134 mm TL). At this time spermatophores may be found in the terminal ampoule, although there is be found in the terminal ampoule, although there is a high incidence of immature sperm found in the a high incidence of immature sperm found in the spermatophore.spermatophore.

In the Philippines and Australia, females are In the Philippines and Australia, females are found with spermatophores in their thelycum at found with spermatophores in their thelycum at approximately 60 g BW (47 mm CL, 164 mm TL), approximately 60 g BW (47 mm CL, 164 mm TL), which is assumed to be the size of first sexually which is assumed to be the size of first sexually maturity. However, most females mature at a maturity. However, most females mature at a slightly larger size, around 82 to 97 g BW (180 - 190 slightly larger size, around 82 to 97 g BW (180 - 190 mm TL), which is the average size of gravid females mm TL), which is the average size of gravid females from the first spawning pulse on the autumn from the first spawning pulse on the autumn grounds in north Queensland.grounds in north Queensland.

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The second spawning season usually commences in late The second spawning season usually commences in late August when water temperature rises above 25°C.August when water temperature rises above 25°C.

At this time it is rare to find any 'previous year's brood At this time it is rare to find any 'previous year's brood stock' on the inshore grounds. By this time 'new recruits' stock' on the inshore grounds. By this time 'new recruits' are around 230 - 240 mm TL, although most of this growth are around 230 - 240 mm TL, although most of this growth would have occurred during the previous autumn and not would have occurred during the previous autumn and not during winter (collectors estimate that no growth occurs for during winter (collectors estimate that no growth occurs for up to 3 months during winter).up to 3 months during winter).

Peak egg production during the spring spawning period Peak egg production during the spring spawning period occurs during September/October, followed by a sudden occurs during September/October, followed by a sudden 'disappearance' of brood stock anytime from October 'disappearance' of brood stock anytime from October onwards. This 'disappearance' of brood stock from trawl onwards. This 'disappearance' of brood stock from trawl catches marks the end of the spring spawning after which catches marks the end of the spring spawning after which very few brood stock are caught on the inshore grounds very few brood stock are caught on the inshore grounds until late summer the following year.until late summer the following year.

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Figure: A proposed life history pattern for Figure: A proposed life history pattern for Penaeus Penaeus monodonmonodon in North Queensland. in North Queensland.

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Breeding and post larvae production:Breeding and post larvae production: Prawn larvae are produced in hatcheries which use Prawn larvae are produced in hatcheries which use

wild caught spawners or brood stock collected mainly wild caught spawners or brood stock collected mainly from the coastal waters between Cooktown and from the coastal waters between Cooktown and Innisfail.Innisfail.

The majority of these spawners are gonadally mature The majority of these spawners are gonadally mature and when they are transferred to the hatchery they and when they are transferred to the hatchery they either spawn spontaneously or are induced through either spawn spontaneously or are induced through the use of eyestalk ablation. Each spawner will the use of eyestalk ablation. Each spawner will produce between 200 000 and 500 000 eggs. The produce between 200 000 and 500 000 eggs. The eggs are hatched and pass through a number of larval eggs are hatched and pass through a number of larval stages until they reach the post larvae (PL) stage. stages until they reach the post larvae (PL) stage.

The PLs are normally sold to the grow out farms for The PLs are normally sold to the grow out farms for stocking ponds when they are 15 to 20 days old. The stocking ponds when they are 15 to 20 days old. The quality of the PLs will vary between spawners and the quality of the PLs will vary between spawners and the time of the year the spawners are collected.time of the year the spawners are collected.

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Production cycle in farms:Production cycle in farms:

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Smaller indoor concrete tanks (4-5 tonnes) Smaller indoor concrete tanks (4-5 tonnes) than those originally used have now proved than those originally used have now proved more efficient and manageable for larval more efficient and manageable for larval rearing, particularly during the application of rearing, particularly during the application of closed systems for disease prevention. If an closed systems for disease prevention. If an outdoor system is unavoidable, due to economic outdoor system is unavoidable, due to economic constraints, tanks should be covered by black constraints, tanks should be covered by black cloth or roof tiles in order to avoid the diurnal cloth or roof tiles in order to avoid the diurnal fluctuation of water temperature, and also to fluctuation of water temperature, and also to reduce light intensity.reduce light intensity.

Nauplii are usually stocked at 100 Nauplii are usually stocked at 100 000/tonne and cultured up to late mysis or 000/tonne and cultured up to late mysis or early PL with approximately 70-80 percent early PL with approximately 70-80 percent survival rate. They are then transferred to a survival rate. They are then transferred to a new tank and cultured up to PL 12-15; a new tank and cultured up to PL 12-15; a further 70-80 percent survival rate is achieved further 70-80 percent survival rate is achieved in this stage.in this stage.

Diatoms (either Chaetoceros, or Diatoms (either Chaetoceros, or Skeletonema or Tetraselmis) that have been Skeletonema or Tetraselmis) that have been reared in monoculture, are fed at an reared in monoculture, are fed at an approximate density of 30 000-50 000 cells/ml, approximate density of 30 000-50 000 cells/ml, starting from the protozoea stage and starting from the protozoea stage and continuing until early PL (4-5). continuing until early PL (4-5).

-HATCHERY--HATCHERY-

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Contd…Contd…

Diatoms can be replaced by micro-Diatoms can be replaced by micro-encapsulated diets or dry formulated encapsulated diets or dry formulated feeds if their production is interrupted feeds if their production is interrupted by rain. Artemia nauplii, at an average by rain. Artemia nauplii, at an average of 50 g of cysts per 100 000 larvae are of 50 g of cysts per 100 000 larvae are given from mysis up to early PL stage. given from mysis up to early PL stage.

Artemia flakes are also used to Artemia flakes are also used to supplement Artemia nauplii for cost supplement Artemia nauplii for cost reduction. From PL 4 to PL 15, reduction. From PL 4 to PL 15, artificial diets are commonly used to artificial diets are commonly used to reduce the deterioration in water reduce the deterioration in water quality that occurs when fresh feed is quality that occurs when fresh feed is applied. From hatching, it takes about applied. From hatching, it takes about 26 days to reach PL 15. 26 days to reach PL 15.

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NURSERY:NURSERY:

Due to its benthic habit, the harvesting of nursed juveniles in Due to its benthic habit, the harvesting of nursed juveniles in separate earthen ponds is difficult; thus nursing of hatchery separate earthen ponds is difficult; thus nursing of hatchery produced postlarvae is impractical. Nursing in concrete tanks also produced postlarvae is impractical. Nursing in concrete tanks also yields poor survival, due to the cannibalistic behaviour of PL at yields poor survival, due to the cannibalistic behaviour of PL at high stocking densities. Since intensive ponds are well treated to high stocking densities. Since intensive ponds are well treated to eliminate all fish predators, it is safe to stock PL 15 prawns directly eliminate all fish predators, it is safe to stock PL 15 prawns directly into the grow-out ponds.into the grow-out ponds.

If the pond has not been well-prepared in time, or some If the pond has not been well-prepared in time, or some predators have been observed, or the PL seem weak, PL 15 may be predators have been observed, or the PL seem weak, PL 15 may be acclimatized by impoundment in nets, pens or small enclosure acclimatized by impoundment in nets, pens or small enclosure within grow-out ponds for less than a week before release.within grow-out ponds for less than a week before release.

In semi-intensive ponds, where postlarvae are not fully fed by In semi-intensive ponds, where postlarvae are not fully fed by artificial diets and some fish predators still remain, postlarvae are artificial diets and some fish predators still remain, postlarvae are commonly nursed for a few weeks in an earthen compartment (5-commonly nursed for a few weeks in an earthen compartment (5-10 percent of pond area) within the grow-out ponds.10 percent of pond area) within the grow-out ponds.

This enables the feed to be concentrated in this small nursing This enables the feed to be concentrated in this small nursing area, resulting in juveniles that are larger and thus better able to area, resulting in juveniles that are larger and thus better able to escape from the remaining fish predators after release into the escape from the remaining fish predators after release into the grow-out pond. grow-out pond.

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Lime in pondLime in pond

Lime application to pond bottom Liming on water surface

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Seed supplySeed supply : :

Due to their larger size and better survival, Due to their larger size and better survival, captured wild seeds were used commonly in captured wild seeds were used commonly in south Asia for extensive ponds, which require south Asia for extensive ponds, which require a minimal amount of seed for stocking.a minimal amount of seed for stocking.

However, the use of wild seeds has been However, the use of wild seeds has been reduced, due to overfishing and the outbreak reduced, due to overfishing and the outbreak of white spot disease in shrimp nursery of white spot disease in shrimp nursery grounds. Therefore most Penaeus monodon grounds. Therefore most Penaeus monodon grow-out farms now rely solely on hatchery-grow-out farms now rely solely on hatchery-produced seeds. produced seeds.

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Culture environment :Culture environment :

The species occurs in the coastal waters of The species occurs in the coastal waters of Queensland and can grow quickly under a wide Queensland and can grow quickly under a wide range of salinities. Maximum growth rates are range of salinities. Maximum growth rates are achieved in 15 to 20 parts per thousand (ppt) achieved in 15 to 20 parts per thousand (ppt) salinity - seawater is normally 35 ppt. Prawns can salinity - seawater is normally 35 ppt. Prawns can survive in zero salinity (freshwater) for short survive in zero salinity (freshwater) for short periods. periods.

As they are a tropical prawn their best growth As they are a tropical prawn their best growth rates occur when water temperatures are rates occur when water temperatures are 25°C25°Cto 30 to 30 °C°C. Feeding stops at around 20 deg C and death will . Feeding stops at around 20 deg C and death will occur around occur around 14°Cto 15°C.14°Cto 15°C. This temperature range This temperature range limits production to one crop during summer in limits production to one crop during summer in areas south of Mackay and two crops can be areas south of Mackay and two crops can be obtained between Cardwell and Cooktown using obtained between Cardwell and Cooktown using good management, controlled stocking rates and good management, controlled stocking rates and selective harvesting. selective harvesting.

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Contd…Contd…

The higher the stocking densities the slower the The higher the stocking densities the slower the growth rates. With water temperatures above 24growth rates. With water temperatures above 24°C °C prawns should reach 30 to 35 grams each in 130 to prawns should reach 30 to 35 grams each in 130 to 150 days.150 days.

Prawns are normally grown in purpose built Prawns are normally grown in purpose built earthen ponds adjacent to the estuarine parts of earthen ponds adjacent to the estuarine parts of river systems. Most ponds are approximately one river systems. Most ponds are approximately one hectare in size, having a gently sloping bottom to hectare in size, having a gently sloping bottom to allow the drain harvest of the prawns and to allow allow the drain harvest of the prawns and to allow full draining for a dry-out period between crops. full draining for a dry-out period between crops. Pond depths vary from 1.5 to 2.0 metres. Pond depths vary from 1.5 to 2.0 metres.

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- ONGROWING TECHNIQUE -- ONGROWING TECHNIQUE -

There are three on-growing culture There are three on-growing culture practices: extensive, semi-intensive and practices: extensive, semi-intensive and intensive, which represent low, medium, and intensive, which represent low, medium, and high stocking densities respectively. high stocking densities respectively.

Due to its benthic feeding habit Penaeus Due to its benthic feeding habit Penaeus monodon is commercially cultured only in monodon is commercially cultured only in earthen ponds, under widely varying earthen ponds, under widely varying salinities from 2 to 30‰.salinities from 2 to 30‰.

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Extensive Farming:Extensive Farming: Commonly found in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Commonly found in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia,

Myanmar, the Philippines and Vietnam, extensive grow-Myanmar, the Philippines and Vietnam, extensive grow-out of shrimp is conducted in tidal areas where water out of shrimp is conducted in tidal areas where water pumping is unnecessary. Shrimp feed on natural foods pumping is unnecessary. Shrimp feed on natural foods that enter the pond regularly on the tide and are that enter the pond regularly on the tide and are subsequently enhanced by organic or chemical fertilizers.subsequently enhanced by organic or chemical fertilizers.

If available, fresh fish or molluscs may be used as If available, fresh fish or molluscs may be used as supplementary feed. Due to the low stocking densities, supplementary feed. Due to the low stocking densities, larger sized shrimp (>50 g) are commonly harvested larger sized shrimp (>50 g) are commonly harvested within six months or more.within six months or more.

The yield is lowest in these extensive systems, at 50-500 The yield is lowest in these extensive systems, at 50-500 kg/ha/yr. Due to the increase in land costs and the kg/ha/yr. Due to the increase in land costs and the shortage of wild seeds, almost no new extensive farms shortage of wild seeds, almost no new extensive farms are being constructed today. After gaining experience in are being constructed today. After gaining experience in shrimp farming, many farmers have upgraded their ponds shrimp farming, many farmers have upgraded their ponds to semi-intensive systems to provide better incomes.to semi-intensive systems to provide better incomes.

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Semi – Intensive Farming :Semi – Intensive Farming : Semi-intensive ponds (1-5 ha) are commonly stocked with Semi-intensive ponds (1-5 ha) are commonly stocked with

hatchery-produced seeds at the rate of 5 to 20 PL/m². Water hatchery-produced seeds at the rate of 5 to 20 PL/m². Water exchange is regularly carried out by tide and supplemented exchange is regularly carried out by tide and supplemented by pumping. The shrimp feed on natural foods enhanced by by pumping. The shrimp feed on natural foods enhanced by pond fertilization, supplemented by artificial diets.pond fertilization, supplemented by artificial diets. Production yields range from 500 to 4000 kg/ha/yr.Production yields range from 500 to 4000 kg/ha/yr.

Intensive:Intensive: Intensive farms are commonly located in non-tidal areas Intensive farms are commonly located in non-tidal areas

where ponds can be completely drained and dried before where ponds can be completely drained and dried before each stocking. This culture system is found in all Penaeus each stocking. This culture system is found in all Penaeus monodon producing countries and is commonly practiced in monodon producing countries and is commonly practiced in Thailand, the Philippines, Malaysia and Australia. Ponds are Thailand, the Philippines, Malaysia and Australia. Ponds are generally small (0.1 to 1.0 ha) with a square or rectangular generally small (0.1 to 1.0 ha) with a square or rectangular shape. Stocking density ranges from 20 to 60 PL/m². Heavy shape. Stocking density ranges from 20 to 60 PL/m². Heavy aeration, either powered by diesel engines or electric motors, aeration, either powered by diesel engines or electric motors, is necessary for internal water circulation and oxygen supply is necessary for internal water circulation and oxygen supply for both animals and phytoplanktonfor both animals and phytoplankton. .

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The following discussion presents the physico-chemical parameters that affect The following discussion presents the physico-chemical parameters that affect shrimp culture operations irrespective of the type of production methods shrimp culture operations irrespective of the type of production methods

applied.applied.

WATER QUALITY:WATER QUALITY:

The first and foremost important consideration The first and foremost important consideration in shrimp cultivation is the water quality. Water in shrimp cultivation is the water quality. Water quality should be conducive to good growth of the quality should be conducive to good growth of the shrimp. Some of the essential qualities of pond shrimp. Some of the essential qualities of pond water includes temperature, salinity, dissolved water includes temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium oxygen, pH, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium which enhance the growth of algae which serve as which enhance the growth of algae which serve as food. food.

Hydrogen sulfide also affects the growth of Hydrogen sulfide also affects the growth of shrimps.shrimps.

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Temperature affects the growth and survival of shrimps. Temperature affects the growth and survival of shrimps. The rate of growth increases with temperature, however, higher The rate of growth increases with temperature, however, higher temperature causes mortality. Temperatures between 26°C to temperature causes mortality. Temperatures between 26°C to 30°C are considered best in terms of maximum production. 30°C are considered best in terms of maximum production. Temperature above 32°C should be cause of concern. High Temperature above 32°C should be cause of concern. High temperature can be avoided by deepening of ponds, water temperature can be avoided by deepening of ponds, water exchange and aeration.exchange and aeration.

Salinity:Salinity:Young shrimps can tolerate wide range of salinity. Young shrimps can tolerate wide range of salinity.

However, very little is known of the salinity tolerance of sub-However, very little is known of the salinity tolerance of sub-adult and adult shrimp. It is observed that adult and adult shrimp. It is observed that P. monodonP. monodon and and most most MetapenaeusMetapenaeus spp. can grow in almost freshwater. spp. can grow in almost freshwater. Penaeus Penaeus merguiensismerguiensis and and P. indicusP. indicus require more saline water, above 10 require more saline water, above 10 ppt. Piyakarnchana, et. al. (1975) reported that optimal growth ppt. Piyakarnchana, et. al. (1975) reported that optimal growth of of P. merguiensisP. merguiensis was obtained at 27 ppt but that growth was was obtained at 27 ppt but that growth was good within the range from 20 to 30 ppt.good within the range from 20 to 30 ppt.

Temperature:Temperature:

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Problems of culture in low salinity areas :Problems of culture in low salinity areas :Tiger shrimp (Tiger shrimp (P. monodonP. monodon) are able to survive and grow ) are able to survive and grow

in a wide range of salinity from 2 to 45 ppt. Therefore shrimp in a wide range of salinity from 2 to 45 ppt. Therefore shrimp farmers can expand their farms extensively in different farmers can expand their farms extensively in different area/environment. However, extremely high or low salinity area/environment. However, extremely high or low salinity always causes more problems than the suitable salinities, always causes more problems than the suitable salinities, which range from 15 to 25 ppt.which range from 15 to 25 ppt.

Culture in extremely high salinities over 30 ppt may Culture in extremely high salinities over 30 ppt may cause disease problems, particularly white spot or yellow cause disease problems, particularly white spot or yellow head virus and luminescent bacteria. Therefore, more shrimp head virus and luminescent bacteria. Therefore, more shrimp farmers keep moving toward brackish water or freshwater farmers keep moving toward brackish water or freshwater areas.areas.

In 1995, the problems and solutions for In 1995, the problems and solutions for P. monodonP. monodon culture in freshwater areas were summarized. Due to the culture in freshwater areas were summarized. Due to the increases and changes in knowledge and problems on shrimp increases and changes in knowledge and problems on shrimp culture in low salinity, the information was compiled and re-culture in low salinity, the information was compiled and re-summarized for consideration so that the farmers can find summarized for consideration so that the farmers can find the suitable culture method for each environment and the suitable culture method for each environment and farming system.farming system.

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Dissolved oxygen:Dissolved oxygen: Maintenance of adequate levels of dissolved oxygen in the pond water Maintenance of adequate levels of dissolved oxygen in the pond water

is very important for the shrimp. It was observed that when dissolved is very important for the shrimp. It was observed that when dissolved oxygen reaches 3 ppm or below in fishponds, remedial measure is oxygen reaches 3 ppm or below in fishponds, remedial measure is necessary.necessary.

Shrimps are quite sensitive to low oxygen levels. With little information Shrimps are quite sensitive to low oxygen levels. With little information available, we can perhaps state that growth is best at dissolved oxygen available, we can perhaps state that growth is best at dissolved oxygen level above 3 ppm. Shigueno (1975) recorded a die-off in a pond when level above 3 ppm. Shigueno (1975) recorded a die-off in a pond when oxygen level reached 2.7 ppm during the night. Mortality can be oxygen level reached 2.7 ppm during the night. Mortality can be reduced in shrimp suffering from a lack of dissolved oxygen if the reduced in shrimp suffering from a lack of dissolved oxygen if the oxygen level is raised quickly. oxygen level is raised quickly.

Oxygenation of pond water is provided by the use of aeration devices Oxygenation of pond water is provided by the use of aeration devices such as paddlewheels where water supply is within easy reach and such as paddlewheels where water supply is within easy reach and control, frequent water exchange should be made particularly during control, frequent water exchange should be made particularly during high temperatures. Aeration devices during early mornings would help high temperatures. Aeration devices during early mornings would help prevent low oxygen levels that have occurred at night timeprevent low oxygen levels that have occurred at night time..

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Water pH:Water pH: Another important aspect in shrimp culture is the Another important aspect in shrimp culture is the

water pH. Low water pH affect the shrimp directly. water pH. Low water pH affect the shrimp directly. Wickins (1976) found that even though Wickins (1976) found that even though P. monodonP. monodon grow without suffering mortalities with water pH of grow without suffering mortalities with water pH of 6.46.4 in the presence of inorganic carbon, growth was in the presence of inorganic carbon, growth was reduced to 60 percent.reduced to 60 percent.

In water with pH of In water with pH of 6.46.4 and less than 10 to 12 mg/l and less than 10 to 12 mg/l of inorganic carbon, of inorganic carbon, P. merguiensisP. merguiensis and and P. aztecusP. aztecus exhibited greatly reduced growth and lower exhibited greatly reduced growth and lower survival. When pH fell below survival. When pH fell below 5.05.0, heavy mortalities , heavy mortalities occurred. occurred.

A fall in pH have indirect effect, for instance, A fall in pH have indirect effect, for instance, resistance of the shrimp to pathogens might be resistance of the shrimp to pathogens might be reduced. Desirable pH is above 7 to reduced. Desirable pH is above 7 to 8.58.5..

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Different colour of water in shrimp Different colour of water in shrimp culture pondculture pond

Ideal green coloured water after fertilization

Clear water with benthic algae at bottom

Clear water with floating benthic algae

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Nitrogen compounds:Nitrogen compounds: Wickins (1976) discussed the three forms of nitrogen compounds and Wickins (1976) discussed the three forms of nitrogen compounds and

the effects of sub-lethal levels on shrimp growth. Two tests with nitrate the effects of sub-lethal levels on shrimp growth. Two tests with nitrate showed that the growth of showed that the growth of P. monodonP. monodon was not affected by a was not affected by a concentration of 200 mg/l NO3 after five weeks of exposure. In a test concentration of 200 mg/l NO3 after five weeks of exposure. In a test with with P. indicusP. indicus, growth was reduced by nearly 50 percent over a period , growth was reduced by nearly 50 percent over a period of 34 days where nitrate concentration was 6.4 mg/l NO2.of 34 days where nitrate concentration was 6.4 mg/l NO2.

For ammonia, chronic toxicity test with five species of penaeid shrimps, For ammonia, chronic toxicity test with five species of penaeid shrimps, P. japonicus,P. japonicus, P. occidentalis,P. occidentalis, P. schmitti,P. schmitti, P. semisulcatusP. semisulcatus and and P. P. setiferussetiferus, showed that a mean concentration of 0.45 mg/l NH3 reduced , showed that a mean concentration of 0.45 mg/l NH3 reduced growth by 50 percent of the control. Wickins estimated that a growth by 50 percent of the control. Wickins estimated that a “maximum acceptable level” at which growth would be reduced by only “maximum acceptable level” at which growth would be reduced by only 1 to 2 percent is 0.10 mg/l NH3.1 to 2 percent is 0.10 mg/l NH3.

There are three forms of nitrogen namely; nitrate, nitrite and ammonia. There are three forms of nitrogen namely; nitrate, nitrite and ammonia. The concentration range of these nitrogen compounds which can be The concentration range of these nitrogen compounds which can be tolerated by tolerated by P. monodonP. monodon are: are:

1.1. Un-ionized ammonia (NH3)- 0.0–1.0 mg/lUn-ionized ammonia (NH3)- 0.0–1.0 mg/l2.2. Ionized ammonia (NH4+)- 0.0–0.5 mg/lIonized ammonia (NH4+)- 0.0–0.5 mg/l3.3. Nitrite (NO2)- 0.0–6.0 mg/l Nitrate (NO3)- 0.0–200 mg/lNitrite (NO2)- 0.0–6.0 mg/l Nitrate (NO3)- 0.0–200 mg/l

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Hydrogen sulfide (H2S):Hydrogen sulfide (H2S):

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the pond is the result of Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the pond is the result of the chemical reduction of organic matter which the chemical reduction of organic matter which accumulate on or in the pond bottom. This is accumulate on or in the pond bottom. This is characterized by the presence of black color of the soil characterized by the presence of black color of the soil and a rotten odor is emitted. Shigueno (1975) and a rotten odor is emitted. Shigueno (1975) observed that observed that P. japonicusP. japonicus lost equilibrium when lost equilibrium when exposed to a level of 0.1 to 2.0 ppm hydrogen sulfide exposed to a level of 0.1 to 2.0 ppm hydrogen sulfide in water. The shrimp died instantly at a concentration in water. The shrimp died instantly at a concentration of 4 ppm.of 4 ppm.

The accumulation of H2S could be avoided by The accumulation of H2S could be avoided by periodic drying of the pond bottom and cultivation of periodic drying of the pond bottom and cultivation of the pond soil to expose the same under the sun until the pond soil to expose the same under the sun until it hardens and cracks to dryness.it hardens and cracks to dryness.

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Pond bottom soilPond bottom soil

Sludge on pond bottom (indicated by arrow)

Arrow showing the thick layer of black soil /sludge on top soil layer of the pond bottom.

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Sludge removal

Manual removal of sludge Mechanical sludge removal using bulldozers

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Ploughing in dry soil

Dry soil ploughing except in trenches –West Godavari district

Ploughing on dry soil using tractor

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Ploughing in wet soil

Ploughing on wet soil using tiller

Ploughing on dry soil and subsequent wetting of bottom

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Calcium/Alkalinity:Calcium/Alkalinity: The calcium content in water is important for moulting The calcium content in water is important for moulting

and growth of the prawn. After the prawn has shed its and growth of the prawn. After the prawn has shed its cuticle, calcium is required to replace the lost calcium in cuticle, calcium is required to replace the lost calcium in the cast cuticle and to increase the rate of carapace the cast cuticle and to increase the rate of carapace calcification. Calcium deficiency in water will interrupt calcification. Calcium deficiency in water will interrupt these processes resulting in incomplete moulting and these processes resulting in incomplete moulting and heavy mortality.heavy mortality.

No safe calcium level has been recommended for No safe calcium level has been recommended for P. P. monodonmonodon culture. This is because in normal brackish culture. This is because in normal brackish water, the calcium content is high and sufficient.water, the calcium content is high and sufficient.

High mortality and deformation of the rostrums and High mortality and deformation of the rostrums and periopods of periopods of P. monodonP. monodon were observed in ponds which were observed in ponds which had alkalinities less than 50 ppm CaC03. Subsequent had alkalinities less than 50 ppm CaC03. Subsequent liming of some of the low alkalinity ponds raised the liming of some of the low alkalinity ponds raised the alkalinity to above 95 ppm CaC03 and the prawns alkalinity to above 95 ppm CaC03 and the prawns resumed normal growth and no deformities were resumed normal growth and no deformities were observed. However, for those ponds which were not observed. However, for those ponds which were not limed, there was 100% mortality.limed, there was 100% mortality.

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Contd…Contd…

The pH of the pond water was about 7 before The pH of the pond water was about 7 before liming and raised to pH 8 after liming. Dissolved liming and raised to pH 8 after liming. Dissolved oxygen was 7.4 - oxygen was 7.4 - 8.28.2 mg/l and salinity was 24 - 27 mg/l and salinity was 24 - 27 ppt. The ponds were constructed on acid sulfate ppt. The ponds were constructed on acid sulfate soil. The high mortality and deformation of soil. The high mortality and deformation of prawns in this case are probably caused by the prawns in this case are probably caused by the calcium deficiency in the water. Most probably calcium deficiency in the water. Most probably these problems are typical of ponds built on acid these problems are typical of ponds built on acid sulfate soils and especially for those farms which sulfate soils and especially for those farms which have poor water management.have poor water management.

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Heavy Metals, Pesticides and HydrocarbonsHeavy Metals, Pesticides and Hydrocarbons:: Although heavy metals are toxic to organisms, the study of the acute and Although heavy metals are toxic to organisms, the study of the acute and

chronic effects of heavy metals on chronic effects of heavy metals on P. monodonP. monodon is scarce. Chen (1985) is scarce. Chen (1985) recommended the safe levels of some heavy metals, for example, 0.0025 recommended the safe levels of some heavy metals, for example, 0.0025 ppm Hg, 0.1 ppm Cu, 0.15 ppm Cd and 0.25 ppm Zn for optimal growth ppm Hg, 0.1 ppm Cu, 0.15 ppm Cd and 0.25 ppm Zn for optimal growth of of P. monodonP. monodon. No information on the toxicity of other heavy metals on . No information on the toxicity of other heavy metals on the prawn is available.the prawn is available.

For pesticides in water, the following safe levels were suggested for the For pesticides in water, the following safe levels were suggested for the prawn: 0.0004 ppb parathion, 0.001 ppb malathion, 0.008 ppb prawn: 0.0004 ppb parathion, 0.001 ppb malathion, 0.008 ppb rotenone, 0.01 ppb Azodrin, 0.01 ppb Endosulfan, 0.033 ppb Saturn, rotenone, 0.01 ppb Azodrin, 0.01 ppb Endosulfan, 0.033 ppb Saturn, 0.01 ppb Paraquat and 1 ppb Butachlor.0.01 ppb Paraquat and 1 ppb Butachlor.

A significant level of petroleum was detected in the Malaysian coastal A significant level of petroleum was detected in the Malaysian coastal waters; 30 -140 ppb in port Dickson, Pahang and Sarawak waters. The waters; 30 -140 ppb in port Dickson, Pahang and Sarawak waters. The effect of this level of hydrocarbon on the growth of effect of this level of hydrocarbon on the growth of P. monodonP. monodon is is unknown. Malaysian coastal waters are vulnernable to oil pollution unknown. Malaysian coastal waters are vulnernable to oil pollution because of the heavy traffic of oil tankers passing through its waters. In because of the heavy traffic of oil tankers passing through its waters. In case of oil spill, dispersants will be used to clean up the oil residues in case of oil spill, dispersants will be used to clean up the oil residues in water. Some of the dispersants are more toxic to organisms than the oil water. Some of the dispersants are more toxic to organisms than the oil itself. itself.

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Acid Sulphate Soils:Acid Sulphate Soils: One of the constraints to coastal aquaculture One of the constraints to coastal aquaculture

development in Malaysia is the problem of acid development in Malaysia is the problem of acid sulphate soils. Many problems are encountered sulphate soils. Many problems are encountered by prawn farmers who construct their ponds in by prawn farmers who construct their ponds in the acid sulphate soil areas. In general, the the acid sulphate soil areas. In general, the problems are :problems are :

1.1. The leaching out of the acid and iron from the The leaching out of the acid and iron from the bottom soil into pond water, and;bottom soil into pond water, and;

2.2. The amount of acidic water and iron entry into the The amount of acidic water and iron entry into the pond from the dikes and the surrounding pond from the dikes and the surrounding environment.environment.

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1. Pond preparation:1. Pond preparation:

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Improve or control acid sulphate soils:Improve or control acid sulphate soils:One method of improving pond with acid sulphate One method of improving pond with acid sulphate

soils with pH less than seven is the repeated filling up soils with pH less than seven is the repeated filling up and draining out of water in the pond. Another and draining out of water in the pond. Another method is by the use of lime. For soils with pH 5, method is by the use of lime. For soils with pH 5, treatment with 3 tons per ha of agricultural lime has treatment with 3 tons per ha of agricultural lime has been effective. The lime can be worked into the soil by been effective. The lime can be worked into the soil by the use of hand-pulled harrow or a hand tractorthe use of hand-pulled harrow or a hand tractor..

Eradication of pests and predators:Eradication of pests and predators:Prior to stocking all unwanted pests and predators Prior to stocking all unwanted pests and predators

have to be eradicated. The poison used is from have to be eradicated. The poison used is from organic pesticide such as saponin or rotenone at a organic pesticide such as saponin or rotenone at a rate of 10 ppm and 4 ppm, respectively. Flushing of rate of 10 ppm and 4 ppm, respectively. Flushing of the pond after treatment is undertaken to fully clean the pond after treatment is undertaken to fully clean up the pond of undesirable organisms. This could up the pond of undesirable organisms. This could only be effective if the gates are properly screened.only be effective if the gates are properly screened.

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Pond fertilization:Pond fertilization: For better growth of algae, the pond is fertilized with chicken For better growth of algae, the pond is fertilized with chicken

dung or other manure. This is applied to the dry pond bottom dung or other manure. This is applied to the dry pond bottom at the rate of 350 kg/ha. The chicken manure should be dried at the rate of 350 kg/ha. The chicken manure should be dried and not treated with insecticide. If no manure is available, and not treated with insecticide. If no manure is available, inorganic fertilizer can be used; one or two 50 kg bags of 18–inorganic fertilizer can be used; one or two 50 kg bags of 18–46–0 (NPK) or two or three 50 kg bags of 16–20–0 per ha.46–0 (NPK) or two or three 50 kg bags of 16–20–0 per ha.

Pond watering:Pond watering: Immediately after fertilization, 3–5 cm of water is let into the Immediately after fertilization, 3–5 cm of water is let into the

pond. After one week, the same amount of fertilizer is applied pond. After one week, the same amount of fertilizer is applied and the water level is raised to 10 to 15 cm. Fertilization is and the water level is raised to 10 to 15 cm. Fertilization is repeated after the second week and the water level is raised repeated after the second week and the water level is raised to 20 to 25 cm. Additional water is added to make up for to 20 to 25 cm. Additional water is added to make up for losses by evaporation. losses by evaporation.

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Pond watering & filtrationPond watering & filtration

Clean water pumped from the reservoir pond

Water filtration using single bag filter

Water filtration by twin bag filter

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2. Pond stocking:2. Pond stocking:The practices for stocking are as follows:The practices for stocking are as follows: I. Time and method of stocking:I. Time and method of stocking:

The best time for stocking is during the colder parts of the day, in the The best time for stocking is during the colder parts of the day, in the morning or early evening. Before the seeds are released, it is advisable that morning or early evening. Before the seeds are released, it is advisable that the temperature and salinity of the water in the container and the pond water the temperature and salinity of the water in the container and the pond water where they will be stocked be almost the same. This is done by floating the where they will be stocked be almost the same. This is done by floating the plastic bag or container on the pond water for at least 30 minutes. After the plastic bag or container on the pond water for at least 30 minutes. After the conditions in the bag and that of the pond are almost the same, the bag is conditions in the bag and that of the pond are almost the same, the bag is opened and lower into the water. The seeds are allowed to swim out until all opened and lower into the water. The seeds are allowed to swim out until all seeds are out of the bag.seeds are out of the bag.

II. Stocking rate:II. Stocking rate: The stocking capacity of a pond depends on the farmer's management The stocking capacity of a pond depends on the farmer's management capability, type of management, cost of inputs and marketing strategy. A capability, type of management, cost of inputs and marketing strategy. A farmer has to decide what size of shrimp he wants to harvest and estimate farmer has to decide what size of shrimp he wants to harvest and estimate how many kilogram per hectare he can produce per crop. Based on type of how many kilogram per hectare he can produce per crop. Based on type of management, the stocking rates are as follows: traditional method, less than management, the stocking rates are as follows: traditional method, less than 2.0/sq m; semi-intensive, 2–4/sq m; and for intensive, more than 10/sq m for 2.0/sq m; semi-intensive, 2–4/sq m; and for intensive, more than 10/sq m for P. P. monodonmonodon. In other countries like the Philippines, a stocking density of 20 . In other countries like the Philippines, a stocking density of 20 000/ha is used by some farmers.000/ha is used by some farmers.

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3. Grow-out culture practices :3. Grow-out culture practices :The success in production depends on several culture The success in production depends on several culture

practices. These include proper water management, correct practices. These include proper water management, correct stocking density and feeding technique. A brief discussion stocking density and feeding technique. A brief discussion on the practices are as follows :on the practices are as follows :

Water exchange :Water exchange :In ponds with static water, accumulation of waste In ponds with static water, accumulation of waste

products or depletion of trace metals or organic compounds products or depletion of trace metals or organic compounds can have a harmful effect on shrimps. Therefore, water can have a harmful effect on shrimps. Therefore, water should be changed as often as possible. In traditional should be changed as often as possible. In traditional method of shrimp culture changing water is done every high method of shrimp culture changing water is done every high tide; and the depth of pond water should be maintained at tide; and the depth of pond water should be maintained at 30 to 50 cm above the pond bottom or 80 to 100 cm from 30 to 50 cm above the pond bottom or 80 to 100 cm from the peripheral canal bottom.the peripheral canal bottom.

For semi-intensive operations, 20 percent of water is For semi-intensive operations, 20 percent of water is changed during high tide or water change is done every 3 changed during high tide or water change is done every 3 days with the use of water pump. Pond water is maintained days with the use of water pump. Pond water is maintained at 50 to 75 cm depth.at 50 to 75 cm depth.

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Monitoring of stock and water quality:Monitoring of stock and water quality:Random sample of shrimp is collected with a cast net Random sample of shrimp is collected with a cast net

every 15 days. The shrimps are measured individually in length every 15 days. The shrimps are measured individually in length and weight to monitor the growth and determine the and weight to monitor the growth and determine the appropriate feeding levels.appropriate feeding levels.

Water temperature and salinity are monitored daily, for Water temperature and salinity are monitored daily, for semi-intensive culture practices. Other water quality semi-intensive culture practices. Other water quality parameters monitored are water dissolved oxygen, total parameters monitored are water dissolved oxygen, total organic matter, pH, nitrate and ammonia. Water temperature organic matter, pH, nitrate and ammonia. Water temperature and salinity are measured daily at 8:00 A.M. and 5:00 P.M. and salinity are measured daily at 8:00 A.M. and 5:00 P.M. Other parameters are measured every seventh day.Other parameters are measured every seventh day.

Fertilization:Fertilization:In semi-intensive culture, additional application of In semi-intensive culture, additional application of

fertilizer to support the growth of natural food in the pond is fertilizer to support the growth of natural food in the pond is carried out. This is about 10 percent of the amount applied in carried out. This is about 10 percent of the amount applied in the initial pond fertilization. Fertilizer used are urea (47-0-0), the initial pond fertilization. Fertilizer used are urea (47-0-0), triple superphosphate (0-35-0) and organic fertilizer.triple superphosphate (0-35-0) and organic fertilizer.

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Installation of aeration system:Installation of aeration system:Most common aeration system used in shrimp pond is the paddle Most common aeration system used in shrimp pond is the paddle

wheel. The ideal number of paddle wheel in a hectare of pond is 4 pieces wheel. The ideal number of paddle wheel in a hectare of pond is 4 pieces of 1 to 1.5 hp each. At the early stage of the cultivation, this is used for 8 of 1 to 1.5 hp each. At the early stage of the cultivation, this is used for 8 hours between 11:00 o'clock in the evening and 6:00 o'clock in the hours between 11:00 o'clock in the evening and 6:00 o'clock in the morning. However, at near harvest this is operated for about 18 hours per morning. However, at near harvest this is operated for about 18 hours per day between 8:00 o'clock in the evening to 8:00 o'clock in the morning and day between 8:00 o'clock in the evening to 8:00 o'clock in the morning and at 11:00 o'clock in the morning to 3:00 o'clock in the afternoon. The at 11:00 o'clock in the morning to 3:00 o'clock in the afternoon. The aeration system is a must in either the semi-intensive or intensive shrimp aeration system is a must in either the semi-intensive or intensive shrimp cultivation.cultivation.

Feeds and feeding:Feeds and feeding:In the cultivation of shrimp, feeding is necessary in either the semi-In the cultivation of shrimp, feeding is necessary in either the semi-

intensive or intensive shrimp culture. The feeds are given either twice, thrice or intensive or intensive shrimp culture. The feeds are given either twice, thrice or four times a day. The rate of feeding ranges from 5 to 10 percent of the four times a day. The rate of feeding ranges from 5 to 10 percent of the biomass.biomass.

For semi-intensive culture, supplementary feeds are given two weeks or For semi-intensive culture, supplementary feeds are given two weeks or after a month when the natural feeds are almost exhausted. These may consist after a month when the natural feeds are almost exhausted. These may consist of ground trash f ish, mussel meat, shrimp heads and other feed formulations of ground trash f ish, mussel meat, shrimp heads and other feed formulations available in the market.available in the market.

For intensive shrimp culture, commercial formulated feeds are often used. For intensive shrimp culture, commercial formulated feeds are often used. Feeds are given immediately on the start of the cultivation.Feeds are given immediately on the start of the cultivation.

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Feed and feedingFeed and feeding

Demand feeding using check trays Feed distribution using boat

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SamplingSampling

Cast net sampling for health check upHealthy shrimp samples

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Sample of feed frequency:Sample of feed frequency:Feeds estimated per day for the first two Feeds estimated per day for the first two

months are given twice a day; 40 percent months are given twice a day; 40 percent would be given at 7:00 A.M. and the rest or would be given at 7:00 A.M. and the rest or 60 percent given at 5:00 P.M.60 percent given at 5:00 P.M.

For the next month, thrice a day, 30 For the next month, thrice a day, 30 percent at 7:00 A.M., 30 percent at 10:00 percent at 7:00 A.M., 30 percent at 10:00 A.M. and 40 percent of the estimated feed A.M. and 40 percent of the estimated feed at 5:00 P.M.at 5:00 P.M.

In the last and fourth month, 20 percent In the last and fourth month, 20 percent at 10:00 A.M., 40 percent at 5:00 P.M. and at 10:00 A.M., 40 percent at 5:00 P.M. and the rest of the feeds at 10:00 P.M. the rest of the feeds at 10:00 P.M.

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Table-1. Composition of formulated feed for P. monodon:Table-1. Composition of formulated feed for P. monodon:

Avg Avg body wtbody wtof of shrimpshrimp

Feed type Feed type Shape of Shape of feedfeed

Moisture Moisture (%)(%)

Crude Crude fibre fibre (%)(%)

CRUDE CRUDE ASHASH(%)(%)

CRUDE CRUDE LIPIDLIPID(%)(%)

CRUDE CRUDE PROTPROT(%)(%)

PL – 25 PL – 25 to 1 gmto 1 gm

STARTERSTARTER CRUMBLECRUMBLE 1313 22 1616 2.82.8 3737

10 gm10 gm GROWERGROWER GRANULEGRANULE 1313 33 1616 2.82.8 3636

50 gm50 gmHarvestHarvest

FINISHERFINISHER RODSRODS 1313 33 1616 2.82.8 3535

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Nutrition and feeding of tiger prawn, P. monodon: a review Nutrition and feeding of tiger prawn, P. monodon: a review study in Thailandstudy in Thailand : :

Feed quality of Tiger prawn, (Feed quality of Tiger prawn, (P. monodon)P. monodon) has been developed to the optimal nutritional level has been developed to the optimal nutritional level with long water stability. During shrimp feeding with long water stability. During shrimp feeding approximately 10% of the diet will be lost to the approximately 10% of the diet will be lost to the water and becomes nutrients for bacteria and water and becomes nutrients for bacteria and microalgae. With optimal feed management, microalgae. With optimal feed management, shrimp and other organisms will live well in an shrimp and other organisms will live well in an equilibrium environment.equilibrium environment.

Over-feeding will lead to nutrient load and Over-feeding will lead to nutrient load and eutrophication, with severe consequences for the eutrophication, with severe consequences for the pond water which may become difficult to manage pond water which may become difficult to manage and may necessitate the early harvesting of and may necessitate the early harvesting of shrimp.shrimp.

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Contd….Contd….Shrimp require energy with primary on protein Shrimp require energy with primary on protein

(~ 40%), fat (~7-10%) and carbohydrate (~30%). (~ 40%), fat (~7-10%) and carbohydrate (~30%). Changes in the amount of protein, fat or carbohydrate Changes in the amount of protein, fat or carbohydrate energy will affect their ratios in the diet.energy will affect their ratios in the diet.

To ensure better growth and survival of shrimp, To ensure better growth and survival of shrimp, minor nutritional components, such as n-3 fatty acids minor nutritional components, such as n-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), astaxanthin and/or other vitamin A (EPA and DHA), astaxanthin and/or other vitamin A derivatives, ascorbic acids and some minerals are derivatives, ascorbic acids and some minerals are needed. needed.

At present, probiotics have been introduced for At present, probiotics have been introduced for shrimp culture in Thailand. Probiotics added to the shrimp culture in Thailand. Probiotics added to the feed provide good results in shrimp health and feed provide good results in shrimp health and production. Probiotics will be used in shrimp culture to production. Probiotics will be used in shrimp culture to replace the use of antibiotics and will lead the shrimp replace the use of antibiotics and will lead the shrimp culture industry to future organic farming. culture industry to future organic farming.

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Contd. . .Contd. . . In processing plants, shrimp are properly cleaned and In processing plants, shrimp are properly cleaned and

sorted according to export standard sizes. Depending on sorted according to export standard sizes. Depending on market requirement, shrimp are processed in several market requirement, shrimp are processed in several categories before quick freezing at -10 °C and stored categories before quick freezing at -10 °C and stored below -20 °C for further export by ship or air cargo. Due to below -20 °C for further export by ship or air cargo. Due to an increasing demand and higher profit margin, many an increasing demand and higher profit margin, many processing plants increasingly operate value-added processing plants increasingly operate value-added product lines.product lines.

Production costsProduction costs : :Production costs always vary depending on the site, Production costs always vary depending on the site,

season, scale of production, water management system season, scale of production, water management system (such as water exchange versus closed system), irregular (such as water exchange versus closed system), irregular production yield affected by culture problems, outbreak of production yield affected by culture problems, outbreak of diseases, etc. Operational costs for seed production diseases, etc. Operational costs for seed production regionally average at about US$ 2.5/1000 PL.regionally average at about US$ 2.5/1000 PL.

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Production costs for adult shrimp are summarized as Production costs for adult shrimp are summarized as follows (US $ /kg): follows (US $ /kg):

PARAMETERPARAMETER EXTENSIVEEXTENSIVE SEMI-SEMI-INTENSIVEINTENSIVE

INTENSIVEINTENSIVE

SEEDSEED 0.530.53 0.580.58 0.590.59

FEEDFEED ---------- 1.411.41 2.422.42

LABOURLABOUR 0.850.85 0.200.20 0.190.19

ELECTRICITY & FUELELECTRICITY & FUEL 0.210.21 0.360.36 0.330.33

CHEMICAL , MATERIALS & CHEMICAL , MATERIALS & SUPPLIESSUPPLIES

0.160.16 0.180.18 0.260.26

OVERHEADOVERHEAD ---------- 0.130.13 0.370.37

DEPRECIATIONDEPRECIATION 0.200.20 0.660.66 0.520.52

TOTAL:TOTAL: 1.951.95 3.523.52 4.284.28

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Diseases and control measures:Diseases and control measures:The major disease problems are included in the Table below:The major disease problems are included in the Table below:

There are no chemicals or drugs available to treat the viral There are no chemicals or drugs available to treat the viral infections listed but good management of pond, water, feed and infections listed but good management of pond, water, feed and health status of stock inputs can reduce their virulence. health status of stock inputs can reduce their virulence.

Outbreaks of the most serious virus (WSD) always occur Outbreaks of the most serious virus (WSD) always occur after dramatic changes in water parameters such as temperature, after dramatic changes in water parameters such as temperature, salinity caused by heavy rain, DO2, hardness, and the stress to salinity caused by heavy rain, DO2, hardness, and the stress to shrimp caused by deterioration in water quality and pond bottom shrimp caused by deterioration in water quality and pond bottom environment.environment.

Pond preparation by proper bottom cleaning or regular Pond preparation by proper bottom cleaning or regular scraping of the fouled layer is also a key factor for prevention of scraping of the fouled layer is also a key factor for prevention of the shrimp stress caused by built up waste and toxic gases, and the shrimp stress caused by built up waste and toxic gases, and also for the elimination of virus carriers, particularly crustaceans.also for the elimination of virus carriers, particularly crustaceans.

For confirmation, the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test For confirmation, the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test for white spot disease or other viruses is widely used for for white spot disease or other viruses is widely used for screening of brood stock before spawning, nauplii before larval screening of brood stock before spawning, nauplii before larval rearing, late PL before pond stocking, and shrimp in ponds for rearing, late PL before pond stocking, and shrimp in ponds for regular monitoring.regular monitoring.

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Some cases antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals have been used in Some cases antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals have been used in treatment but their inclusion in this table does not imply an FAO treatment but their inclusion in this table does not imply an FAO

recommendationrecommendation

DISEASEDISEASE AGENTAGENT TYPETYPE SYPTOMESYPTOME MEASURESMEASURES

WHITE WHITE SPOT SPOT (WSD) (WSD)

otherwise otherwise known as known as

WBSV, WBSV, WSSVWSSV

Part of the Part of the white spot white spot syndromesyndromes s baculovirubaculovirus complexs complex

VIRUSVIRUS Acutely infected Acutely infected shrimp show rapid shrimp show rapid reduction in food reduction in food consumption ; consumption ; lethargy; high mortality lethargy; high mortality rates with cumulative rates with cumulative mortalities reaching mortalities reaching 100% with in 3 to 10 100% with in 3 to 10 days of the onset of days of the onset of clinical signs; acutely clinical signs; acutely infected shrimp often infected shrimp often have loose cuticle with have loose cuticle with white spots of 0.5 – 2 white spots of 0.5 – 2 mm in dia. That are mm in dia. That are most apparent on the most apparent on the inside surface of the inside surface of the carapace.carapace.

Screening of brood Screening of brood stock , naupli, pl, & stock , naupli, pl, & grow out stages; grow out stages; avoiding shrimp stress; avoiding shrimp stress; avoid use of fresh avoid use of fresh feeds, particularly feeds, particularly crustaceans; crustaceans; minimizing water minimizing water exchange to prevent exchange to prevent virus carriers entering virus carriers entering the pond; treating the pond; treating infected ponds or infected ponds or hatcheries with 30 ppm hatcheries with 30 ppm chlorine to kill infected chlorine to kill infected shrimp & carriers; shrimp & carriers; disinfect associated disinfect associated equipmentequipment

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Diseases of shrimpDiseases of shrimp

Diseased liverDiseased liver

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DISEASEDISEASE AGENTAGENT TYPETYPE SYPTOMESYPTOME MEASURESMEASURES

Yellow head Yellow head Disease (YHD) Disease (YHD) also called also called Yellow-Head Yellow-Head Virus (YHV), Virus (YHV), Yellow Head Yellow Head Baculo Virus Baculo Virus (YHBV), Yellow (YHBV), Yellow Head Disease Head Disease Baculo Virus Baculo Virus (YHDVB)(YHDVB)

NOT YET NOT YET DESCRIBEDESCRIBE

DD

VIRUSVIRUS Acute epizootics with high Acute epizootics with high cumulative mortalities that cumulative mortalities that may reach 100% within 3-may reach 100% within 3-5 days after appearance 5 days after appearance of clinical signs; infection of clinical signs; infection is horizontally transmitted; is horizontally transmitted; PL 20-25 & on growing PL 20-25 & on growing juveniles through to sub juveniles through to sub adults are highly adults are highly susceptible ; initially, susceptible ; initially, feeding increases, feeding increases, followed by reduced followed by reduced feeding in latter stages of feeding in latter stages of their disease; pale body; their disease; pale body; yellow swollen yellow swollen cephalothoraxes & cephalothoraxes & hepatopancreas; whitish hepatopancreas; whitish -yellowish –brownish gills ; -yellowish –brownish gills ; etcetc

Screening of brood Screening of brood stock before hatchery stock before hatchery operation & PL before operation & PL before stocking in pond; stocking in pond; avoiding rapid avoiding rapid changes in water pH, changes in water pH, alkalinity, & DO ; alkalinity, & DO ; avoiding fresh aquatic avoiding fresh aquatic feeds; proper cleaning feeds; proper cleaning of pond bottom before of pond bottom before stocking; infected stocking; infected ponds &hatcheries ponds &hatcheries must be similar to must be similar to WSVWSV

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Yellow Head Disease (YHD)Yellow Head Disease (YHD)

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DISEASEDISEASE AGENTAGENT TYPETYPE SYPTOMESSYPTOMES MEASURESMEASURES

Baculovirul Baculovirul Mid gut Mid gut Gland Gland Necrosis Necrosis (BMN) Also (BMN) Also called Mid called Mid gut & Cloudy gut & Cloudy

Disease, Disease, White Turbid White Turbid Liver Liver disease , disease , and White and White Turbidity Turbidity Disease Disease

BaculovirusBaculovirus VIRUSVIRUS

Generally infects Generally infects larvae & early PL larvae & early PL stages in which it can stages in which it can cause high cause high mortalities; apparent mortalities; apparent white turbidity of the white turbidity of the hepatopancreas hepatopancreas caused by necrosis caused by necrosis of tubule epithelium of tubule epithelium & possibly also the & possibly also the mucosal epithelium; mucosal epithelium; larvae affected but larvae affected but later stages (late later stages (late postlarvae) tend to postlarvae) tend to show resistance; show resistance;

Wash fertile eggs Wash fertile eggs through a soft gauze through a soft gauze by running clean by running clean seawater to remove seawater to remove excrement or faeces excrement or faeces of spawner; if of spawner; if infected, culture infected, culture facility must be facility must be disinfected to avoid disinfected to avoid re-introduction of virusre-introduction of virus ..

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White Turbidity DiseaseWhite Turbidity Disease

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Continue. . .Continue. . .

DISEASE DISEASE AGENT AGENT TYPETYPE SYPTOMESYPTOME MEASURESMEASURES

Baculoviral Baculoviral Midgut Gland Midgut Gland Necrosis (BMN), Necrosis (BMN), known as mid known as mid gut gland cloudy gut gland cloudy disease, white disease, white turbid liver turbid liver disease, and disease, and white turbidity white turbidity diseasedisease

-- --

source of infection source of infection documented as wild-caught documented as wild-caught female spawners; larvae float female spawners; larvae float inactively on the surface & inactively on the surface & exhibit a white mid gut line exhibit a white mid gut line through the abdomen .through the abdomen .

--

Nuclear Nuclear Polyhedrosis Polyhedrosis Baculoviroses Baculoviroses Also known as Also known as Monodon Monodon baculovirus baculovirus disease (MBV) disease (MBV)

BaculoviruBaculovirus s

virusvirus Lethargy, anorexia, dark coloured Lethargy, anorexia, dark coloured shrimp; reduced feeding & growth shrimp; reduced feeding & growth rates; often increased surface & gill rates; often increased surface & gill fouling with various epibiotic & fouling with various epibiotic & epicommensal organisms; severely epicommensal organisms; severely affected larvae & postlarvae may affected larvae & postlarvae may exhibit a white mid gut line through exhibit a white mid gut line through the abdomen; acute MBV causes loss of the abdomen; acute MBV causes loss of hepatopancreatic tubule & mid gut hepatopancreatic tubule & mid gut epithelia &, consequently, dysfunction epithelia &, consequently, dysfunction of these organs, often followed by of these organs, often followed by secondary bacterial infections; linked secondary bacterial infections; linked with high mortalities (>90%) in late with high mortalities (>90%) in late postlarvae & juvenile shrimp in many postlarvae & juvenile shrimp in many culture facilities; usually juvenile & culture facilities; usually juvenile & adult P. monodon are more resistant to adult P. monodon are more resistant to MBV than larval shrimp; MBV may MBV than larval shrimp; MBV may predispose infected shrimp to predispose infected shrimp to infections by other pathogens; infections by other pathogens;

Reduce stocking density, Reduce stocking density, use of chemicals & use of chemicals & environmentally induced environmentally induced stress; prevent stress; prevent contamination of contamination of fertilized eggs from fertilized eggs from spawner faeces by spawner faeces by washing in formalin or washing in formalin or iodophore treated iodophore treated seawater; if infected, seawater; if infected, culture facility must be culture facility must be disinfected & stock disinfected & stock should be removed & should be removed & sterilized.sterilized.

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Disease is the result of interactions amongst Disease is the result of interactions amongst pathogens, the environment and host pathogens, the environment and host organisms. To investigate the effect of stress organisms. To investigate the effect of stress on on P. monodonP. monodon, juvenile shrimp were given , juvenile shrimp were given short term exposure to hypoxic, hyperthermic short term exposure to hypoxic, hyperthermic and osmotic stress twice over a one week and osmotic stress twice over a one week period and estimates of total haemocyte period and estimates of total haemocyte count (THC), heat shock protein (HSP) 70 count (THC), heat shock protein (HSP) 70 expression and load of gill associated virus expression and load of gill associated virus (GAV) were determined at different time (GAV) were determined at different time points.points.

While no significant differences were While no significant differences were observed in survival and THC between observed in survival and THC between stressed and control shrimp (stressed and control shrimp (PP > 0.05), HSP  > 0.05), HSP 70 expression and GAV load changed 70 expression and GAV load changed significantly (significantly (PP < 0.05). HSP 70 expression  < 0.05). HSP 70 expression was higher in the hyperthermic treatment was higher in the hyperthermic treatment than in other treatments (than in other treatments (PP < 0.05).  < 0.05).

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Disease of shrimpDisease of shrimp

Shrimp carapace with white spots Histological section showing the intramuscularwhite spot virus inclusion bodies in infectedcells of the cuticular region

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Disease of shrimpDisease of shrimp

Shrimps with loose shell syndrome Histological section showing the chronicinflammatory lesions in hepatopancreasindicative of bacterial infection

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Pond managementPond management

Removal of dead shrimp from pond margins

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Harvesting Techniques:Harvesting Techniques: Generally, behavioral characteristics of shrimps are taken Generally, behavioral characteristics of shrimps are taken

into account during harvest. These are:into account during harvest. These are: a) moving around the pond at night looking for food; a) moving around the pond at night looking for food; b) attraction to light; b) attraction to light; c) stimulated by water current; c) stimulated by water current; d) often gathered near sluice gate; and d) often gathered near sluice gate; and e) bigger shrimps swim out of the pond with the water when e) bigger shrimps swim out of the pond with the water when

water is discharged. water is discharged. With these tendencies, farmers can devise equipment With these tendencies, farmers can devise equipment

for harvest of stock. Some of the harvesting gears and for harvest of stock. Some of the harvesting gears and methods used are discussed below:methods used are discussed below:

A. Barrier trap:A. Barrier trap:This type (see Figure) is set around the edge of a pond This type (see Figure) is set around the edge of a pond

about 2–5 meters from the gate. This is used at night. No about 2–5 meters from the gate. This is used at night. No bait is needed. A small kerosene lamp is placed on top of the bait is needed. A small kerosene lamp is placed on top of the trap to attract the shrimp .trap to attract the shrimp .

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Figure -1. Trap for use in a shrimp pond:Figure -1. Trap for use in a shrimp pond:

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Nets:Nets:Cast net, lift net and seine net can be used to harvest shrimps Cast net, lift net and seine net can be used to harvest shrimps partially. Bait or food are also set for effective harvest.partially. Bait or food are also set for effective harvest.

Electric shrimp catching:Electric shrimp catching:The gear is composed of an accumulator and two The gear is composed of an accumulator and two

bamboo poles. One of the poles is equipped with a metal bamboo poles. One of the poles is equipped with a metal tip and the other has a steel ring with a net attached. tip and the other has a steel ring with a net attached.

The metal tip is connected by wire to the anode of the The metal tip is connected by wire to the anode of the accumulator and the steel ring to the cathode.accumulator and the steel ring to the cathode.

The accumulator is carried in a backpack as on a The accumulator is carried in a backpack as on a small raft and the operator holds one pole in each hand as small raft and the operator holds one pole in each hand as he wades through the pond.he wades through the pond.

When the gear is switched on, an electric field is When the gear is switched on, an electric field is formed between the two poles, on receiving an electric formed between the two poles, on receiving an electric stimulation, the shrimp jump out of the water and are stimulation, the shrimp jump out of the water and are caught in the net.caught in the net.

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SHRIMP HARVESTING SYSTEM IN THIALAND:SHRIMP HARVESTING SYSTEM IN THIALAND:

In ThailandIn Thailand,, artificial sluice gates are temporarily artificial sluice gates are temporarily installed inside the pond for the harvesting of many installed inside the pond for the harvesting of many closed system ponds where a sluice gate for water closed system ponds where a sluice gate for water exchange is not necessary. Shrimp are then exchange is not necessary. Shrimp are then trapped in this artificial gate during the pumping out trapped in this artificial gate during the pumping out of the water. For the live shrimp market, ponds are of the water. For the live shrimp market, ponds are partially harvested by cast net in the early morning. partially harvested by cast net in the early morning. Due to its burrowing habit, a drag net is not practical Due to its burrowing habit, a drag net is not practical unless it is installed with electric shock gear to unless it is installed with electric shock gear to stimulate the shrimp to jump.stimulate the shrimp to jump.

Bag net:Bag net:Most species of shrimp can be harvested Most species of shrimp can be harvested

effectively by using the bag net placed in the effectively by using the bag net placed in the sluice gate and catching the shrimps as they sluice gate and catching the shrimps as they swim out with the outflow of water.swim out with the outflow of water.

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Figure - Harvest net with lazy line-arrows water flow:Figure - Harvest net with lazy line-arrows water flow:

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Global Aquaculture production of Global Aquaculture production of Penaeus monodonPenaeus monodon

(FAO Fishery Statistics )(FAO Fishery Statistics )

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Total aquaculture production of Total aquaculture production of P. monodonP. monodon increased gradually from 21,000 tonnes in 1981 to 2,00, increased gradually from 21,000 tonnes in 1981 to 2,00, 000 tonnes in 1988; then it sharply increased to nearly 000 tonnes in 1988; then it sharply increased to nearly 5,00,000 tonnes with a value of US$ 3.2 billion in 1993. 5,00,000 tonnes with a value of US$ 3.2 billion in 1993. Since then, production has been quite variable, ranging Since then, production has been quite variable, ranging from a low of 4,80,000 tonnes in 1997 to a high of 6,76, from a low of 4,80,000 tonnes in 1997 to a high of 6,76, 000 tonnes in 2001.000 tonnes in 2001.

The major producers of The major producers of P. monodonP. monodon include include Thailand, Viet Nam, Indonesia, India, the Philippines, Thailand, Viet Nam, Indonesia, India, the Philippines, Malaysia and Myanmar. Since 2002, production of Malaysia and Myanmar. Since 2002, production of Penaeus monodon has been unofficially reported to have Penaeus monodon has been unofficially reported to have declined, particularly in Thailand and Indonesia, because declined, particularly in Thailand and Indonesia, because of substitution by Litopenaeus vannamei in many farms. of substitution by Litopenaeus vannamei in many farms.

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THANK THANK YOUYOU


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